Chapter 6

BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES IN METAL WORKING
 Overview of Metal Forming
Rolling
Performed as cold,
warm, and hot working
Forging
Bulk Deformation
Extrusion
Wire and bar
drawing
Metal Forming
Mainly cold working
Large group of mfg Bending
processes in which
plastic deformation is Sheet
Shearing
used to change the Metalworking
shape of metal Deep and cup
workpieces drawing
 Bulk Deformation (Overview Cont’d)

rolling
extrusion

Wire/bar drawing
forging
 Sheet Metalworking (Overview Cont’d)

bending Deep/cup drawing

shearing
 Formability (workability)
Formability of the material depends on:
(1) Process variables
- temperature
……………… Desirable material properties in metal
- strain rate forming:
……………… – Low yield strength and high ductility
stress
- ………………

(2) Metallurgical changes (properties changes such as hardness)during

deformation ,formation of voids, inclusions, precipitation, .... etc.
Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised

 Any deformation operation can be

accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature
 Metal Forming Processes: Homologous Temp.
 What is the parameter that determine working temperature???
 Metal forming process temperature is measured by Homologus temperature
 Homologous temperature expresses the temperature of a material as a fraction of its
melting point temperature using the Kelvin scale
• T: working temperature such Stainless steels have
good strength and good resistance to corrosion and
oxidation at elevated temperatures
Process T/Tm
• Tm: melting point of metal (based on absolute Cold working < 0.3
temperature scale) Warm working 0.3 to 0.5
e.g. lead Hot working > 0.6
– Tm = 327 C
– Formed at room temperature (20 C),
T/Tm = (20 +273)/(327 + 273) = 0.5 Warm working
………………………………….
 Most metals strain harden at room temperature according to the
flow curve (n > 0)---- elastic + strain hardening
 But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and deformed, strain
hardening does not occur
- Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
- The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is, n = ….
0
 Perfectly plastic
 When the material is heated to
sufficiently high temperature, and
tension test is conducted the
material will exhibit a perfectly
plastic behavior
 Perfectly plastic: once the stress
reaches yield stress, Y, it
continues to undergo
deformation at the same level.
 When the load is released, the
material has undergone
permeant deformation; there is
no elastic recovery
 Strain or Work Hardening
• Strain hardening (work hardening) is where a material becomes
less ductile, harder and stronger with plastic deformation.
• Encountered during cold working.
• Percentage cold work can be expressed as:

 Ao  Ad  Ao = original cross-sectional area

%CW     100
 Ao  Ad = deformed cross-sectional area

decreases
Ductility ……...….
with cold work
Yield and tensile
increase
strength ……………
 Strain or Work Hardening
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (UTS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
• Dislocation density increases with CW
• Motion of dislocations is hindered as their
density increases.
Stress

• Stress required to cause further

deformation is increased.
• Strain hardening is used commercially to
improve the yield and tensile properties.
– cold-rolled low-carbon steel sheet
% – aluminum sheet
co
ld
wo • Strain hardening exponent n indicates the
rk
S t ra i n response to cold work (i.e. larger n means
The influence of cold work on the greater strain hardening for a given
stress–strain behavior for a low- amount of plastic strain).
carbon steel.
 Example: Cold Work Analysis
Copper
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working? Cold
work

ro2  r d2
%CW  x1 0 0  3 5.6% Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
ro2

sy (MPa) UTS (MPa) ductility (%EL)

60
7 00 8 00

40
5 00 6 00
Cu
3 00 Cu 4 00 20
Cu
100 2 00 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy =300MPa TS=340MPa %EL =7%
 Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly above.
• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations.
• Minimum or no machining usually required (no oxidation).
– These operations are near net shape or net shape processes.

Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working:

 Better accuracy, closer tolerances.
 Better surface finish.
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness.
 Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product.
 No heating of work required (less total energy)
 Cold Working
Disadvantages of Cold Forming:
• Equipment of higher forces and power required to shape material.
• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt (to
avoid surface defect during cold working).
• Less ductility and high strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done.
– In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation.

ANNEALING-A heat treatment to eliminate the effects of cold working.

Purposes of annealing:
relieve stress [residual stress]
- …………..
- ……………………
increase ductility
- …………………………..
produce a specific structure
Annealing involves three steps
 Annealing
• Material in this condition (cold worked) is
annealed, changes will begin to take place.
These changes may be classified under three
headings:
1. Stress relief
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
Effect of cold working on properties

The grain boundaries

here is the disorder
structure of high
density dislocation
which replace by the
original fragmented
grain boundaries
Annealing
Annealing
 Annealing
1. Stress relief:
 As the temperature of the material is raised
so the vibrational energies of the individual
atoms are increased and atomic movements
can occur. Comparatively minor atomic
movements result in the removal of the
residual stresses associated with the locked-
in elastic strains .
 This change, which occur at comparatively
low temperature, has a negligible effect on
the strength and hardness of the material,
and the microstructure of the metal is
unchanged in its appearance.
 Annealing
2. Recrystallization
 When the temperature is raised further, the process of
recrystallization begins. New unstressed crystals begin to form
and grow from nuclei until the whole of a material has a
structure of unstressed polygonal crystals.

 This change in structure is accompanied by a reduction in

hardness, strength and brittleness to the original values prior
to plastic deformation.
 Annealing
2. Recrystallization
 The driving force for the recrystallization process is
the release of strain energy stored in the zones of
high dislocation density.[ grain bondaries]
 The temperature at which recrystallization occurs is,
for pure metal, within the range from one-third to
one-half of melting temperature (k).
 Recrystallization temperature is not constant for all
material. Why????
 Annealing
2. Recrystallization
 Recrystallization temperature is not constant for all
material as its value is affected by:
1. The a mount of plastic deformation prior to heating
(its lower for very heavily cold worked metals than
for samples of the same material which have
received small amounts of plastic deformation).
2. The composition (the presence of impurities or
alloying elements will increase the recrystallization
temperature of the material
3. Grain growth
Annealing
 If the temperature is raised further, grain
growth may occur following the completion
of recrystallization, with some crystal grains
growing in the size at the expense of others
by a process of grain boundary migration or
merge between small grain and large grain
 Small grains have larger GB area than
large grains, and Since the dislocations
are concentrated in these large GB area, 
The driving force for grain
these large GR becomes a high energy
growth is the release of
area.
grain boundary surface
 Consequently, these small grains with
energy as the amount of
(large GB area), will have high energy
total grain boundary
GB areas. The High energy GB area
surface is reduced, this will
wants to go to lower energy GB region
lead to the reduction of
(large grains).
grain boundary area
 Grain Growth
• Growth of new grains will continue at high
temperature.
• Grain growth occurs in both metals and
ceramics at elevated temperature.
• Involves the migration of grain boundaries.
• Large grains grow at expense of small ones
(small grains merge).
• Reduction of grain boundary area (driving
force) for grains to grow. is the release of
strain energy stored in the zones (grain Reducing size
boundaries) of high dislocation density.
Schematic representation of grain
growth via atomic diffusion.
Why do small grains merge with large grain?
Small grains have larger GB area than large grains.
Since dislocations are concentrated in the GB area, becomes a high energy area.
So, small grains (large GB area), have high energy GB areas.
High energy GB area wants to go to lower energy GB region (large grains).
 Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature

but below recrystallization temperature.
Warm working: T/Tm from 0.3 to 0.5

Advantages of Warm Working:

o Lower forces and power than in cold working.
o More intricate work geometries possible.
o Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated.
 Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization temperature:
– In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing
the advantage of hot working above this level [produce a specific structure]

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal ‑ far
more than possible with cold working or warm working.

Why?
– Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room temp.
– Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically).
– Ductility is significantly increased.
 Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered.
• Lower forces and power required (equipment).
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed.
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic.
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening.

Disadvantages of Hot Working:

 Lower dimensional accuracy.
 Higher total energy required.
- Due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece.
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poor
………… surface finish.
 Shorter
…..……… tool life
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials
 Cold working:
 Plastic deformation which is carried out in a temperature
region and over a time interval such that the strain hardening
is not relieved is called cold work.
 In the early stages of plastic deformation, slip is essentially on
primary glide planes and the dislocations form coplanar arrays.
 As deformation proceeds, cross slip takes place. The cold
worked structure forms high dislocation density regions that
soon develop into networks.
 The grain size decreases with strain at low deformation but
soon reaches a fixed size.
 Cold working will decrease ductility.
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials

Hot working:
 Hot working refers to the process where metals are
deformed above their recrystallization temperature
and strain hardening does not occur.
 The resistance of metals to plastic deformation
generally falls with temperature. For this reason,
larger massive sections are always worked hot by
forging, rolling, or extrusion
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials

Hot working:

 Metals display distinctly viscous characteristics at

sufficiently high temperatures, and their resistance
to flow increases at high forming rates.
 This occurs not only because it is a characteristic of
viscous substances, but because the rate of
recrystallization may not be fast enough.
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials
Temperature:
 The lower limit of the hot working temperature is
determined by its recrystallization temperature.
 As a guideline, the lower limit of the hot working
temperature of a material is 60% its melting temperature
(on an absolute temperature scale ).
 The upper limit for hot working is determined by various
factors, such as:
 Excessive oxidation,
 Grain growth,
 Or an undesirable phase transformation.
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials
Temperature:
 In practice materials are usually heated to the upper limit
first to keep forming forces as low as possible and to
maximize the amount of time available to hot work the
workpiece.
 The most important aspect of any hot working process is
controlling the temperature of the workpiece.
 90% of the energy imparted into the workpiece is
converted into heat.
 Therefore, if the deformation process is quick enough the
temperature of the workpiece should rise, however, this
does not usually happen in practice.
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials
 Temperature:
 Most of the heat is lost through the surface of the workpiece
into the cooler tooling.
 This causes temperature gradients in the workpiece, usually
due to nonuniform cross sections where the thinner sections are
cooler than the thicker sections.
 Ultimately, this can lead to cracking in the cooler side.
 One way to minimize the problem is to heat the tooling. The
hotter the tooling the less heat lost to it, but as the tooling
temperature rises, the tool life decreases. Therefore the tooling
temperature must be compromised; commonly, hot working
tooling is heated to 500–850 °F (325–450 °C).
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials

• Temperature:

 Usually the initial workpiece that is hot worked was

originally cast . The microstructure of cast items does not
optimize the engineering properties, from a microstructure
standpoint.
 Hot working improves the engineering properties of the
workpiece because it replaces the microstructure with one
that has fine spherical shaped grains .
 These grains increase the strength, ductility, and toughness
of the material
 Cold and Hot Working Review of Materials
 Temperature:
 The engineering properties can also be improved by reorienting
the inclusions (impurities).
 In the cast state the inclusions are randomly oriented, which,
when intersecting the surface, can be a propagation point for
cracks.
 When the material is hot worked the inclusions tend to flow with
the contour of the surface, creating stringers .
 As a whole the strings create a flow structure , where the
properties are anisotropic (different based on direction).
 With the stringers oriented parallel to the surface it strengthens
the workpiece, especially with respect to fracturing . The stringers
act as "crackarrestors“ because the crack will want to propagate
through the stringer and not along it.
 Friction in Metal Forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
– Metal flow is retarded
– Forces and power are increased
– Wears tooling faster
• Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work interface in
many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction.
• Benefits:
– Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
– Better surface finish
– Removes heat from the tooling
• Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:
– Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)
– Hot working or cold working
– Work material
– Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
– Ease of application
– Cost
BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN
METAL WORKING

The bulk deformation processes are important

commercially and technologically
(1) They are capable of significant shape change
when hot working is used,
(2) They have a positive effect on part strength
when cold working is used, and
(3) Most of the processes produce little material
waste; some are net shape processes
BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN
METAL WORKING

1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire and bar drawing
 Bulk Deformation
• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape
change by deforming metal parts whose initial form is bulk
rather than sheet.

• Starting forms:
 Cylindrical billets
 Rectangular billets, slabs and similar shapes

• These processes stress metal sufficiently to cause plastic

flow into the desired shape

• Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

 Importance of Bulk
Deformation
 In hot working, significant shape change
can be accomplished at high temperature .
 In cold working, strength is increased
during shape change.
• Little or no waste - some operations are near
net shape or net shape processes

• The parts require little or no subsequent

machining
 Importance of Bulk
Deformation
 Hot Working of Metals

• Hot working is defined as the process of altering the shape or size of

a metal by plastic deformation with the temperature above the
recrystallization point.

• Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the material to

complete grain growth during deformation :and to keep the ductility
high and hardness and strength low.

• This is important because being above recrystallization keeps the

materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps the yield
strength and hardness low and ductility high.
 º

 Hot Working of Metals

TR = recrystallization
temperature

º
Chapter 7 - 40
 Importance of Bulk
 Cold Working
Deformation
• Cold working is the process of altering the shape or size of a
metal by plastic deformation with the temperature below the
recrystallization point.

• Hardness and tensile strength are increased with the degree of

cold work ( it becomes brittle depends to cold working
percentage) whilst ductility and impact values are lowered.
• Processes include rolling, drawing, pressing, and extruding, it is
carried out below the recrystallization point usually at room
temperature.

• The cold rolling and cold drawing of steel significantly improves

surface finish. (no oxides on the surface after operation)
 Hot Work vs. Cold Work
 Hot Work  Cold Work
• Recrystallization takes • NO Recrystallization
place
• Less than <0.3 Tm
• > 0.5 * Tm
• Requires more force
• Requires less force
• Residual Stresses
• Less residual stresses
• Strain Hardened
• Greater deformation
possible • Better Surface
• Dimensional Variation
Finish
[Lower dimensional accuracy] • No oxides on the surface
• Poor Surface Finish after operation
• Oxidation of Surfaces • lower costs for process and
• Expensive costs for
equipment
process and
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation
Processes
1. Rolling :– slab or plate is squeezed between opposing
rolls

2. Forging :– work is squeezed and shaped between

opposing dies

3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening{has

fixed profile}, thereby taking the shape of the opening

4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is

reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Rolling
 Rolling

 Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or

changing the cross section of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied through a set of rolls, thus the
process is similar to rolling dough with a rolling pin to
reduce its thickness.
 Rolling, which accounts for about 90% of all metals
produced by metalworking processes, was first developed
in the late of 1500s.
 The basic rolling operation is called flat rolling, or simple
rolling, where rolled products are flat plate and flat sheet
 Rolling

 Plates: are generally regarded as having a thickness

greater than 6mm, and are used for structural
applications such as boilers, bridges, machine
structure, girders, and ship hulls.
 Plates can be as much as 0.3 m thick for large boilers,
and 100-125 mm thick for warships and tank armor.
 Sheets :are generally less than 6mm thick. They are
used for automobile bodies, aircraft fuselages, office
furniture and kitchen equipment's.
 Rolling

 Traditionally, the initial form of material for rolling is an

ingot; An ingot is a material, usually metal, that is cast
into a shape suitable for further processing [materials
prepared in bulk form]
 Rolling is first carried out at elevated temperature (hot
rolling), wherein the coarse-grained, brittle, and
porous cast structure of the ingot metal is broken
down into a wrought structure, with finer grain size
and improve properties
 Grain Structure During Hot
Rolling

Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot
rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and ductility. Cast
structures of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
 Rolling
Deformation process in which work piece (slab or plate) thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.

The rotating rolls perform

two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap
between them by friction
between workpart and rolls.
Simultaneously squeeze the
work to reduce cross section. The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)
 Rolling
• One of the first primary processes to convert raw material
into a finished product.
• Deformation process in which work thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls (shown below is flat rolling)
 Rolling
• Starting material (blooms, billets, or slabs) are
rolled into structural shape, rails, plate, sheet,
strips, bars and rods by feeding material through
successive pairs of rolls.

 Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with

a thickness greater than 6” and a width no
greater than 2x’s the thickness
 Billets - square or circular cross section - smaller
than a bloom
 Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater
than 2x’s the thickness), slabs are rolled into
plate, sheet, and strips.
Rolled Products Made of Steel
Rolled Products Made of Steel
 Rolling
• Rotating rolls perform two main
functions:

• Pull the work into the gap between them

by friction between work part and rolls

• Simultaneously squeeze the work to

reduce its cross section
 Types of Rolling

• By geometry of work:
– Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross‑section
– Shape rolling - a square cross‑section is formed into a
shape such as an I‑beam, structural shape, rails….
• By temperature of work:
– Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required (petroleum and natural gas
pipeline, For common structure of construction, bridges,
ships and automobiles wheels).
– Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate.
 Diagram of Flat Rolling

• Side view of flat rolling,

indicating before and
after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls, and
other features.
 Flat Rolling

Hot Rolling of a ‘slab’ into a plate or sheet

 Flat Rolling Terminology
• Draft = amount of thickness reduction

• Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of

starting stock thickness:
d
r 
to

• where d = draft; (h or t ) = starting thickness;

o o

(h or t )=final to of thickness, and r = reduction

f f
 Shape Rolling
 Work is deformed into a contoured cross section
rather than flat (rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape

 Products
• Construction shapes such as I-beams,
L-beams, and U-channels
• Rails for railroad tracks
• Round and square bars and rods
Shape Rolling
 Shape Rolling products

L- beam

U- beam
I- beam
Flat Rolling

Sheet steel undergoes

acid pickling because it
will oxidize (rust) when
exposed to atmospheric
conditions of
moderately high
humidity
Shape Rolling For this reason, pickling
is required and a thin
film of oil or similar
waterproof coating is
applied to create a
barrier to moisture in
the air
 Pickling
Pickling is a metal surface treatment used to
remove impurities, such as stains, inorganic
contaminants, rust or scale from ferrous
metals, copper, and aluminum alloys.
 A solution called pickle liquor, which
contains strong acids, is used to remove the
surface impurities. It is commonly used to descale
or clean steel in various steelmaking processes
 Rolling equipment's
 A variety of rolling equipment is available having several
roll arrangements.
 Small-diameter rolls are preferable because the smaller
the roll radius, the lower will be the roll force.
 On the other hand, small rolls deflect under roll forces
and have to be supported by other rolls to maintain
dimensional control
 Rolling equipment's
 Equipment is massive and expensive

 Rolling mill configurations:

1. Two-high – two opposing rolls
2. Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
3. Four-high – backing rolls support smaller rolls
4. Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller
rolls
5. Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
 Rolling Mill Configurations
 ( a) Two-high, (b) three-high, (c) four-high
 Rolling Mill Configurations
 (d) Cluster mill, (e) tandem rolling mill
 Rolling Mill Configurations
 Two-high
• Rolling mills are typically used for
initial breakdown passes on the
workpiece, with roll diameter
ranging up to 1400 mm
• In two high non reversing mills as
two rolls which revolve
continuously in opposite
direction therefore smaller and
less costly motive power can be
used.
 Rolling Mill Configurations
 Three-high
• Rolling mills are typically used for initial
breakdown passes on the workpiece, with
roll diameter ranging up to 1400 mm
• It consists of a roll stand with three parallel
rolls one above the other. Adjacent rolls
rotates in opposite direction. So that the
material is passed between the top and the
middle roll in one direction and the bottom
and middle rolls in opposite one so that
thickness is reduced at each pass.
• The rolls of a three high rolling mills may be
either plain or grooved to produce plate or
sections respectively.
 Rolling Mill Configurations
• Four-high
• It has a roll stand with four parallel
rolls one above the other. The top
and the bottom rolls rotate in
opposite direction as do the two
middle rolls. The two middle are
smaller in size than the top and
bottom rolls which are called
backup rolls for providing the
necessary rigidity to the smaller rolls.
• A four high rolling mill is used for the
hot rolling of armor and other plates
as well as cold rolling of plates,
sheets and strips.
 Rolling Mill Configurations
 Cluster mill
 It is a special type of four high rolling mill
in which each of the two working rolls is
backup by two or more of the larger
backup rolls
 Is suitable for cold rolling thin strips of
high- strength metals
 the rolled product obtained in cluster mill
can be as wide as 5000mm (5 m) and as
thin as 0.0025 mm.
 The diameter of the smallest roll can be as
small as 6 mm and is usually made of
tungsten carbide for rigidity, strength and
wear resistance
 For rolling hard materials.
 Rolling Mill Configurations
Tandem rolling mill
• It is a set of three rolls in parallel alignment so that a
continuous pass may be made (thickness reduction)
through each one successively.
Advantages
• Reduced roll consumption
• Tight tolerances for strip thickness.
• The required strip thickness and flatness can be
achieved more by tandem rolling mill
 Thread Rolling
• A deformation process used to form threads
on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two dies.
• Important process Used for mass producing
bolts and screws.
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines. (1) start of cycle
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
– Higher production rates.
– Stronger threads due to work hardening.
– Better fatigue resistance due to
compressive stresses introduced by
rolling.
(2) end of cycle
 Miscellaneous rolling operations
 Thread Rolling
 Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
 Bulk deformation process used to form threads on
cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies with
greater strength, because of the cold working involved.
 Important process for mass producing bolts and screws
 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
• Higher production rates
• Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance
• Better fatigue resistance due to compressive
stresses introduced by rolling
 Thread Rolling
• (1) Start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle
 Ring Rolling

 In this process, a small-diameter, thick ring is expanded

into a large diameter, thinner ring by placing the ring
between two rolls.
 Because of volume constancy, the reduction in thickness is
accomplished for by an increase in the diameter of the
ring.
 This process can be carried out at room temperature ( cold
working) or at elevated temperature (hot working),
depending on the size and strength of the product.
 Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings.
 Ring Rolling

 The advantages of ring rolling, compared with other

processes for making the same part are :
1. Shorter production times
2. Material saving
3. Close dimensional tolerances
4. Strengthening through cold working.

 Products: : typical parts made by ring rolling

include large rings for rockets and turbines, steel
tires for railroad, and rings for pipes
 Ring Rolling
• (1) start, and (2) completion of process
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 Piercing Roll
 An important hot working process, this process is used to make
long, thick-walled seamless tubing.
 Production of Seamless (not welded) thick-wall tubes.
 This process is based on the principle that when a round bar is
subjected to a radial compressive forces
 Is carried out by an arrangement of rotating rolls. The axes of
the rolls are skewed in order to pull the round bar through the
rolls by longitudinal force of their rotary action.
 A mandrel assists the operation by expanding the hole and
sizing the inside diameter of the tube.
 Because of the sever deformation that the metal undergoes in
this process, it is important that the stock be of high quality and
defect free.
Piercing Roll
 Defects in Rolled parts
 Successful rolling practice requires balancing many factors:
1. Material properties
2. Process variables
3. Lubrications
 Material Parameters
– ductility
– coefficient of friction
– strength, modulus
 Process Parameters
– roller speed
– power
 Defects in Rolled parts
 There may be defects on the surfaces of the rolled plates and
sheets, or there may be structural defects within the material.

A. Structural defects are those that

distort or affect the integrity of the
rolled product.
 Some typical defects are
1. Wavy edges are caused by bending of
the rolls, whereby the edges of the
strip become thinner than at the
center, because the edges elongate
more than the center [Due to the
deflection of the rolls at the center]
 Defects in Rolled parts

2. Ziper cracks in the center of the strip and edge cracks: are
usually caused by low material ductility and barreling
edges.
 Defects in Rolled parts

3. Alligatoring: Is a complex phenomena that results from

inhomogeneous deformation of the material during
rolling (will occur when lateral spread is greater in the
centre than the surface (surface in tension, centre in
compression) and with the presence of metallurgical
weakness along the centreline)
 Defects in Rolled parts

B. Surface defect may result from rust, dirty, impurities, and

other causes related to prior treatment and working of
the material.
 In hot rolling of bloom, billets, and slabs, the surface is
usually preconditioned by various means, such as by
scarfing (using a torch).
 Defects in Rolled parts
Wavy edge: are caused by bending of the rolls,
whereby the edge of the strip become thinner
than at center. Edge cracks

Zipper crack in the center of strip Alligatoring: results from

inhomogeneous deformation
(residual stresses)
 Other Characteristics
• Residual Stresses can develop in rolled sheets and plates
because of inhomogeneous plastic deformation of the
material in the roll gap
• The deformation behavior of inclusion imbedded in the
material matrix is one of the basic problem in the
mechanics of inhomogeneous deformation
• Small-diameter rolls or small thickness reductions per pass tend
to deform the metal plastically more at its surfaces than in the
bulk ,this type of deformation generates compressive residual
stresses on the surface and tensile stresses in the bulk.
• Large-diameter rolls or high reductions per pass tend to deform
the bulk more than the surfaces, because of frictional constraint
at the surface along the arc of contact. This situation generates
residual stresses that are opposite to those of the previous case
• .
 Residual Stresses in
Rolling

Figure 13.9 (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small rolls or at
small reductions in thickness per pass. (b) Residual stresses developed in
rolling with large rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the
residual stress patterns.
 Defects in Rolled parts
1. In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not
uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the warmer
parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is
great enough cracking and tearing can occur.

2. Fins may be formed on the rolled bars if the metal forces itself
into the clearance between the rolls

3. When the metal is hot rolled, its surface will be not smooth.

4. Cracks may form during cold rolling if the metal becomes too
much work-hardened during the process.
 Roll Flat Terminology

• ho = initial thickness of the strip, hf= final thickness, Vr= roll surfcae speed, Vf=
the final speed of the strip (increses as the strip moves through the roll gap),
L = contact length with the roll
 Roll Flat Terminology

 The basic flat rolling is shown in the

figure.
 A strip of a thickness ho enters the
roll gap and is reduced to a thickness
of hf by the powered rotating rolls at
a surface speed Vr of the roll.
 To keep the volume rate of metal
flow constant, the velocity of the
strip must increase as it moves
through the roll gap. Constant material volume:
ho wo Lo = hf wf Lf
 At the exit of the roll gap, the
velocity of the strip is Vf.  ho wo vo = hf wf vf (flow rate)
 Roll Flat Terminology
• Since Vr is constant along the roll gap, but
the strip velocity increases as it passes
through the roll gap, sliding occurs between
the roll and the strip.
• At one point along the arc of contact, the
two velocities are the same, this point is
called neutral point or No-slip point.
• To the left of this point, the roll moves faster
than the workpiece, and to the right, the
workpiece moves faster than the roll.
• Because in rolling, the frictional force on the
left of the neutral point is greater than the
frictional force on the right
• This difference results in a net frictional
force to the right, making the rolling
operation possible by pulling the strip into
the roll gap
 Flat Rolling --- Friction Forces
• The rolling process is governed by the
frictional force between the rollers and the
workpiece. The frictional force at the entrance
side is higher than that at the exit side. This
allows the roller to pull the workpiece towards
the exit end.
 Friction
 The figure illustrate the pressure
distribution in the roll gap.
 The neutral point shifts toward the
exist as the friction force decreases.
 The reason is that when friction
P
approaches zero, which means that
there is no friction between the roll
and strip, so the rolls begin to slip ( no
need to pressure to overcome the
frictional forces) and the relative
velocity between the roll and the strip
is all in one direction
 Flat Rolling – Terminology

Friction at the entrance controls the maximum possible draft.

dmax = Maximum draft (mm)

d max   R2
m = Coefficient of friction
R = Roll radius (mm)
However, μ depends on lubrication, work-piece and roller
materials and temperature.
 0.1 for coldworkin g
  0.2 for warmworking
0.3 for hotworking

When sticking occurs, m can be as high as 0.7

 Rolling Analysis
R = roller radius
vr p = roll pressure
L = contact length
q R
q = contact angle
p
vr = roll speed
ho vo vf
hf ho = initial plate thickness
L hf = final plate thickness
Assumptions: vo = plate entry speed
vr
Infinite sheet Vf = plate exit speed

Uniform, perfectly rigid rollers

Constant material volume:
ho wo Lo = hf wf Lf where,
Lo = initial plate length
 ho wo vo = hf wf vf (flow rate) Lf = final plate length
w = plate width
The rolls contact the workpiece along an arc defined by θ
A change in speed between the roller and workpiece occur along this arc
Friction

• vo<vl<vf
• Maximum draft, which is
the thickness reduction, is
given as µ R.
2

• Coefficient of friction
typically:
• cold working 0.1
• warm working 0.2
• hot working 0.4
 Flat Rolling --- Friction Forces

• Increasing friction  increasing forces and

power requirements
• Max. draft is defined as the difference between
the initial and final strip thickness or (h0-hf ) . It
is a function of the coefficient of friction () and
the roll radius (R)
(h0  h f )   R
2

• The higher the friction and the larger the roll

radius, the higher the amount of draft.
 Roll Force and Torque

• Roll force  a force perpendicular to the arc of

contact
• The roll force in flat rolling:
F  LwYavg
.
T  Fa
• a= L/2
L = roll-strip contact length =
w = the width of the strip (initial width)
Yavg = the average true stress of the strip in the roll gap
 Rolling Analysis
t . Vr ho
True strain   ln o Strain rate  ln
tf L hf

Apply average flow stress K n

Yf 
1 n

Approximate roll force:

L Fr
F  w pdL  Y f wL
0 R R– (ho–hf)/2
q
where L  Rho  h f 

Torque estimated by T/roller = ~ 0.5 F L L

Power = P = Tw = 2p N F L (for two rollers)

 Power Requirement
• Power per roll (in S.I. units): _____in KW

2FLN
Power 
60,000kW
F = roll force (N), L in meters

• Power per roll (in English units)__________ in hp:

2FLN
Power 
33,000hp
F = roll force (lb.)
L = the roll-strip contact length (ft.)
N = the rpm of the roll
 True strain and average flow
stress
 True strain :
ϵ1 = Ln(h1/ho)
 The average flow stress:
Ȳ= ( K . ϵ1n )/ (n + 1)
1

• The last equation can be used in both cases, i.e. when friction is
significant or not.

Where ϵ1 : true strain in the roll gab, n: strain hardening exponent

 Roll Force

• Influenced by:
1. Roll radius
2. Strip width
3. Draft
4. Coefficient of friction
5. The strength of the material
 Example --- Calculation of Roll Force
and Power

• An annealed copper strip, 9 in. wide and 1.00 in.

thick, is rolled to a thickness of 0.80 in. in one
pass. The roll radius is 12 in., and the rolls rotate
at 100 rpm. Calculate the roll force and the
power required in this operation.
Example --- Calculation of Roll Force
and Power

• Force  F  LwYavg
• The roll strip contact length (L):

L  R (h0  h f )  12(1.00  0.80)  1.55in.

• Determination of average true stress (Yavg)
• The absolute value of the true strain:
l  1.00 
  ln    ln    0.223
 l0   0.80 
 True Stress-True Strain Curves
Figure 2.6 True stress-
true strain curves in
tension at room
temperature for various
metals. The curves start at
a finite level of stress: The
elastic regions have too
1033 )

steep a slope to be shown

X 10

in this figure, and so each

True Stress (psi X

curve starts at the yield

stress, Y, of the material.
Example --- Calculation of Roll
Force and Power

• The value of the true strain:

l  1.00 
  ln    ln    0.223
 l0   0.80 

• At a true strain of 0.223, the true stress is 40,000 psi

• Thus, the average true stress (Yavg) is about 26,000

psi
 Example --- Calculation of Roll Force
and Power

• The roll force is:

F  LwYavg  (1.55)(9)( 26,000)  363,000lb
• The power for the two rolls is:

2FLN 2 (363,000)(1.55 / 12)(100)

Power    898hp
33,000hp 33,000
 Example --- Calculation of Roll Force
and Power

• A (22.86 –cm) -wide 6061-O aluminum

strip is rolled from a thickness of (2.54
cm) to (2.032 cm). for a roll radius of
(30.48 cm) and roll rpm of 100, estimate
the total power required for this operation?
Typical Values for K and n at
Room Temperature
TABLE 2.3
K (MPa) n
Aluminum
1100–O 180 0.20
2024–T4 690 0.16
6061–O 205 0.20
6061–T6 410 0.05
7075–O 400 0.17
Brass
70–30, annealed 900 0.49
85–15, cold-rolled 580 0.34
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated 2070 0.50
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Steel
Low-C annealed 530 0.26
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 640 0.15
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10

111