Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Sugar cane bagasse ash as a pozzolanic admixture in concrete for

resistance to sustained elevated temperatures
Parisa Setayesh Gar a, Narayana Suresh b, Vivek Bindiganavile a,⇑
a
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 1H9, Canada
b
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru 570 008, India

h i g h l i g h t s

 SCBA was characterized for physical properties and chemical composition.

 Concrete with SCBA up to 25% of binder was exposed to temperatures till 500 °C.
 The SCBA was 70% amorphous silica & similar to Portland cement in particle size.
 Even at high temperatures, SCBA may effectively replace up to 15% Portland cement.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the present investigation, a feasibility study is made to utilize the sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) as an
Received 24 August 2016 admixture in concrete and examine its role in imparting resistance under elevated temperatures. The ash
Received in revised form 6 July 2017 was obtained from a sugar mill in India where the bagasse was recycled as fuel for the mill. It was char-
Accepted 11 July 2017
acterized for its physical properties and chemical composition. Incorporated as a supplementary cement-
ing admixture, SCBA replaced Portland cement from 0 to 25% by mass fraction at 5% increments. Besides a
series that was examined at room temperature, the resulting concrete was subjected to elevated temper-
Keywords:
atures of 300 °C, 400 °C and 500 °C, being exposed for 2 h in each case. The residual compressive and flex-
Compressive strength
Elevated temperature
ural strength were evaluated and compared with the reference performance at room temperature. The
Flexural strength results show that the SCBA sample had a grain size distribution very similar to that of the Type GU
Oxide composition Portland cement used in this study. X-ray florescence revealed that this ash was chiefly composed of
Particle size SiO2 (70%). At room temperature, the compressive strength of concrete increased till up to 10% SCBA
Sugarcane bagasse ash incorporation. Even at 15% cement substitution, it matched that of the reference mix containing
Portland cement alone. While there was a consistent drop in the compressive strength at higher temper-
atures, the inclusion of SCBA marginally slows down this deterioration. On the other hand, the flexural
strength of concrete containing SCBA was always lower than that seen with Portland cement alone.
However, once again, the drop was seen to be less significant up to 10% cement substitutions. The find-
ings strongly endorse that bagasse ash when used as a supplementary cementing admixture, imparts
resistance to concrete against elevated temperatures.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction fully as a partial replacement of cement in construction activity.

Sugarcane bagasse is currently used as a biofuel in paper and
sugar manufacturing. It is found that for every 10 tons of sugar
cane crushed in a sugar mill, generally about 3 tons of bagasse is
produced. In most cases, this bagasse is recycled as fuel within
the sugar mill. Once it is ground to suitable fineness therefore,
there is immense potential to use the resulting bagasse ash gain-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vivek@ualberta.ca (V. Bindiganavile).
Since bagasse is a by-product of the sugar cane industry, the quan-
tity of production in each country is in line with the quantity of
sugarcane produced.
There has been considerable interest lately in agro-sourced ash
for cement replacement. Among them, rice-husk ash and various
types of wood ash have been examined by Ganesan et al. [1], Rao
et al. [2], and Paula et al. [3]. In the past decade, researchers have
undertaken studies on SCBA, focusing on its feasibility as a supple-
mentary cementitious material and its influence on the hardened
properties of Portland cement concrete. It is a valuable pozzolanic

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.107
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
930 P. Setayesh Gar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936
material that has the potential to reduce cost, conserve energy, and
minimize waste emission.
Most studies report up to 25% cement substitution with SCBA. It
has been shown to increase the compressive strength of concrete
up to 15% cement substitution [3–6]. Tensile strength is seen to
increase up to 10% cement replacement. Radke et al. [7] found
slight increase in strength with SCBA up to 10% cement substitu-
tion and then decrease in strengths. The increase in strength may
be attributed to the transformation of the CH phase into the CSH
phases upon pozzolanic reaction, as reported by Muangtong et al.
[8]. An increase in the bagasse ash content leads to a slight reduc-
tion in the workability, higher normal consistency and longer set-
ting time [9]. Besides increase in strength, there is some
improvement to durability as noted by Ruckzon et al. [10] and
Subramaniyan et al. [11] who found that the SCBA addition
increases the resistance to chloride penetration. This is likely due
to the reduction in the heat of hydration (likely resulting in less
microcracking) as well as a reduction in water permeability with-
out much change in strength [12,13]. Others have found bagasse
ash reduces the chloride diffusion by more than 50% without any
adverse effects on other properties of the hardened concrete
[14,15]. Fairbairn et al. [16] showed possible CO2 reductions in
concrete with substitution of cement by SCBA. The pozzolanic
reactivity of SCBA is amplified if it results from a higher tempera-
ture of burning of the bagasse [17]. And, not withstanding higher
than permissible limits for the total alkalis in certain SCBA, as par-
tial replacement of cement it is seen to improve the resistance to
alkali attack on concrete [18]
While the available literature as summarized above recognizes
its potential as a supplementary cementitious material, these stud-
ies have remained confined to the effects of SCBA on concrete at
Table 1
Mix Design (kg/m3).
Ash/Binder (%) Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate
0 740 1110
5 740 1110
10 740 1110
15 740 1110
20 740 1110
25 740 1110
a) Electric Oven
Fig. 1. Details of the Electric Oven Employed for this Study.
room temperature. Cement based systems have been extensively
examined under sustained elevated temperatures [19–21]. Most
reports confirm that a gain in strength is observed up to a temper-
ature of 300–400 °C. At higher sustained temperatures, surface
cracks emerge which become pronounced at temperatures beyond
800 °C. Whereas the rate of decrease in strength is gradual
between 400 and 800 °C, it is dramatic at higher temperatures.
Usually, concrete specimens disintegrate when subjected to tem-
perature beyond 1000 °C. High strength concrete is seen to exhibit
similar behavior but the deterioration in strength appears to occur
at lower sustained temperatures [21,22]. It is well known that sup-
plementary cementing admixtures help alleviate the effect of sus-
tained elevated temperature. They are uniformly seen as beneficial
to mechanical performance, transferring the crystalline phases (ie.
CH) to amorphous or poorly crystalline phases (ie. CSH) as a result
of the ensuing pozzolanic reaction and consequently resulting in
less thermally conducting cementitious composites. [23,24]
As with blast furnace slag, silica fume, fly ash and metakaolin
[25–27], there is convincing data that describes the benefits to the
mechanical performance of concrete exposed to sustained ele-
vated temperatures, when dosed with other agro-sourced ash
[28]. Rice husk ash in particular checks the drop in residual
strength at elevated temperatures and up to 15% mass replace-
ment of cement was seen to be optimal up to 700 °C [29,30]. In
the absence of any information on the effect of SCBA, the project
undertaken here aims to examine its suitability and effectiveness
under elevated temperature when used as a supplementary
cementing admixture. To this end, the compressive and flexural
strength are examined for concrete specimens that variously
incorporate SCBA and were subjected to sustained elevated tem-
peratures. The specimens were exposed to elevated temperatures
SCBA Cement Water
– 365 183
36 330 183
73 292 183
110 255 183
146 220 183
183 183 183
b) Thermal Signature of the Oven (Legend shows
Maximum Temperatures of Exposure in Celcius)
 P. Setayesh Gar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936 931

Fig. 2. Test Setup: a) Compression and b) Flexure.

of 300 °C, 400 °C and 500 °C for a 2-h duration and the perfor- The cubes and beams were prepared in accordance with the relevant Indian stan-
dard IS:516-1959, [33]. All specimens were cast by placing the mold on a table
mance of the concrete was studied through its residual compres-
vibrator and the concrete was compacted further into these molds with a needle
sive and flexural strength. vibrator. The specimens were removed from the molds after 24 h of casting and
cured for a further 28 days.
2. Experimental program

As noted above, there were six mixes designed in this study. For the compres- 2.4. Exposure to sustained elevated temperatures
sion and flexural tests, four sets of cubes were cast for every mix. One set was left to
remain at room temperature, while the other three sets were subjected respec- An electric furnace with a maximum capacity of 1000 °C, was used for this study
tively, to temperatures of 300 °C, 400 °C and 500 °C, sustained for a duration of 2 h. (Fig. 1a). The specimens were subjected to temperatures of 300 °C, 400°C and 500°C
such that they were sustained at the respective elevated temperature for a period of
2.1. Materials
Table 3
Oxide Composition of SCBA as Obtained from XRF Test.
The Portland cement used here conformed to the Indian standard IS:269 [31],
which was used together with locally available dry sand and crushed granite coarse Oxide Average (wt%)
aggregate conforming to IS:383-1970 [32]. The grading of sand conforms to zone II
in IS:383-1970 [32] while the coarse aggregate had a maximum particle size of Sio2 69.94
20 mm. Note that according to the IS:269 [31], the specific surface area of cement MgO 6.68
should not be less than 225 m2/kg. The sugar cane bagasse ash was sourced from P2O5 6.12
a sugar factory in Pandavapura (near Mysore, India). K2o 5.83
Al2o3 3.34
CaO 2.27
2.2. Physical and chemical examination of SCBA
Na2o 1.49
Fe2o3 1.25
The particle size analysis for the SCBA was performed with a mastersizer. In
So3 0.42
order to characterize the mineral composition in the ash, it was analysed using
Tio2 0.088
Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-ray Flu-
Cr2o3 0.078
orescence (XRF) testing. The X-ray radiation for the XRD was sourced from a cobalt
MnO 0.059
tube. In addition, samples of the ash were examined under a Scanning Electron
SrO 0.03
Microscope (SEM) to illustrate its morphology.
CuO 0.02
Zro2 0.02
2.3. Mix Design and specimen preparation ZnO 0.01
Rb2o 0.01
The concrete mixes were designed to achieve a minimum 28-day compressive Ni2o3 0.01
strength of 20 MPa. The desired workability was met with a slump of 25–60 mm. LOI 2.35
The mix proportions are shown in Table 1. The SCBA was incorporated at 5% incre-
ments up to 25% replacement of the Portland cement by mass. These mixes were
cast into cubes of size 150 mm and beams of size 500 mm  100 mm  100 mm.

100
Percentage finer than

Table 2
Element Composition of SCBA as per EDX Test. 80

Elements Weight Percentage 60

O 46.83
Na 0.374
40
Mg 3.66
Al 3.14
20
Si 22.41
0
P 4.08 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Cl 0.01
K 8.84 Particle size(Micro meter)
Ca 2.05
SCBA OPC (Ganesan A. et al 2007)
Ti 0.28
Fe 2.71
Fig. 3. Particle Size Analysis of SCBA and Portland Cement (OPC) Examined in This
Study.
932 P. Setayesh Gar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936
2 h each. These specimens were placed in an electric furnace of size
2.10 m  1.10 m  1.00 m. The time history for heat gain within this oven, as mea-
sured using an infra-red non-contact sensor is shown in Fig. 1b. Note that this was
the temperature on the surface of the specimen, which is likely somewhat different
from that at its interior. After exposing the samples to the required temperature and
for the required duration, the oven was switched off and the specimens were
allowed to cool down in the electric oven to room temperature. The specimens were
taken out and stocked for subsequent testing.
2.5. Test setup: compression and flexure
The setup for compression and flexural tests are shown in Fig. 2. The compres-
sion test and the flexural test were as per IS:516-1959 [33]. The concrete beams
were tested using a 3 point loading test in flexure.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physical properties and chemical composition of sugarcane
bagasse ash
Tables 2 and 3 show the elemental and oxide composition for
the SCBA as derived from the EDX analysis and XRF testing. Fig. 3
shows the particle size distribution of SCBA, whereby it is clear that
the grains were similar in size and distribution to the Portland
cement, as intended.
As inferred from the elemental and oxide composition obtained
after chemical analysis, it was found that the SCBA sample was
made up of mostly silica at more than 70% of the ash. The amount
of CaO, Al2O3 and iron oxides is seen to be low. ASTM C618 [34]
recommends that for use as a supplementary cementing material
a potential ash should be composed of silica, alumina and iron oxi-
des, which taken together must constitute at a minimum 70% by
mass. It also specifies a maximum limit of 5% for SO3, 12% for
unburnt carbon and 1.5% for total alkalis such as Na2O and K2O.
However, the total value of alkalis (K2O + Na2O) in the present
instance was more than 6%, which immediately raises a concern
for potential alkali-silica reaction. The value exceeds the allowable
limits as stipulated by ASTM C618 [34]. However, it was discussed
by Zerbino et al. [35] that although alkali content may be high and
exceed those allowable limits, the potential for alkali-silica reactiv-
ity is strongly dependent upon the particle size of the ash. In their
study on rice husk ash (RHA), Zerbino et al. [35] reported that so
long as the entire ash passes through the Number 200 sieve (with
mesh size of 75 mm), there was no alkali-silica reactivity observed
even with more than 5% alkali oxides (K2O + Na2O). As noted in
Fig. 4. XRD Trace of SCBA.
Fig. 3, the SCBA used in this study was in its entirety finer than
100 mm. Therefore, based on the above, the present authors expect
that although the alkali content was 7.5%, given the relatively small
particle size of this SCBA sample precludes any potential alkali-
silica reaction. Nevertheless, further tests should be conducted
for long term durability. It is clear from the chemical and physical
characteristics of this ash as illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4 and Tables 2
and 3 that the dominant oxide in the sampled SCBA is silica. Aside
from the results from the EDX and XRF analyses mentioned earlier,
the XRD trace also identified crystalline silica. It is worth noting
that amorphous silica, apart from being effective as a pozzolanic
material also possesses favorable thermal properties, notably an
extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion as against crys-
talline silica. Although XRD testing will only identify the crystalline
phases for silica, inspecting the XRD trace in Fig. 4, indicates suffi-
ciently that the wide scattering peaks (humps) at 2h values of
about 24° and 32°, Ka Cobalt radiation represents amorphous sil-
ica. A comparison of XRD traces on SCBA as found by other
researchers like Ganesan et al. [36] lends credibility to this
assertion.
The size of the particles in the sampled SCBA was between 0
and 100 mm as seen in Fig. 3. Fig. 5 illustrates the shape of different
particles in the ash as seen with a scanning electron microscope.
The shapes may variously be described as spongy (Fig. 5a & c),
spherical (Fig. 5b) and stack of sheets (Fig. 5d).
3.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength was determined from concrete cubes
at 28 days. As stated earlier, the values in case of those specimens
subjected to elevated temperature represents a residual strength
that was determined after letting the specimen cool down to the
ambient room temperature. The reference mix registered a com-
pressive strength of 43.55 MPa with a standard deviation of
4.80 MPa. The authors wish to emphasize here that although it
was twice the target, the compressive strength that resulted was
consistently obtained. Given that this study examines the effect
of exposed temperature upon the mechanical performance, so long
as the compressive strength was consistent, the resulting mixtures
were deemed suitable to proceed.
Fig. 6 shows that concrete made with sugarcane bagasse ash
retains its strength up to a cement replacement of 15%. For com-
parison, studies on using rice husk ash to gauge concrete resistance
 P. Setayesh Gar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936 933

Fig. 5. Scanning Electron Micrographs showing various Morphology of Particles in SCBA.

to elevated temperatures show an optimum performance at 15% pozzolanic action. At 15% cement replacement, the strength is still
cement replacement [2]. It is also seen that the strength increases level with the reference mix containing Portland cement alone. A
up to a cement replacement of 10%, which may be attributed to the further increase in the SCBA content leads to a steady decrease in
dual role of the pore size and grain size refinement associated with the compressive strength. Similar results are widely obtained

Fig. 6. Variation of Compressive Strength with SCBA Content.

934 P. Setayesh Gar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936

Fig. 7. Variation in Compressive Strength with Temperature of Exposure: a) Effect of SCBA Content; b) Normalized Against Performance at Room Temperature.

through use of fly ash and other supplementary cementing admix-
tures with comparable silica content [37].
It is inferred from Fig. 7a that with an increase in the sustained
temperature, there was a gradual decrease in compressive strength
of all mixes, irrespective of the percentage replacement of cement
by SCBA. However, in all mixes, there was only a slight drop in
residual strength up to 300 degrees. This has been previously
reported for rice husk ash as well [2]. Also, when the residual
strength of a mix is normalized with respect to its compressive
strength at room temperature, it is seen that the rate of drop in
strength is lower with an increase in the ash-to-binder ratio,
Fig. 7b.
3.3. Flexural strength
Fig. 8 illustrates a drop in the flexural strength of concrete made
with sugarcane bagasse ash with an increase in the ash content.
Unlike its compressive strength which showed an improvement
in its residual strength up to 10% and sometimes even 15% cement
replacements, the flexural strength showed a consistent drop from
the reference mix for all levels of cement replacement. However, as
with the compressive strength, so with the flexural strength in
that, there was a sharp drop in the residual flexural strength
beyond 300 °C. This is shown in Fig. 8.
It is seen from Fig. 9 that there is a gradual decrease in flexural
strength with an increase in the percentage replacement of SCBA in

Fig. 8. Variation in Flexural Strength with SCBA Content.

 P. Setayesh Gar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 929–936
Fig. 9. Variation in Flexural Strength with Temperature of Exposure: a) Effect of SCBA Content; b) Normalized Against Performance at Room Temperature.
concrete. Also, across the mixes, when the specimens were sub-
jected to sustained elevated temperatures of 300 °C, 400 °C and
500 °C, there was a significant decrease in the flexural strength
and this drop ranged from 20% to 40% with respect to that at room
temperature. A similar trend was seen with concrete containing fly
ash and subjected to high temperature exposure in an identical
range [36]. However, it is also observed from the slope of the plots
in Fig. 9b that the drop in their flexural strength was more in the
reference mix containing no SCBA when compared with those
mixes that contained SCBA. Also, an increase in the SCBA content
appears to reduce the rate of decrease in strength with tempera-
ture, which was seen previously for compressive strength
(Fig. 7b). Nevertheless, as shown in Fig. 9b (and again, similar to
what was seen with compressive strength), there was a sharp drop
in the residual flexural strength beyond 300 °C.
4. Concluding remarks
This study examined the feasibility of using SCBA as a supple-
mentary cementing material for applications that witness expo-
sure to sustained elevated temperatures. The SCBA was first
characterized for its physical and chemical properties and there-
after, a series of compression and flexural strength tests were con-
ducted on concrete specimens that contained various amounts of
the SCBA. Based on the residual strength derived from specimens
subjected to exposure at elevated temperatures up to 500 °C, the
following key findings are of note:
1. The sample of SCBA examined here for composition shows that
silica is the most predominant oxide (70%). The particle size
distribution is nearly the same as that of Portland cement,
and the maximum particle size was below 100 mm. The particle
shape was varied and may be identified a combination of
spongy, spherical and stack of sheets.
2. The compressive strength of concrete dosed with SCBA when
examined at room temperature increases up to a cement substi-
tution of 10%. It was seen that with an increase in the sustained
temperature, there is a gradual decrease in the compressive
strength of the specimens irrespective of the percentage
replacement of cement by SCBA. However, in all mixes, there
was only a slight drop in residual strength up to 300 degrees.
Also, when the residual strength of a mix was normalized with
respect to its compressive strength at room temperature, it was
seen that the rate of drop in strength was lower with an
increase in the ash-to-binder ratio.
935
3. There is a gradual decrease in flexural strength with an increase
in percentage replacement of SCBA in concrete at room temper-
ature. Also, when the specimens were subjected to sustained
elevated temperatures, there was a significant decrease in the
strength and this drop ranged from 20% to 40%. It was inferred
from results that the drop in strength in concrete containing
cement alone was more when compared with concrete contain-
ing SCBA.
Acknowledgements
The corresponding author thanks the Biorefining Conversions
Network (BCN) for enabling this research project. As well, the
authors are grateful to the recently constituted Canada India
Research Centre for Excellence (IC-IMPACTS, NCE Canada), for facil-
itating collaboration between them.
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