Introduction to Ecology

Ecology defined
• Gk. oikos – ‘household’; logos – ‘study’
• Study of relationships between living organisms
and their environment; interaction of organisms
with one another
• Environment – all factors (living and non-living)
that actually affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle
– Macroenvironment
– Microenvironment
 Levels of Organization
Biosphere
Biome
Ecosystem Ecological View
Community
Population
Biological View
Organism
Interaction with the physical
Organ System environment (energy and matter) at
Organ each level produces characteristic
functional systems
Tissue
Cell * An arrangement into a graded series
What is an ecosystem?
System
- a set of components or parts that function together to act
as a whole
- parts are interconnected, interdependent, and interrelated
to make up a whole
- each component can be isolated and studied separately
Ecosystem
- ecological system
- term was proposed by Arthur G. Tansley (1935)
- any unit that includes all the organisms in a given area
interacting with the physical environment
 Basic ecosystem structure

ABIOTIC BIOTIC

• non-living components • living components

• physical factors of the • various species
environment
populations of the
community
 Components of Ecosystem

climate inorganic organic macroconsumers microconsumers

substances substances or or
phagotrophs saprotrophs

primary
producers

abiotic components biotic components

transition between
abiotic and biotic components
 Abiotic components
• Environmental Resources
– directly consumed or utilized by organisms
• mineral elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon dioxide)
• water
• oxygen

• Environmental Conditions
– not directly consumed but affect the growth and
survival of organisms
• temperature
• salinity
 Biotic component:
Primary producers
autotrophs

photoautotrophs chemoautotrophs
(nitrifiers;
i.e. Nitrobacter
and Beggiatoa)

chlorophyll photosynthetic
bearing bacteria
organisms
(plants, algae, lichens)

using H2S using organic compounds

as reductant as reductant
(green and purple sulphur bacteria) (purple and brown bacteria)
 Biotic component:
CONSUMERS
heterotrophs

phagotrophs saprotrophs

herbivores carnivores

omnivores
macroconsumers microconsumers
consumer subsystem decomposer subsystem
 respiration

sun
radiant
energy autotroph
subsystem CO2
CO2 litter consumption
fall
O2 uptake O2

H2O H2O

inactive organic decomposition

nutrients matter, soil herbivore
(rain, dust) nutrients in subsystem
water decomposition
some
nutrients
lost by
decomposer subsystem leaching,
erosion,
etc.

Ecosystem Diagram (Smith, 1991)

Characteristics of Ecosystem
• Self- maintenance and Self-regulation
• Tendency for biological systems to resist change
and remain in a state of equilibrium - Homeostasis
• Each system exists in an environment which
provides the input necessary for the functioning of
a system.
– Input – any signal from the outside the system to which
it responds
– Output – result of the response; any attribute
transmitted to the environment
• May be open or closed
Two types of systems
• Closed system
– no continuous exchange of matter and energy
• Open system
– maintained by a balanced exchange of matter and
energy with the environment

matter (closed system)

energy (open system)

Ecosystem Services
• Ecosystem services are the results of the interaction
between the biotic and physical features.
• The output is not due to only one component but to the
whole system.
• The human economy depends upon the services performed
for free by ecosystems.
• The ecosystem services supplied annually are worth many
billions of dollars.
Provisioning Regulating
services services

Ecosystem
Services

Cultural Supporting
services services
 Provisioning
• Products that are directly obtained from the ecosystem.
- Food
- Water
- Minerals
- Pharmaceuticals, Biochemicals, Industrial Products
- Energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
 Regulating
• Benefits obtained from the regulation of
ecosystem processes.
- Carbon Sequestration and climate regulation
- Waste decomposition
- Crop pollination
- Pest and Disease control
 Supporting
• Ecosystem services that are necessary for
the production of all ecosystem services.

- Nutrient Dispersal and Cycling

- Primary Productivity
- Soil Formation
 Cultural

• Non material benefits people obtain from

ecosystems through spiritual enrichment,
cognitive development, reflection,
recreation and aesthetic experiences
– Cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration
– Recreation experiences (ecotourism)
– Scientific Discovery
 Valuation of the world’s ecosystem services
Total Global Value Total Value
Biome Main Services Provided
($US Billion) (per ha) ($US)
Open ocean 8381 252 Nutrient cycling
Estuaries 4100 22, 832 Nutrient cycling
Sea grass, algal beds 3801 19, 004 Nutrient cycling
Coral reefs 375 6075 Recreational, disturbance regulation
Coastal shelf 4283 1610 Nutrient cycling
Tropical forest 3813 2007 Nutrient cycling, raw materials
Temperate forest 894 302 Climate regulation, waste treatment
Grasslands 906 232 Waste treatment, food production
Tidal marsh 1648 9990 Waste treatment, disturbance regulation
Swamps 3231 19580 Water supply, disturbance regulation
Lakes, rivers 1700 8498 Water regulation
Desert 0 0 None
Tundra 0 0 None
Ice, rock 0 0 None
Cropland 128 92 Food production
Urban 0 0 None
Total 33, 268
 Partial list of the world’s ecosystem services
SERVICE EXAMPLE
INDIRECT
Atmospheric gas regulation Maintenance of carbon dioxide, ozone, and sulfur dioxide levels
Climate regulation Maintenance of carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, methane, and CFC levels
Disturbance regulation Storm protection, flood control
Waste treatment Sewage purification
Soil erosion control Retention topsoil, reduction in siltation of lakes
Nutrient recycling Maintenance of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon and other elemental cycles
DIRECT
Water supply Irrigation, provision of water for industry
Pollination Pollination of crops
Biological control Regulation of pest control
Refuges Maintenance of habitats for wildlife
Food production Production of crops, maintenance of livestock
Raw materials Provision of renewable fuels and timber
Maintenance of plants and animals for medicines and provision of genes for
Genetic resources
plant resistance
Recreation Ecotourism
Cultural Aesthetic value
Direct Drivers of Change
1. Changes in local land use and cover
2. Species introduction or removal
3. Technology adaptation and use
4. External inputs
5. Harvest and resource consumption
6. Climate change
7. Natural, physical, and biological drivers