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ASHRAE 4146..rates of Evaporation From Swimming Pools in Active Use
ASHRAE 4146..rates of Evaporation From Swimming Pools in Active Use
Charles C. Smith, P.E. George O.G. Löf, D.Sc., P.E. Randy W. Jones, P.E.
Member ASHRAE Fellow ASHRAE
ABSTRACT ification system. Heat losses from outdoor pools are also
largely by evaporation, but radiation and convection to the
The rates of water evaporation from indoor and outdoor
surroundings are typically 30% to 40% of the total loss.
swimming pools in active use have been measured and
Prior to the current investigations, there have been no
compared with evaporation rates from unoccupied pools and
measurements of energy supply to swimming pools under
with values calculated by the equation W=(95+0.425 v) (pw-
well-controlled conditions. Equipment designers have
pa)Y, where W is evaporation rate, lb/h ft2; v is air velocity at
commonly relied on a relationship originally formulated by W.
water surface, ft/min.; pw is saturation vapor pressure at water
H. Carrier (1918) and presented in ASHRAE Applications
temperature, in. Hg; pa is saturation vapor pressure at air
(1995, 1991, 1987). The equation is
dewpoint, in. Hg; and Y is latent heat at pool temperature, Btu/
lb. In undisturbed pools, evaporation rates were measured and W = ( 95 + 0.425 v ) ( p w – p a ) ⁄ Y (1)
found to be 74% of the rates obtained by use of the equation.
Rates of evaporation from pools in active use increase with the where
number of swimmers, rising 40% to 70% above the rates from W = evaporation rate, lb/h⋅ft2;
a quiet water surface. Measurements of evaporation from a v = air velocity at water surface, ft/min.;
pool in use by 15 to 20 swimmers per 1,000 ft2 were found to
pw = saturation vapor pressure at water temp, in. Hg;
average 26% higher than the rate calculated by the equation.
pa = saturation vapor pressure at air dew point., in. Hg;
INTRODUCTION also partial pressure of water in pool atmosphere;
Y = latent heat at pool temperature, Btu/lb.
The design of equipment for heating water in indoor and
outdoor swimming pools and for heating ventilation air in This formula was based on the results of measurements of evap-
indoor pools requires reliable information on rates of heat loss oration from a shallow pan of water over which air was passed
from the pools. Such information is also needed for predicting in a wind tunnel. Water losses were correlated with vapor pres-
energy quantities and costs and for estimating the savings sures, humidities, and air velocity.
obtainable by use of energy conservation measures. Proper Investigations of evaporation from open outdoor tanks by
sizing of water heaters, air heaters, ventilation fans, heat Rohwer (1931), from outdoor Florida pools by Root (1983),
exchangers, dehumidification systems, and numerous acces- from five outdoor pools in Switzerland by Molinaux et al.
sories and the evaluation of heat recovery systems, pool (1994), and from measurement of condensate recovery from
covers, and other energy saving equipment are directly dehumidifier systems in German pools by Labohm (1971),
involved. Biasin and Krumme (1974), and Reeker (1978) have produced
In indoor pools, virtually all the heat supplied to the pool widely differing results. Variations in test conditions, uncer-
water is dissipated to air in the natatorium by evaporation. tain measurement accuracy, and departures from typical pool
Radiation and convection transfers are usually negligible. designs have prevented significant use of any of these find-
Moisture entering the air must be removed either by ventila- ings, thus leaving the ASHRAE relationship generally used
tion (requiring fresh-air heating when outdoor temperatures for estimating pool evaporation and the requirements for heat-
are appreciably below 80°F) or by condensation in a dehumid- ing and ventilation.
Charles Smith is a research scientist and George Löf is professor emeritus and founding director of the Colorado State University Solar Energy
Applications Laboratory, Fort Collins, Colo. Randy W. Jones is a federal energy program specialist with the U.S. Department of Energy,
Golden, Colo.
Indoor Pool
A municipal facility in Fort Collins City comprises three
pools; a 1,200 ft2 wading/play pool, a 900 ft2 therapy pool, and
a 13,000 ft2 athletic/fitness pool (Figure 2). The three pools are
mechanically independent, having separate water recircula-
tion, heating, chemical treatment, and make-up water systems.
The pools share the same natatorium space and equipment
area. The large athletic pool selected for this study has a total
water volume of 526,000 gallons (4.38 million pounds).
The pools were open to swimming and other activities
each day for 8-12 hours. The large pool served a number of
activities at one time, such as swimming, diving, and aquatic
Figure 3 The 4,000 ft2 outdoor community pool.
exercise. The number of people in the pool varied from 1-2 and
up to more than 150. indicate energy input is approximately 8 million Btu per day
Pool-water temperatures were thermostatically without covering and 5.5 million Btu per day when covered for
controlled normally at 80°F - 82°F. The room air was normally about 12 hours overnight. The outdoor pool activity was simi-
at 85°F and 50% relative humidity. Automatic humidity lar to that in the large indoor pool. This pool was open to all
control regulated the supply of fresh air and the operation of types of activity for 45 minutes per hour and then limited only
exhaust fans. The entire complex is served by the same heating to swimming for 15 minutes.
equipment, so fuel used specifically for pool heating could not The pool water in both the indoor and outdoor facilities is
be measured. circulated continuously by conventional means through sand
filters, chlorinators, and natural gas-fired boilers.
Outdoor Pool
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The site for testing the outdoor pool in active use was the
same as used earlier for the inactive pool tests. The pool is Measurement of Temperatures, Humidity,
operated by a neighborhood association and is open for and Air Velocity
approximately three months in the summer. Its total surface
area is 4125 ft2 and contains 144,000 gallons of water (1.2 The rate of evaporation from a water surface is propor-
million pounds). Buildings, trees, and fences are set back at tional to the difference between the vapor pressure of the
least 20 ft, so the pool is relatively open to wind and solar radi- liquid water and the partial pressure of water vapor in the
ation exposure (Figure 3). Radiation losses from the pool are immediately adjacent air. Determination of these two quanti-
directly to the sky. ties requires the measurement of water temperature, air
temperature, and air humidity (or dew point). Air and water
The pool is maintained at temperatures near 83°F by a
temperatures were measured with calibrated T-type thermo-
thermostat in the return water line. Natural-gas billing records
couples, with voltage recorded at six-minute intervals by use
of a desktop computer-controlled data-acquisition unit.
Differences between sensors and between repeated measure-
ments with the same sensor did not exceed 0.1°F.
Air humidity was obtained by monitoring the dew point
temperature with a dew-point hygrometer. This instrument
was calibrated against a secondary dew-point temperature
standard immediately prior to use. The limit of departure of
0.2°F corresponds to a humidity difference of approximately
0.6%.
Outdoor wind speed was obtained by the use of a rotating
cup anemometer located at the edge of the pool, 1 ft above the
water surface.
*
Pool temperature, 81.5°F - 82.5°F; air temperature, 80°F - 83°F; air relative humidity, 45% - 55%.
Except in the tests of less than a two-hour duration, when evaporation rate 1.35 times that from a quiet water surface.
temperature changes of less than one degree took place, prob- Figure 5 shows that this rate is characteristic of a pool being
able errors in heat loss are, therefore, not more than 5%. used by about 6 people/1000 ft2. To provide full heating and
Periods of high pool activity were of short duration, so ventilating capacity of equipment for maximum pool usage,
evaporation rates under those conditions could not be i.e., 70% higher than for a quiet pool, and to use the ASHRAE
measured with comparable accuracy. The four points repre- equation, its result should be multiplied by 1.70 × 0.74 = 1.26.
senting those conditions are identified in Figure 5 and the Evaporation from a pool in active use by numerous swimmers
corresponding portion of the graph is indicated by the dashed is, therefore, about 26% greater than computed by the
line. Although not as accurate as the data for less active condi- ASHRAE equation.
tions, the results conform with the trend and extend the results In summary, the ASHRAE equation in its widely used
into the high pool occupancy range. The linear regression form shows an evaporation rate characteristic of a pool with
based on all 14 points is ER=1.04 + 0.046C, and if only the ten about 6 swimmers/1000 ft2 of area. Evaporation from an unoc-
lower points are considered, the equation is ER=1.05 + cupied pool is 74% of the rate calculated by the equation;
0.047C. The difference is relatively insignificant, and use of maximum evaporation, useful for equipment design require-
the equation based on all points is recommended. ments, is 26% higher than obtained from the equation, i.e.,
The logical value of the intercept on the evaporation ratio 1.26 times that value.
axis is 1.00, but the regression analysis yields 1.04. The
discrepancy is due to the fact that water waves caused by even Outdoor Pool
one swimmer in a large pool (0.08 swimmer/1000 ft2 in this Results of measurements in the outdoor pool in active use
13,000 ft2 pool) result in a significant effect on the water-air are shown in Table 2. Also tabulated are evaporation rates
interface and an increase in evaporation. Below one swimmer/ calculated by Equation 2 for an inactive pool, adjusted for alti-
1,000 ft2, the relationship is, therefore, not linear, as indicated tude. Ratios of measured evaporation rates to those based on
by the dotted curve in Figure 5. the equation for an inactive pool at the same conditions are
When a pool is heavily used, (approaching 15 swimmers/ also tabulated. Measured wind speeds were used in the equa-
1000 ft2), natatorium humidity will rise unless heating and tion, so the computed ratios show the specific influence of
ventilating equipment have capacities approximately 70% pool activity on evaporation.
higher than necessary for an inactive pool. Equation 1 Evaporation rates reported in Table 2 are based entirely on
(ASHRAE), with the coefficients traditionally used, yields an measured changes in the pool level over the listed time peri-
Calculated
Measured Equiv. evap. heat rate
Average depth evap. from inactive Evap.
Test Test water temp. Wind change heat rate pool at same ratio,
reference duration, Swimmers/ during test velocity, (decrease), Evap., (1045xG), pw - pa, wind speed, active/
number h 1000 ft2 period mph in. lb/h⋅ft2 Btu/h⋅ft2 in. HG Btu/h⋅ft2 inactive
1 5.3 7.5 82.2 2.2 0.147 0.144 151 0.811 112 1.34
2 4.0 6.3 82.9 1.3 0.091 0.118 123 0.871 96 1.28
3 5.9 6.5 81.7 1.1 0.105 0.092 96 0.721 75 1.29
4 3.4 6.5 83.5 0.5 0.063 0.096 100 0.772 65 1.54
5 3.6 1.9 84.0 1.5 0.058 0.083 87 0.690 80 1.08
6 4.0 1.2 82.7 2.8 0.096 0.125 131 0.809 128 1.03
7 6.5 2.2 81.2 2.0 0.083 0.128 134 0.840 111 1.21
8 4.2 8.0 83.2 1.4 0.082 0.101 106 0.751 85 1.25
9 3.8 3.9 82.0 2.8 0.110 0.150 157 0.822 130 1.21
10 5.6 4.1 81.9 2.9 0.148 0.137 143 0.754 121 1.18
11 4.8 3.9 83.1 2.7 0.136 0.147 154 0.773 120 1.29
12 4.0 4.4 83.0 2.2 0.094 0.122 128 0.668 92 1.40
ods. Measurements were made shortly before and after swim- the adjusted water-loss rates, divided by the rates computed by
mers were in the water, thereby avoiding effects of surface the use of Equation 2, for an unoccupied pool at the same
disturbances on water levels. Water disappearance other than temperatures, humidity, and air speed as measured. Wind
by evaporation is limited to splashing onto deck areas and velocity varied over a wide range, but its use in Equation 2
removal on skins of swimmers leaving the pool. It is estimated yields results showing the specific effect of pool activity only.
that these physical water losses are less than 5 gal/h, equiva- It is evident that the data points in Figure 7 for the outdoor
lent to about 5% of the total measured disappearance. No pool are more widely scattered than those for the indoor pool
correction for this estimated loss has been made, so evapora- in Figure 5. The “R” value for the outdoor pool data, 0.6448,
tion rates from the outdoor pool may be overstated by an is considerably lower than the 0.9681 value for the indoor
amount approaching 5%. pool. But it is seen that the equations for the best linear fit to
The effects of wind speed and pool activity on evapora- the two sets of data are in good agreement. The principal
tion rate are shown graphically in Figures
6, 7, and 8. The data points in Figure 6
show that in active pools, regardless of the
number of swimmers, evaporation rates
are substantially higher than those in an
unoccupied pool, shown by the “no activ-
ity” line based on the results of previous
tests by Smith et al. (1993). The rates
increase rapidly with wind speed. To
compensate for differences in tempera-
tures and humidity, the data are presented
as evaporation rates per unit difference in
water vapor pressure. The scatter of points
is due to the wide variation in pool occu-
pancy and the resulting influence on evap-
oration.
In Figure 7, relative evaporation from
the outdoor pool is correlated with the
number of swimmers. Ordinate values are Figure 6 Effect of wind speed on evaporation from active pool.
CONCLUSIONS
Rates of evaporation from indoor and
outdoor pools in active use have been determined
by measuring rates of heat loss and water level
change. These results are consistently higher
than those previously obtained in quiet pools, the
Figure 7 Outdoor pool evaporation as affected by activity level departure being proportional to the pool activity
(swimmers/100 ft2). as represented by the number of users per unit
area of pool surface.
reasons for the scatter of data on the outdoor pool are the vari- In indoor pools, disturbance and motion of the water
ation in wind velocity, fluctuation in number of swimmers surface caused by typical swimming activity increase evapo-
during a test period, and variable splashing losses. With fewer ration rates to levels approximately 70% higher than those
than about 5 swimmers/100 ft2, the outdoor water-loss rate
was found to be slightly higher than the indoor rate (possibly TABLE 3
because splashing influenced the outdoor measurements). Evaporation Relative to Rate in
With ten swimmers, the highest use of the outdoor pool, the Unoccupied Pool and Zero Air Speed
two pools show approximately equal water-loss rates.
WIND SPEED - MPH
Combination of Indoor and Outdoor Results 2
Persons /1000 ft 0 0.5 1 2 3
Figure 8 is a summary of pool testing results: inactive 0 1.00 1.23 1.46 1.93 2.40
outdoor pool (line for zero swimmers), active indoor (four
5 1.28 1.57 1.87 2.47 3.07
intercepts on the zero wind speed ordinate), and active outdoor
(three lines for 5, 10, and 15 swimmers /1,000 ft2 of pool area). 10 1.47 1.81 2.16 2.86 3.55
Figure 8 also shows the range of conditions that were not 15 1.665 2.06 2.45 3.24 4.03
tested (dotted lines). In indoor pools, where air speeds are
negligible, evaporation rates depend only
on water and air conditions and the turbu-
lence of the water as indicated by the
number of swimmers. Air movement over
outdoor pools, even at a comparatively low
3 mph (4.4 ft/sec) velocity has a strong
additional effect, roughly doubling the rate
of evaporation that occurs in an indoor
pool. The combined effect of wind speed
and pool activity is indicated in Table 3.
The values at zero wind speed are for the
indoor pool and at other wind speeds for
the outdoor pool.