Name :Anand Raj Class: B.A.Ed.

Semester:3rd Roll no:04 SUBJECT: History

Exam:2nd internal test
Question: Describe literature in mediaeval Europe in brief

Ans: Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing essentially all written works
available in Europe and beyond during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one
thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire ca. AD 500 to the beginning
of the Florentine Renaissance in the late 15th century). The literature of this time was
composed of religious writings as well as secular works. Just as in modern literature, it
is a complex and rich field of study, from the utterly sacred to the exuberantly profane,
touching all points in-between. Because of the wide range of time and place it is difficult
to speak in general terms without oversimplification, and thus the literature is best
characterized by its place of origin and/or language, as well as its genre.
Languages

The scholarly tongues of medieval Europe were Latin (in the West) and Greek (in the East). In
the Byzantine Empire (aka the Eastern Roman Empire, which remained intact for the duration of the
Middle Ages), much ancient literature was preserved, and new Greek works were composed in the
ancient genres. In Western Europe (where the Western Roman Empire collapsed into petty kingdoms),
literary output experienced a slow recovery, and preservation of classical writings fell chiefly to religious
orders and other clergy. The entirety of Europe experienced intellectual stagnation, as attention was
diverted from secular matters to scripture and theology, and a general conservatism fell over scholarship
which dominated Western and Central Europe, and since the Church was
and literature.1
virtually the only source of education, Latin was a common language for Medieval
writings, even in some parts of Europe that were never Romanized. However,
in Eastern Europe, the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Eastern
Orthodox Church made Greek and Old Church Slavonic the dominant written
languages.

The common people continued to use their respective vernaculars. A few examples,

such as the Old English Beowulf, the Middle High German Nibelungenlied, the Medieval
Greek Digenis Acritas and the Old French Chanson de Roland, are well known to this
day. Although the extant versions of these epics are generally considered the works of
individual (but anonymous) poets, there is no doubt that they are based on their
peoples' older oral traditions. Celtic traditions have survived in the lais of Marie de
France, the Mabinogion and the Arthurian cycles.
 Medieval Education

The medieval period was succeeded by the Renaissance (ca. 1400-1600), which witnessed the full
revival of classical scholarship and humanism (see Humanism). The Renaissance was not
unprecedented; various earlier attempts (albeit of much less success) to effect such a revival were made
across Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages. By far the most influential was the Carolingian
Renaissance (set in motion by Charlemagne, lasting ca. 750-900), which did significantly expand classical
scholarship, as well as education and literacy in general.

Charlemagne commissioned Alcuin, an English scholar, to oversee the efforts of the Carolingian

Renaissance. (The foremost scholarly revival in Western Europe prior to the Carolingian Renaissance
took place in the British Isles, spurring Charlemagne to procure several of the region's leading scholars.)
The education programs designed by Alcuin influenced teachers throughout the medieval West.2,3,4,12

The basics of a European medieval education consisted of literacy (in the academic tongue, i.e. Greek or
Latin) and the study of scripture, while theology was widely regarded as the most profound advanced
subject. Nonetheless, the medieval West experienced a gradual revival of the secular subjects which had
flourished during antiquity, including grammar, rhetoric, music theory, mathematics, astronomy (and other
sciences), law, medicine, and theory of various practical fields (e.g. agriculture, manufacturing,
navigation). By the dawn of the Renaissance era, secular scholarship was ready to truly surge forward
once again.12

In early medieval Western Europe (ca. 500-1000), formal education was provided mainly by abbey
schools (run by monks) and cathedral schools (run by priests); the latter type was typically housed in a
building near a cathedral. Apart from those pursuing a religious life, education was limited chiefly
to nobility. With the rise of cities in the later Middle Ages (ca. 1000-1500), abbey and cathedral schools
were joined by clergy-run urban schools.

The later Middle Ages also witnessed the birth of the university: an independent, government-sanctioned
institution of higher education. Universities were staffed partly by professional scholars (as opposed to
learned clergy), such that the profession of "teacher" recovered as an independent occupation.
Universities, which gradually shook off Church involvement and interference, would come to flourish as
the epicentres of scholarship across Europe (and, from the colonial age onward, across the world).

Anonymity

A notable amount of medieval literature is anonymous. This is not only due to the lack of
documents from a period, but also due to an interpretation of the author's role that
differs considerably from the romantic interpretation of the term in use today. Medieval
authors were often overawed by the classical writers and the Church Fathers and
tended to re-tell and embellish stories they had heard or read rather than invent new
stories. And even when they did, they often claimed to be handing down something
from an auctor instead. From this point of view, the names of the individual authors
seemed much less important, and therefore many important works were never
attributed to any specific person.
Literature

The majority of the literature produced during the Middle Ages was written by religious clerics
 and monks. Few other people knew how to read and write. Much of what they wrote was
hymns, or songs, about God. Some also wrote philosophical documents about religion. One of
the most popular books of the Middle Ages was the Golden Legend, by archbishop of Genoa
Jacobus de Voragine. It told stories about the lives of the Saints during Medieval times. Some
secular, meaning non-religious, books were written as well.

Here a few of the more famous literary works from the Middle Ages:

 Beowulf - Unknown author. This Epic poem was written in England, but tells the story of
the hero Beowulf in Scandinavia.
 The Canterbury Tales - by Geoffrey Chaucer. A series of tales that portray Chaucer's
view of English society at the time.
 Caedmon's Hymn - This hymn, recorded by a monk, is the oldest surviving Old English
poem.
 The Divine Comedy - by Dante Alighieri. Often considered one of the greatest works in
world literature, this story describes Dante's view of the afterlife.
 The Book of Margery Kempe - by Margery Kempe. This book is considered to be the
first autobiography written in English.
 The Ecclesiastical History of the English People - by Venerable Bede. This history of
the English church earned Bede the title "Father of English History".
 The Decameron - by Giovanni Boccaccio. This book has a number of stories and
describes life in 14th century Italy.
 The Travels of Marco Polo - by Marco Polo. This book tells the story of how Marco
Polo travelled to the far east and China.
 Le
 Morte d'Arthur - by Sir Thomas Malory. This book tells the story of legendary King
Arthur.
 Piers Plowman - by William Langland. This allegorical poem tells of a man in search of
the true Christian life.

Types of writing
Religious
As shown in the chart to the right, theological works were the dominant form of literature
typically found in libraries during the Middle Ages. Catholic clerics were the intellectual
centre of society in the Middle Ages, and it is their literature that was produced in the
greatest quantity.
Countless hymns survive from this time period (both liturgical and paraliturgical). The liturgy
itself was not in fixed form, and numerous competing missals set out individual conceptions of
the order of the mass. Religious scholars such as Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas,
and Pierre Abélard wrote lengthy theological and philosophical treatises, often attempting to
reconcile the teachings of the Greek and Roman pagan authors with the doctrines of the
Church. Hagiographies, or "lives of the saints", were also frequently written, as an
encouragement to the devout and a warning to others.
The Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine reached such popularity that, in its time, it
was reportedly read more often than the Bible. Francis of Assisi was a prolific poet, and
his Franciscan followers frequently wrote poetry themselves as an expression of their
piety. Dies Irae and Stabat Mater are two of the most powerful Latin poems on religious
subjects. Goliardic poetry (four-line stanzas of satiric verse) was an art form used by
some clerics to express dissent. The only widespread religious writing that was not
produced by clerics were the mystery plays: growing out of simple tableaux re-
enactments of a single Biblical scene, each mystery play became its village's
expression of the key events in the Bible. The text of these plays was often controlled
by local guilds, and mystery plays would be performed regularly on set feast-days, often
lasting all day long and into the night.

During the Middle Ages, the Jewish population of Europe also produced a number of

outstanding writers. Maimonides, born in Cordoba, Spain, and Rashi, born
in Troyes, France, are two of the best-known and most influential of these Jewish
authors.
Secular

Secular literature in this period was not produced in equal quantity as religious
literature, but much has survived and we possess today a rich corpus. The subject of
" courtly love" became important in the 11th century, especially in the Romance
languages (in the French, Spanish, Provençal, Galician and Catalan languages, most
notably) and Greek, where the traveling singers— troubadours—made a living from
their songs. The writings of the troubadours are often associated with unrequited
longing, but this is not entirely accurate (see aubade, for instance). In Germany,
the Minnesänger continued the tradition of the troubadours.

In addition to epic poems in the Germanic tradition (e.g. Beowulf and Nibelungenlied),

epic poems in the tradition of the chanson de geste (e.g. The Song of Roland & Digenis
Acritas) which deal with the Matter of France and the Acritic songs respectively, courtly
romances in the tradition of the roman courtois which deal with the Matter of Britain and
the Matter of Rome achieved great and lasting popularity. The roman courtois is
distinguished from the chanson de geste not only by its subject matter, but also by its
emphasis on love and chivalry rather than acts of war.

Political poetry was written also, especially towards the end of this period, and
the goliardic form saw use by secular writers as well as clerics. Travel literature was
 highly popular in the Middle Ages, as fantastic accounts of far-off lands (frequently
embellished or entirely false) entertained a society that, in most cases, limited people to
the area in which they were born. (But note the importance of pilgrimages, especially
to Santiago de Compostela, in medieval times, also witnessed by the prominence
of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.)
Women's literature
While it is true that women in the medieval period were never accorded full equality with
men (in fact, misogynist tracts abound, although many sects, such as the Cathars,
afforded women greater status and rights), some women were able to use their skill with
the written word to gain renown. Religious writing was the easiest avenue—women who
would later be canonized as saints frequently published their reflections, revelations,
and prayers. Much of what is known about women in the Middle Ages is known from the
works of nuns such as Clare of Assisi, Bridget of Sweden, and Catherine of Siena.

Frequently, however, the religious perspectives of women were held to be unorthodox

by those in power, and the mystical visions of such authors as Julian of Norwich
and Hildegard of Bingen provide insight into a part of the medieval experience less
comfortable for the institutions that ruled Europe at the time. Women wrote influential
texts in the secular realm as well—reflections on courtly love and society by Marie de
France and Christine de Pizan continue to be studied for their glimpses of medieval
society.
Allegory
While medieval literature makes use of many literary devices, allegory is so prominent
in this period as to deserve special mention. Much of medieval literature relied on
allegory to convey the morals the author had in mind while writing--representations of
abstract qualities, events, and institutions are thick in much of the literature of this time.
Probably the earliest and most influential allegory is the Psychomachia (Battle of Souls)
by Aurelius Clemens Prudentius. Other important examples include the Romance of the
Rose, Everyman, Piers Plowman and The Divine Comedy.

Vernacular works and drama

The main literary values of the period are found in vernacular works. The pre-
Christian literature of Europe belonged to an oral tradition that was reflected in
the Poetic Edda and the sagas, or heroic epics, of Iceland, the Anglo-
Saxon Beowulf, and the German Song of Hildebrand. These belonged to a
common Germanic alliterative tradition, but all were first recorded by Christian
scribes at dates later than the historical events they relate, and the pagan
elements they contain were fused with Christian thought and feeling. The
mythology of Icelandic literature was echoed in every Germanic language and
clearly stemmed from a common European source. Only the Scandinavian
texts, however, give a coherent account of the stories and personalities
involved. Numerous ballads in different countries also reflect an earlier native
tradition of oral recitation. Among the best known of the many genres that
arose in medieval vernacular literatures were the romance and the courtly
love lyric, both of which combined elements from popular oral traditions with
those of more scholarly or refined literature and both derived largely from
France. The romance used classical or Arthurian sources in a poetic narrative
that replaced the heroic epics of feudal society, such as The Song of
Roland, with a chivalrous tale of knightly valour. In the romance, complex
themes of love, loyalty, and personal integrity were united with a quest for
spiritual truth, an amalgam that was represented in every major western
European literature of the time. The love lyric has had a
similarly heterogeneous background. The precise origins of courtly love are
disputed, as is the influence of a popular love poetry tradition; it is clear,
however, that the idealized lady and languishing suitor of the poets of
southern and northern France were imitated or reinterpreted throughout
Europe—in the Sicilian school of Italy, the minnesingers (love poets) of
Germany, and in a Latin verse collection, Carmina Burana.

Medieval drama began in the religious ceremonies that took place in church

on important dates in the Christian calendar. The dramatic quality of the
religious service lent itself to elaboration that perhaps first took the form of
gestures and mime and later developed into dramatic interpolations on events
or figures in the religious service. This elaboration increased until drama
became a secular affair performed on stages or carts in town streets or open
spaces. The players were guild craftsmen or professional actors and were
hired by towns to perform at local or religious festivals. Three types
of play developed: the mystery, the miracle, and the morality. The titles and
themes of medieval drama remained religious but their pieces’ titles can belie
their humorous or farcical and sometimes bawdy nature. One of the best
known morality plays was translated from Dutch to be known in English
as Everyman. A large majority of medieval literature was anonymous and not
easily dated. Some of the greatest figures—Dante, Chaucer, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio—came late in the period, and their work convincingly demonstrates
the transitional nature of the best of medieval literature, for, in being master
 commentators of the medieval scene, they simultaneously announced the
great themes and forms of Renaissance literature

Characteristics of mediaeval literature

1.Romance: a narrative in prose or verse that tells high adventure and heroic
exploits of chivalric heroes and tells exploits of Knights often supernatural
elements involved.

2.Christian message: concerned with salivation and the world to come. It

has no interest in social change, only spiritual change. This was true until late
14th century . Geoffrey Chaucer and Dante Alighieri signal new thinking try
-up ending social order.

3.Heroism: from both Germanic and Christian tradition, something mingled

Beowulf, sir gawain and green Knight , Song of Roland, The Nieblungelied.

4.Presentation of idealized behaviour

-literature as moral lesson , Royalty to king, Chivalry.

5.Use of kenning: a figurative , usually compound expression used in place

of a name or noun. Example, storm of swords is a kenning for battle .

6.Use of allegory : an allegory is a figurative model of representation

conveying a meaning other than the literal. Much of mediaeval literature is
relied on allegory to convey the moral the author had in mind while writing the
- representation of abstract qualities , events , an institution are thick in much
of literature of this time. Dante's inferno this quarter is classic example of
medieval allegory.

Conclusion: Medieval European literature is both broader and deeper in its

basis than what is usually offered in literary histories with their focus only on a
narrow canon and on vernacular languages. One way to see this bigger
canvas is to consider technical and statistical book-historical factors together
with the authority of the two Roman Empires (Western and Eastern) and of
their religious hierarchies (the papacy and the patriarchate). A coordinated
reading of developments in the Latin West and the Greek East—though rarely
directly related—brings out some main features of intellectual and literary life
in most of Europe. With this focus, a literary chronology emerges—as a
supplement to existing narratives based on either national or formal (genre)
concerns: the period c. 600 to 1450 can be considered a unity in book-
historical terms, namely the era dominated the hand-written codex. It is also
delimited by the fate of the Roman Empire with the Latin West effectively
separated from the Greek Empire by c. 600 and the end of Constantinople in
1453. Within this broad framework, three distinctive phases of book- and
intellectual history can be discerned: the exegetical (c. 600–c. 1050), the
experimental (c. 1050–c. 1300), and the critical (c. 1300–c. 1450). These
three headings should be understood as a shorthand for what was new in
each phase, not as a general characteristic, especially because exegesis in
various forms continued to lie at the heart of reading and writing books in all
relevant languages.