Mechanical Working of Metals

Rolling and Forging

 Working Processes

Mechanical
Working

Cold Working Hot Working

Done at temp < Trec Done at temp > Trec

Recrystallization temperature :
• temperature at which recrystallization occurs
• 0.3 to 0.6 Tm
The Effect of Temperature on
Working Processes
Cold Working Hot Working
• metal strain hardens • metal recrystallizes
after deformation after deformation
• metal ‘hardens’ • metal stays ‘soft’
• needs high stress to • needs little stress to
deform metal deform metal
• very good surface • forms ‘SCALES’ at
finish the skin
• very good • poor dimensional
dimensional tolerance tolerance
 Rolling
“Process of reducing the thickness of
metals by allowing it to pass through a
pair of rotating rolls”

“More metal is rolled

than the total of all the
other working processes”
Products of Rolling
Roll Stand
Rolls for I-beams
 Types of Rolling Mills

Two-high Two-high Three-high

mill Reversing mill mill
 Types of Rolling Mills

Four-high Six-high Cluster mill

mill mill (Sendzimir Mill)
Cluster or Sendzimir Mill
Planetary Mill
Rolling Sequence
Rolling Sequence
Rolling Defects

ALLIGATORING
Misaligned Rolls
Wavy Edges
Edge Cracking
 Rolling Load Calculation

• Ideal Rolling Load

– No friction involved
• Actual Rolling Load
– Friction involved
– Friction normally increases the required
load
Terminologies used in Rolling
Rolling Load Analysis

h = draft = ho - hf

Vo = entry speed
Vf = exit speed
R = roll radius

 = angle of bite
= angle between
entrance plane and
centerline
 Ideal Rolling Load

Pressure = Load
Area

Rolling Load = Roll Pressure x Area

RL = Rolling Load
y = flow stress (yield stress)

RL   yW Rh W = Width
R = Roll Radius
h = draft
 Considerations on
Actual Rolling Load
At any point in
the arc of contact,
2 forces act on
the metal:
Pr = Rolling Load
F = Friction Load
and F = Pr

For unaided entry: Fcos = Prsin

 = tan
Maximum Reduction Possible

 = tan

Rh h
tan   
h R
R
2

(h)max = 2R
 Sample Problem

Determine the maximum reduction possible

on a piece of metal when using 500 mm
diameter rolls and during cold rolling when 
= 0.1 and hot rolling when  = 0.6
 Sample Problem
Determine the final height of an aluminum
sheet with initial thickness 60 mm if
subjected to cold rolling ( = 0.2) using
300 mm diameter rolls and assuming
maximum reduction (also consider 3%
elastic rebound).
 Observations in Actual Rolling
• Exit speed, Vf > Entry speed, Vo
Assuming constant volume passing through
one point at any given time
Vf

Vroll

Neutral Point
Vo or No-Slip
point

A B
 Friction Hill

At the Neutral
Point, there is no
slipping between
the metal and the
Rolls

N At the Neutral
Point, Friction is
at a maximum!
 Actual Rolling Load
 Rh
RL Actual   yW Rh  1 
 h 
2h1  
 2 
Condition  Condition 
Plain Strain 1.155 < 0.5 
Slipping Friction

Homogenous 1.0 > 0.5 1/2

Deformation Sticking Friction

Plane Strain W Slipping Friction Sticking Friction

5 is found in cold is found in hot
when Rh working working
 Sample Problem
Calculate the rolling load required to reduce
steel 600 mm wide and 30 mm thick by
20%. The roll diameter used is 800 mm, 
= 0.15 and flow stress of steel is 150 MPa.
 Sample Problem
Explain the Design of Cluster Mill.
 Forging
“The act of
shaping metal by
hammering or
pressing”

Forging is done in
special molds
called "dies"
Forging Products
Dies used in Forging
 Types of Forging

Press Forging Impact (Smith)

Forging
 Types of Forging

OPEN-DIE CLOSED-DIE
FORGING FORGING
Closed-Die Forging
 Examples of Forging

UPSETTING COGGING

SWAGING
Examples of Forging

FULLERING
HEADING

EDGING
Precision Forging
Precision Forging Operation
Forging of Bevel Gear
Forging Defects
Defects in Forging

Laps Formed in
Forged Metal
Calculation of Forging Load
P

UPSET FORGING
 Ideal vs Actual

HOMOGENOUS NONHOMOGENOUS
DEFORMATION DEFORMATION
Nonhomogenous Deformation

BARRELING
Grain Texture in Forged Metal
Effect of Friction on Forging
Pressure

Pressure builds-up at
the center creating a
pressure hill!
Effect of Friction on Forging
Load

The build-up of
pressure also creates
a Friction Hill
 -Forging Load Calculation-
The SLAB METHOD

b = tool bite

ASSUME PLANE STRAIN (WIDTH IS CONSTANT)

 Analysis of Stresses using
Slab Method
Equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction:

 x  d x h  2 y dx   x h  0
and

2 y
d x  dx  0
h
Since both σx and σy are unknown, another equation must be
obtained using yield criteria; specifically, the distortion-energy
criterion for plane strain is used.

 x  y  2 Y  Y
Hence d x  d y
3
 Analysis of Stresses using
Slab Method
The two equations for the stresses
can now be solved:
d y 2
 dx   y  Ce2x / h
y h
The value of the constant, C, is found
using the boundary conditions. At x=a,
σx=0 and σy= Y`
2a / h
C  Y e
The value of the constant, C, is found using the boundary
conditions. At x=a, σx=0 and σy= Y`. The pressure is then

2  a  x  / h
p   y  Y e
 Simplification of Forging
Pressure Equation

2  a  x  / h
p   y  Y e
If x<1 then exp(x ) ~ (1 + x)

2  ( a  x)
p   y  Y '[1  ]
h
Y’ = 1.155Y When  > 0.5 use  = 0.5
 Sample Problems

A copper slab was upset to give a final

dimension of 60 x 20 x 10 mm (L x W x H). If
the yield stress of copper is 40 MPa and the
coefficient of friction is 0.15, determine the
Forging Pressure at the following points on
the billet: P

i. At the middle
ii. At the ends
iii.(1/3)a distance from the middle
 Average Forging Pressure, Pavg
The average pressure can
be approximated from the
mean of the maximum and
the minimum pressure

 a 
pavg  Y 1  
 h 
The forging load, F, is

 
F  pavg 2a width
 Reminders on P and Pavg
2  ( a  x)  a 
p   y  Y '[1  ] pavg  Y 1  
h  h 
Condition Flow Condition 
Stress
Plane Y’ = 1.155 < 0.5 
Strain Slipping Friction
Homogenous Y > 0.5 1/2
Deformation Sticking Friction
Slipping Friction Sticking Friction
Plane Strain W/b > 4 is found in cold is found in hot
when working working
 Sample Problems
A copper slab was upset to give a final
dimension of 60 x 20 x 10 mm (L x W x H). If
the yield stress of copper is 40 MPa and the
coefficient of friction is 0.15, determine the
average forging pressure of this process.

P
 Sample Problem

Determine the Forging Load required to

reduce the thickness of half of a steel billet
100x40x10 mm (LxWxH) by 40% (assume
plane strain). Assume that the yield stress
of steel is 240 MPa and  = 0.65.
F