Amorous Heian heroes: the ​irogonomi ​as a literary ideal of pre-modern Japanese

masculinity.

Nicola McClements
SOAS, University of London

The ​irogonomi ​is perhaps the most prevalent and influential character trope in the literature which
emerged from Japan during the Heian Period. A combination of ​iro​, meaning “carnal love” and
konomu,​ meaning “to have a fondness for”, the term is used to describe an individual “endowed
with an amorous disposition and a connoisseurship of music and poetry” (Pandey, 1995:226). More
than simply a romantic hero, an ​irogonomi ​character constitutes a “means for developing social
cultivation and a sense of aesthetics” (Yasutaka, cited in Saeki, 2011:92). Two famous examples of
this type of figure are Hikaru Genji from the ​Tale of Genji ​and Ariwara no Narihira from the ​Tales of
Ise,​ who are viewed as Japanese cultural heroes. These characters “symbolise the ideal of a people”
(​Merriam-Webster Dictionary) and “have come to define popular perception of Heian period sexual
politics” (Sprague, 2011:64). This essay will discuss the emergence of Genji and Narihira as cultural
and romantic heroes, and will explore ideas of courtliness, spirituality/religion, and morality in
relation to their actions. Through a detailed examination of these two characters, the significance of
the ​irogonomi ​as a cultural hero in Heian literature can be understood.

Cultural heroes are typically male characters with royal parentage who must overcome certain
obstacles in order to achieve their status as a hero (Raglan, 2003:186,191). This archetype fits Genji
and Narihira, who both have royal blood and are exiled as young men. According to ​Field (2001:38),
exile is a key factor in the story of these characters, as cultural heroes are “forged in solitude”. ​The
exile of ​Genji reflects the “ancient tradition” of the “wandering hero” who must travel and face a
series of challenges which help to shape him into a heroic figure (Field, 2001:33-34). During this
period, the hero typically has several amorous encounters, which contribute to him maturing not
only physically, but also psychologically (Field, 2001:34). Examples of this can be found in Genji’s
relationship with the Akashi lady with whom he fathers a child, and in his decision to return to the
capital and raise his heir (Bowring, 2008:29).

Similarly, in the ​Tales of Ise​, Narihira is exiled following an unsuccessful affair with a married
woman. Field (2001:38) argues that an individual will often have to face the “consequences of failed
erotic transgression” in order to progress on his journey, which can be seen here in the case of
Narihira. His exile creates not only feelings of alienation and guilt, but also leads to a “birth of
consciousness” within him (Field, 2001:38). This new consciousness, which encourages Narihira to
combine his eroticism with courtliness, is integral to what Field (2001:39) describes the “emergence
of the amorous hero” in Heian literature. She argues that once the protagonist has risen above his
past transgressive acts, he has a new sensibility regarding sexuality (Field, 2001:39). Therefore, she
maintains, the erotic elements of works such as the ​Tales of Ise ​and the ​Tale of Genji ​are not
hedonistic, but are instead virtuous, as the amorous heroes have a courtly approach to sexual
relationships (Field, 2001:39).

These virtuous sensibilities about romance and sexuality held by Genji and Narihira are significant
because their genuine interest in “love, beauty, and poetic sensitivity” distinguishes them from
libertines (​Shirane, cited in Sprague, 2011:69). According to Reddy (2012:296), ​irogonomi ​are
depicted as “unable to control their emotional sensitivity… rather than their appetites”. Hence,
Genji and Narihira are not interested in only physical contact with women, but also seek to establish
an emotional connection through exchanging poetry with their partners (Yasutaka, cited in Saeki,
2011:92). As poetry was the most appropriate and courtly means for an individual to convey their
innermost, usually romantic, feelings to another person, it is the preferred method of
communication for the ​irogonomi (Reddy, 2012:305). Both Genji and Narihira therefore establish
themselves as romantic heroes through the use of poetry, with Narihira writing of his “yearning
heart” for two beautiful sisters, and Genji bringing “elegance” to each of his relationships through
his verse (McCullough, 1968:69; Yasutaka, cited in Saeki, 2011:92). The “courtliness” that both men
convey towards women through poetic means suggest that this was a characteristic which was
viewed as romantic in Heian society and was a masculine ideal of the time (Watanabe, cited in
Mostow, 2000:113).

In addition to its romantic usage, poetry was also used as a measure of sensitivity and to assess an
individual’s “value as a person of culture” (Pandey, 1995:227). Heian men were expected to follow
the “rule of taste”, which meant a conscious effort to remain restrained whilst appreciating beauty
and opulence in their everyday surroundings (Sansom, cited in McCullough, 1968:6). An example of
this can be found in Narihira’s poem ​Akanaku ni​, which expresses his sadness at the moon setting.
According to McCullough (1968:11), Narihira is not only referring to what is physically occurring
before him, but is commenting on the “impermanence of beauty” (McCullough, 1968:10). His poetry
embodies the “blend of elegance and pathos” of ​mono no aware ​(McCullough, 1968:11), highlighting
his awareness of the transience of nature. Furthermore, Yasutaka (cited in Saeki, 2011:92) argues
that this ability to “feel the emptiness of death and the richness of human life” is a key characteristic
of the ​irogonomi,​ who has a “deep feeling and compassion” towards romantic partners and the
beauty of nature alike (Newhard, 2013:227). Genji also creates poetry about the moon in a similar
way, remarking “All aimless is my journey through the clouds. It shames me that the unswerving
moon should see me” (Murasaki, 1976:241). Here, he views the moon with sadness, and personifies
it in an attempt to express his own dissatisfaction. The sensitivity to the world displayed by Narihira
and Genji through their poetry again reinforces the qualities expected of Heian men, in particular
elegance and an understanding of ephemerality.

​A further way in which role of the ​irogonomi ​can be understood as a cultural hero for Heian men is
in relation to spirituality and religion. In Heian literature, sexual desire was not based solely on
physical attraction, but was “conceptualized in a Buddhist frame of reference”, with male
promiscuity being viewed as “spiritually significant” (Reddy, 2012:5). Sexual intercourse was viewed
as healthy and as necessary for men, who needed the yin force of a woman to balance their yang
(Wallace, 1997:192). Furthermore, men were encouraged to have multiple sexual partners as it was
believed that a woman’s yin force depleted temporarily after intercourse (Wallace, 1997:192).
Scholars of the ​Tales of Ise,​ such as those of the Reizei school, therefore argue that it “does not
simply tell of relations between men and women”, but was written in order to explain the spiritual
connection between sexuality and the concept of yin and yang to its Heian audience (Klein,
1997:449).

Additionally, ​irogonomi a​ re often depicted as finding enlightenment through sexual relationships,

which encourage thinking about deeper issues such as “reincarnation in life, detachment and death”
(Yasutaka, cited in Saeki, 2011:92). According to Klein (1997:451), depictions of the “harmonious
union” between men and women in the ​Tales of Ise were specifically written to inform Heian readers
about the path to enlightenment. However, Reddy (2012:329) argues that lower-ranking individuals
would likely be unable to achieve the “celestial quality” attained by Genji and Narihira in their own
love affairs. He describes the relationships of ​irogonomi ​as “spiritually meaningful” relationship due
to their high ranking (Reddy, 2012:329). Moreover, Genji’s self-destructive affairs “set desire under
the Buddhist rubric of that which is the source of suffering”, emphasising the link between desire
and suffering (Wallace, 1997:181). These observations by Reddy and Wallace indicate that ​irogonomi
such as Genji and Narihira might perhaps be superior to ordinary people regarding their spirituality,
which further enhances their appeal as cultural heroes.

Finally, the moral implications of the actions and personality of an ​irogonomi m​ ust be considered,
as Campbell (2008:38) argues that a cultural hero must set a moral example for readers. Pandey
(1995:230) hence notes that for an ​irogonomi t​ o be classed as a cultural hero, a​morous affairs must
be balanced with morality. However, ​Genji and Narihira differ in both their approach to relationships
and in the ways in which their stories unfold. Sprague (2011:65) argues that this disparity
“complicates the male fantasy of ​irogonomi​”, as it does not represent a single moral path for Heian
readers to follow. Regarding Narihira’s path, Pandey (1995:227) describes the ​Tales of Ise ​as a
“celebration” of his role as an ​irogonomi​, believing it to be a positive moral example. ​Narihira is a
man free ​from a “loveless political marriage” and his amorous pursuits are “undaunted by obstacles
and practical considerations” (Sprague, 2011:78; Pandey, 1995:228). However, despite his lack of
attachment, he does still show consideration for his sexual partners. For instance, when he sleeps
with a lonely woman after feeling sorry for her, and she becomes sad after he leaves, he is “moved
by pity” enough to spend a further night with her (McCullough, 1968:110-111). This display of
empathy reinforces Narihira’s image as a romantic hero and as a positive moral figure.

In contrast, Genji does not share the “carefree promiscuity” of Narihira regarding relationships
(Sprague, 2011:78). His courtships “know no boundaries” and he encounters problems, having to
face consequences as a result of his romantic choices (Bargen 2015:194; Sprague, 2011:65). For
example, he upsets his wife Murasaki by courting other women and fathering a child by another
wife, the Akashi lady. These actions create unhappiness for Murasaki and this later affects Genji
when Murasaki falls gravely ill and he expresses regret. ​Critics disagree on whether author Murasaki
Shikibu endorses or condemns Genji’s amorous behaviour in the ​Tale of Genji (​ Pandey, 1995:229),
but since Genji’s sexual desire eventually leads to his death, it seems that “desire itself is, for
Murasaki, the secondary knowledge of insubstantiality” (Wallace, 1997:187)​. ​Genji can therefore
perhaps be seen as an example of why the ​irogonomi ​is not an ideal romantic hero, and was written
as a cautionary tale for a Heian audience. However, his enduring popularity as a literary character
suggests that his poetic and romantic sensibilities are more significant to readers as cultural hero
traits than his morality.

​ s discussed throughout this essay, Genji and Narihira are two characters with royal blood who
A
become cultural heroes through exile and their relationships. They share certain sensibilities towards
romance and sexuality following their periods of exile, combining eroticism with courtliness, and this
shapes them into ​irogonomi.​ Examples of their ​irogonomi a​ pproach can be found in their poetry,
which they use as a means to connect emotionally with their partners. Additionally, both characters
use poetry to demonstrate their sensitivity to the world around them and to express their
understanding and appreciation of the impermanence of daily life. For the reader, this indicates not
only the key role of poetry as a romantic gesture in Heian society, but also the significance of poetic
skill and courtliness as ideal masculine traits. Spirituality and religion are also reflected in the actions
of ​irogonomi ​like Genji and Narihira, with sexual intercourse viewed as being integral to the
wellbeing of men due to the concept of yin and yang. Furthermore, physical contact between men
and women could lead to enlightenment, as it encouraged deep thinking about life and death.

L​ astly, the moral expectations placed upon cultural heroes can be found in the stories of Genji and
Narihira. Whilst both try to balance morality with sexuality, they are not always successful. Although
Narihira is somewhat careless in his promiscuity, he is careful to show compassion towards his
romantic interests. Genji, in comparison, faces difficulties as a result of his amorous pursuits, and
this seems to be the author’s way of cautioning the reader against excessive sexual desire. Despite
their flaws, however, both characters remain popular in Japanese culture, which indicates that their
courtliness is their defining quality. This suggests that the prevalence of the ​irogonomi a​ s a cultural
hero can be primarily attributed to the importance of poetic sensibilities in the Heian Period. To
conclude, Genji and Narihira therefore embody the cultural values of the society in which they lived,
and thus the significance of the ​irogonomi ​is that it is a representation of idealised Heian masculinity.

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