Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Technological, environmental and economic aspects of Asphalt recycling for

road construction
⁎
Shuli Liu, Ashish Shukla , Taranjit Nandra
School of Energy, Construction and Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Environment and Computing, Coventry University, Coventry CV1 5FB, United
Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The biggest contributor to the energy consumption (up to 90% of the total) in the Asphalt plants is the fuel used
RAP for heating and drying the virgin aggregates in processing of Reclaimed Asphalt Planings (RAP). Proposed
Energy efficiency review evaluates the currently used technologies to process RAP into Asphalt mixtures. Theoretical comparison
Road construction is conducted for all the technologies to obtain the effects they have on energy consumption, carbon emissions
and costs. The proposed research will evaluate different technologies for RAP mixing and potential benefits
technology can bring in terms of cost and greenhouse gas mitigation. Comparative analysis shows parallel drum
dryer are most efficient and emit less greenhouse gas with comparison to other discussed technologies.

1. Introduction concluded that asphalt recycling is environmentally preferable to

Recycled Asphalt is used in many industries e.g. pavement, road
shoulders, rural roads, new hot mix plants [1]; concrete [2] and others.
EU Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC emphasises on preven-
tion, reduction, re-use and recycling of waste [3]. According to the
Directive recycling target of 70% for non-hazardous construction and
demolition waste (including asphalt waste) should be achieved by
2020. Over 90% of roads in Europe are constructed from Asphalt. It is a
mixture of aggregates, which account for 91–97% of the total mix and a
binder, commonly bitumen, which accounts of 3–9% of the total mix.
Asphalt is not only used for construction of new road surfaces but also
for maintenance and repair of roads [4]. Researches have been done in
the field of aging of bituminous mixes [5,6], influence rejuvenators on
the performance properties of RAP binder and 100% recycled asphalt
mixtures [7], evaluation of hot mix asphalt mixtures [8] and binder
homogeneity of RAP [9]. Zaumanis and Mallick, 2015 [10] presented
review paper on use of high contents of reclaimed asphalt use in plant
produced pavements. Authors reported state of art approaches for
increasing the amount of RAP in asphalt mixtures above 40%. Two key
research has been reported on the environmental performance and
recycling aspects of asphalt [11,12]. Erdem and Blankson, 2014 [11]
presented environmental performance for using RAP in concrete
mixes. It has been found by the authors that the environmental
behaviour of the recycled aggregate concrete is similar to that of the
natural aggregate concrete. Miliutenko et al., 2013 [12] reported
environmental opportunities for improved asphalt recycling. Authors
asphalt reuse. Research further claimed that each method of asphalt
recycling can provide different benefits, so there are possibilities for
improving the environmental performance. Following up conclusions
from literature review found that Asphalt recycling is going on in many
projects as it brings energy savings, economic payoff and conservation
of natural resources. Conservation of natural resources and sustainable
consumption [13] is vital for sustainable development. Summary of
detailed literature review in the subject area is summarised in Table 1.
Depleting resources and flotation in oil prices also made bitumen
one of most expensive material used in the road construction [13],
which makes it more important to be recycled.
Prices of bitumen continuously increasing since 1990 and increases
multi-folds during last two decades (Fig. 1). Bitumen and aggregates
production is also the single biggest factor in contributing to the
embodied carbon of asphalt materials. With an ever increasing
emphasis on sustainability it is now forcing changes in the construction
sector in Europe and America, the carbon content of any product/
material is a contributing factor in its success.
It is obvious that asphalt recycling can play a role in designing more
sustainable road and present novel way for waste management.
However, there appears a clear knowledge gap regarding the techno-
logical progress in the literature for the asphalt recycling. Present
research targets on review of Asphalt recycling technology. Research
paper investigates various technologies used for RAP reuse for hot
mixing plants. Paper has also examined different fuels used in those
technologies and how fuel change can improve system efficiency,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ashish.shukla@coventry.ac.uk, ashish.physik@gmail.com (A. Shukla).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.080
Received 15 July 2015; Received in revised form 1 October 2016; Accepted 31 October 2016
Available online xxxx
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Liu, S., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.080
S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Table 1 Table 1 (continued)

Summary table for various studies reported in literature.
Publications/ Objectives and Conclusions Other findings
Publications/ Objectives and Conclusions Other findings Refs. method used
Refs. method used
use in plant- increasing the challenges and
Zaumanis Authors presented a Authors found out Eleven technologies produced amount of RAP in common pavement
et al. [1] review and analysis that a cradle-to- readily available for pavements asphalt mixtures distresses of very
on resources, gate analysis of producing 100% above 40%. high RAP content
conservation and of environmental Reclaimed Asphalt mixtures
100% recycled hot effects indicated Pavement (RAP) hot Erdem and Current research It has been found Major highlights of
mix asphalt 18 kg or 35% CO2 asphalt mixtures are Blankson paper investigated that with respect the study has been
eq savings per ton described [11] environmental to mechanical use of recycled
of produced 100% performance and properties, RAP aggregates, either
RAP asphalt mechanical analysis can be used in waste precast
mixture compared of concrete non-structural concrete or waste
to virgin mix containing recycled applications and asphalt
Blankendaal Main objective of It has been found The scenarios show a asphalt pavement environmental
et al. [2] the paper was to that the most maximum reduction (RAP) and waste behaviour of
reduce the substantial impact of 39% in precast concrete as recycled aggregate
environmental reduction in environmental aggregate. concrete is similar
impact of concrete asphalt can be impact. to that of the
and asphalt. A realized through natural aggregate
scenario and life application of concrete.
cycle analysis warm-mix asphalt Miliutenko Research paper Authors Main conclusion
approach has been rather than hot- et al. [12] targeted on investigated from the study was
adopted by the mix asphalt Opportunities for potential ways of that the sphalt
authors (HMA). Which environmentally improving the life recycling is
made authors to improved asphalt cycle environmentally
conclude that this recycling for environmental preferable to asphalt
can yield a Sweden. performance of reuse
reduction of about asphalt recycling
33%. in Sweden
Ongel and Main objective of It has been found Authors found out Sivilevičius The objective of this Use of constrained Use of different
Hugener this study has been that there is no that humidity slows et al. [28] study was to and models allowed
[5] to investigate the difference in age down the asphalt propose models for unconstrained authors to choose
effects of aging hardening for aging process gradation design of optimization the best HMA
conditions on the different asphalt hot mix asphalt models for hot mixture gradation
loose bituminous sample depths mixture mix asphalt based on mineral
mixture to simulate and asphalt aging mixture has been materials
RAP is affected by trace investigated in
substances in the this study
air. Roberts et al. Authors presented Paper presented The paper also sets
Rascon De Main objective of Authors found It was very [29] history of hot mix the past, present, out economic
Lira et al. this paper has been that the binder interesting to see asphalt mixture and future trends relevance of hot mix
[6] to study Reclaimed content in that aging depends design in the United in asphalt mixture asphalt mixture used
asphalt binder recycled asphalt on particle size. States design in 96% of United
aging and its pavements (RAP) Authors claimed that States road surfaces
implications in the is particle-size small particles age Sivilevicius Paper analysed new Authors claimed Explaining reasons
management of dependent faster [30] asphalt concrete that even for control sieves of
RAP stockpiles mixing plant extremely hot fractions used in
Zaumanis Authors reported It has been found One of the highlight accurate dosing of HMA
et al. [7] effect of six that rejuvenators of the research is hot fractions does
rejuvenators on the can reduce being that not guarantee the
performance performance rejuvenators homogeneity of
properties of grade to the level improve mixture HMA separate
Reclaimed Asphalt of virgin asphalt cracking resistance batches
Pavement (RAP) binder. Ventura et al. Main objective of Authors claimed Research paper
binder [31] this study was to that plant provided Life Cycle
Reyes-Ortiz In this paper Research focussed Research paper used investigate technology and of Inventory data of
et al. [8] authors evaluated on effects of the mechanical emissions from hot input materials Polycyclic Aromatic
Hot Mix Asphalt partial- and total- characterization of mix asphalt plants can be significant Hydrocarbons
Mixtures with replacements of the HMA mixtures on environmental emitted by asphalt
Replacement of aggregates by RAP through the indirect performances plants
Aggregates by tensile test and Randyet al. The report The report Authors used shear
Reclaimed Asphalt resilient modulus [32] presented mixing claimed that if rate to calculate
Pavement (RAP) test. and compaction proposed method compaction to
Material temperatures of is used mixing and include its effect on
Zhao et al. [9] Main objective of Authors proposed It has been found asphalt binders in compaction viscosity
this study was to improved staged that hot mix asphalt temperatures will
investigation binder extraction Trichloroethylene be about 10–40 °C
homogeneity of procedure was (TCE) was the most lower
RAP/RAS mixtures proposed for RAP effective solvent for
through staged study staged extraction
extraction greenhouse gas mitigation and economy of use. Manuscript covers
Zaumanis Authors Authors Main highlight of the
introduction of Asphalt recycling technology, followed by Why to use
et al. [10] investigated review highlighted study has been
of very high-content different identification of Reclaimed Asphalt Planings, asphalt production technologies and
reclaimed asphalt approaches for production focuses on only Hot Mixing Plants. Manuscript further covers inclusion
(continued on next page) of RAP in asphalt mixes, followed by economic, environmental and fuel

2
S. Liu et al.
Fig. 1. Historical price of Bitumen [14].
cost and finally comparison of all the technologies discussed. It has
been found that parallel flow drum dryer is more efficient with
comparison to other technologies used in pre-heating in RAP plants.
2. RAP and the road construction
An average road pavement consists of the road structure above the
formation level which includes unbound and bituminous-bound mate-
rials (Fig. 2). This formation gives the pavement ability to distribute the
loads of the traffic before it arrives at the formation level [15].
As aggregates and Bitumen form the basis of an Asphalt mixture, it
is important to briefly evaluate their importance and any associated
issues as follows;
2.1. Aggregates
Aggregates used come in many forms and depend on local avail-
ability; they can be crushed rock, sand, gravel or slags. The main
purpose of the aggregates used within a road pavement is to provide:
• Shape: important for the mechanical interlock (Binding);
•
Strength: resistance to crushing and fragmentation; and
•
Surface Properties: resistance to polishing and abrasion under
traffic.
Examples of the type of aggregates used are:
•
Limestone: common construction material for making asphalt, sub
bases for roads and building construction; and
•
Hardstone: more difficult to process than limestone because of its
hardness and or abrasive nature.
2.2. Bitumen
To keep Asphalt as a cohesive mixture a binder must be used to
bind the materials. Most commonly Bitumen is used as a binder.
Bitumen is a bi - product from distillation of crude oil and starts to boil
in the range of 550–600 °C [2]. The lighter fractions are extracted due
to their lower boiling points, this produces different substance includ-
ing, gas, gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil and bitumen. After Bitumen is
extracted it is transported to the location of use e.g. Asphalt production
plants. A key property of Bitumen for road surfaces is it being a
Fig. 2. Typical road pavement construction [15].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
thermoplastic material. This means when heated to a higher tempera-
ture its viscosity reduces, making it less resistant to flow, allowing it to
be easily pumped and sprayed in order to coat aggregates. When it has
been mixed with aggregates and cooled sufficiently, it can be com-
pacted as it is workable for laying onto road surface. Further cooling
allows the combination of aggregates and bitumen to be hard enough to
carry traffic loads.
Bitumen is a valuable asset when constructing road surfaces. It can
be termed to be the ‘building block’ without which all road layers would
behave independently. However, as it is comes from oil all the issue
associated with oil will impact Bitumen.
Proven reserves of crude oil worldwide at the end of 2014
amounted to 1655.56 billion barrels [16]. According to the
International Energy audit, 93 million barrels of oil and liquid fuel
were used worldwide daily in 2015 [17]. This consumption figure will
only increase as developing countries will further increase their oil
usage.
One barrel of crude oil contains 42 gallons (159 l); after processing
one barrel will produce 1.3 gallons of Bitumen or approximately 4%
[18]. As of this the consumption rate and availability of crude oil will
naturally have an effect on the price of bitumen. As levels of crude oils
deplete the price of bitumen will only continue to increase.
3. Why to use Reclaimed Asphalt Planings (RAP)
There are several reasons behind increase in the use of RAP in the
road construction and some of them are summarised as follows;
3.1. Recycling and waste management
World Highways published report “2020 vision for waste recycling”
emphasising on 70% recycling of construction waste by 2020 [19]. In
the UK itself over 90 million tonnes of construction, demolition and
ground excavation waste is generated each year from civil engineering
related projects. The figure becomes excess of 1000 million tonnes
across Europe, proving it valuable and sustainable resource to be re
used rather than going to landfill [19,20]. In current scenario highway
sector does recycle waste material however road planings are only
considered ideal for surfacing secondary roads and does not see it as a
high worth product. In current scenario of rising bitumen prices, this is
not case and making use of RAP with virgin aggregates is getting
momentum [20].
3.2. Depleting resource
With the daily consumption demand of 93 million barrels of oil and
liquid fuel [17] total reserves of oil are not going to last for generations.
This consumption figure will only increase as other developing
countries increase their oil usage [21]. Greenbanb, 2011 [22] estimated
that with current rate of oil consumption resrve will last little over 44
years. As of this the consumption rate and availability of crude oil will
naturally have an effect on the price of bitumen.
S. Liu et al.
Fig. 3. Methods of Asphalt productions [23–26].
3.3. Price of Bitumen
During the recession in late 2007 the price of Bitumen rapidly rose
and was trading at around £360 a tonne, this has begun to stabilise in
recent years, but the price of bitumen will eventually begin to rise again
because it is being produced from a depleting resource [14].
4. Asphalt production
Asphalt mixes can be produced by any of the three methods (Fig. 3):
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) – produced by preheating bitumen to
decrease it viscosity and drying the aggregate to remove moisture from
it before combing the two together. Mixing is generally performed
around 170 °C but will vary depending on the desired mixture proper-
ties. Compacting and surfacing of the mix must be done at sufficiently
hot temperatures. This type of mix is the most common method used
for highway surfaces. Most asphalt mixes fall into the Hot Mix asphalt
category which are produced at temperatures of 150–190 °C [24].
Warm Mix - produced by adding emulsifiers which can be waxes,
zeolites and even water to the bitumen before mixing reducing its
viscosity. This allows significantly lower mixing and laying tempera-
tures usually around 100–140 °C [24].
Cold Mix - produced by emulsifying asphalt in water before mixing
with the aggregate, which is less viscous then the mixture and easier to
compact, production temperatures are the lowest of 0–30 °C.
Theoretically the emulsion will break after enough water evaporates
and cold mix will take properties of hot mixes [24].
Within Europe there are approximately 4500 hot mixing plants and
the production rate of these installations varies between 25 and 800 t
per hour. Asphalt is usually produced in one of methods mentioned
above but the most common production process in plants is known as
the hot mix process [25]. From a report published European Asphalt
Pavement Association (EAPA) the UK produced 25.7 million tonnes of
Asphalt Hot Mixes from it 300 plants. In the same year in the UK there
were 5,000,000 t of RAP available, but only 15% of the HMA mixes
were produced containing RAP [26]. This represents the fact that even
as the benefits or re-using RAP are understood, mix manufacturers are
for some reason not using high percentages of it.
4.1. Hot mix asphalt plants
The basic purposes of a HMA plant is to heat aggregates, then
properly mix and bled it with bitumen to produce a Hot Mix Asphalt at
final mix temperature between 150 °C and 190 °C, which are sufficient
temperatures to meet requirements [24]. There exist two main classes
of Asphalt plants for HMA mixes; Batch Heater [27] and Continuous
Heater (Drum Mix) [28]. Both types of production produce the same
HMA, and a mix (same properties) produced in one will perform the
same as the mix produced in the other. The operation of the two plants
can be summarised as:
(i) Batch plant:
Batch Heater produce HMA in individual batches and the input can
be increased (Fig. 4). The heater can heat as the next batch while the
previous is mixed [27–30].
Procedure:
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
• Runs Material from various cold feed hoppers into a heater drum,
where the batch is then heated up to the desired temperatures;
• Hot aggregates is then screened into numerous hot bins which
depends on the various aggregate sizes;
• Each hot bins releases a certain amount of aggregate into a weight
hopper;
• Then its discharged into a mixing drum where the binder (bitumen)
is added; and
• Blend is mixed and discharged into a small weighing and collector
hopper.
Typical setup of batch asphalt plant is shown in Fig. 4 [28]. During
the process reclaimed dust is also obtained [28]. Authors also [28]
reported that hot fractionated aggregates and reclaimed dust are new
materials formed in the process of HMA mixing. The Batch heater is
usually used for short productions runs and for a mixes requiring
different recipes which have different properties. Batch plants tend to
offer great flexibility on mix designs they can produce, as a variety of
materials can be incorporated into one batch.
(i) Continuous plant
Continuous plants as the name suggest produces HMA in a
continuous manner and generally have higher production rates com-
pared to batch plants (Fig. 5). However these plants are restricted in
both the size of the smallest volume they can make and the amount of
different materials they can make.
Procedure:
• Raw aggregates is brought up from ground hoppers at a precisely
controlled rate and fed into a heater drum;
• Once heated it is coated in the same drum or in a smaller drum
situated immediately behind it; and
• Discharged into a hot store.
The process of recycling in asphalt plants is well established and
several alternative designs to batch and continuous plants are available,
this technology used to incorporate RAP is dependent on the desired
amount of recycled material in the mix and the type of plant using the
recycled material. Fig. 5 shows parallel drum mixing [31]. During the
process burner, supplied with natural gas is used to warm and dry
aggregates, while burner is located in the upper part of the drum. Main
conveyor belt is used to introduce aggregates into the drum before
mixing with hot bitumen in the lower part of drum [31].
5. Inclusion of RAP in asphalt mixes
Modern HMA plants have the ability to be modified so they can
incorporate RAP which is used as a raw material for new asphalt
(Fig. 6). Asphalt plants can be modified to include RAP into its
mixtures from one the following three methods:
(i) Preheating the RAP in a separate dryer;
(ii) Adding cold RAP to Asphalt mix at some stage; and
(iii) Using a combination dryer to heat the RAP and aggregate
together.
5.1. Pre/separate dryer for RAP
An additional dryer can convert heating of RAP into a continuous
mode which bypass weighing and batching altogether on the tower. In
this method RAP is directly preheated by an extra dryer drum (Fig. 7).
The RAP is metered, heated and dried in the second drum and
transferred to storage bins, which can then be batch weighed and
introduced to a mixer as required. Virgin aggregates are superheated in
the first drum and conveyed to the pug mill mixer. The design of RAP
S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Fig. 4. Typical setup of batch asphalt plant [28].

dryers prevent direct contact between the flame and the RAP, this
prevent the bitumen present on RAP becoming burnt. An example of
this operation is the parallel drum as shown in Fig. 7. Recycling parallel
drum pre dryers can be used for different outputs.
However, even though this method which pre heats RAP, virgin
aggregates are still required to be superheated to high temperatures. To
achieve final mix temperature of 170 °C would require the virgin
aggregates to be heated to 220–240 °C even as the RAP has be heated
to 120–140 °C [32]. Another major drawback of parallel flow drum
system is high exhaust gas temperature [33], which means heat
utilisation is not that efficient.
Estimated demand of 11.8 kW for parallel drum per heater for a
configuration of 180 t/h, 3% moisture, and increase of 150 °C tem-
peratures are required [33]. Other systems such as the Benninghoven
uniflow RAP pre dryer system will process RAP at a constant speed,
drying and heating is at approximately 120 °C [33]. The setups of a
separate RAP only dryer will usually be vertically integrated, for it to be
an energy efficient design, all the process steps should be sequentially

Fig. 5. Parallel drum mixing technology [31].

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S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Fig. 6. Options for asphalt plants to include RAP.

Table 2
Superheating temperature for cold feed [36].

Reclaimed Moisture Recycled mix discharge temperature (°C)

material content (%)
104 °C 115 °C 127 °C 138 °C

Ratio: 10% RAP 0 121 138 152 163

and 90% 1 127 143 154 168
virgin 2 132 146 157 171
aggregate 3 138 149 163 174
4 141 152 166 177
5 143 157 168 182

Fig. 7. RAP preheated to certain temperature [33].

separated from the feed [35]. Typical temperatures required for virgin
aggregates to be mixed with 10% RAP to achieve a desired temperature
arranged beneath one another. Planning permission is an issue in the
are shown below (Table 2):
development of such asphalt manufacturing plants. Many are not
As stated, temperatures to which the virgin aggregates are super-
designed to be as discrete as possible, as of the energy savings from
heated too, depends on the properties of the RAP and aggregate
a gravity driven plant. As of this these plants are often hit with
materials. As the moisture content increases so does the required
problems through planning permission due to their height and the
output temperature and the energy required to achieve certain mix
negative visual impact it has on the surrounding areas. Dryer drums
discharged temperature. For most dryers, maximum new aggregate
are also the biggest contributors to noise pollution meaning an asphalt
temperature upon discharge should not exceed 260 °C as greater
producer using this method would double its noise pollution [34]. To
temperatures will reduce the service life of the dryer [37]. RAP can
summarise the advantages and issues associated with this type of
be fed in a batch plant mainly by three ways (i) bottom of the elevator
technology:
(ii) weigh hopper and (iii) pugmill mixer [38]; details are discussed

• Allows high RAP percentage (30–80%) to be used within an Asphalt

below;
Mix;
• Very high initial investment and service costs because duplicating an
(i) RAP fed to elevator
equipment with the highest energy consumption, and start-up costs;
The first method is to introduce the cold RAP with the superheated
• Issues from planning permission located at considerable heights, so
virgin aggregates into the boot of the hot elevator, the material will
the RAP can be transferred efficiently however this impact local
then be mixed and screened and stored in the hot bins [39]. This
surrounding aesthetics, and high noise levels;
• Complication with maintenance as accessibility at such vertical
method (Fig. 8) lead to the lowest investment required in terms of cost.
The RAP must be added into the elevator buckets after the new
heights can cause several issues; and
• Requirement for superheating the virgin aggregates, albeit to lower
temperatures.

5.2. Cold feed RAP recycling

A cold feed or a cold method is where RAP is added at ambient

temperatures and is superheated by virgin aggregates. The virgin
aggregates are superheated to a certain temperature which depends
on moisture content of virgin aggregates and RAP, the amount of RAP
to be added, the final mix temperature and the capacity of the plant.
The RAP cannot be heated directly in a dryer because it will generate
visible hydrocarbon emissions (blue smoke) when exposed to the high
temperature exhaust gases from the burner, therefore RAP has to be Fig. 8. Cold feed - RAP to elevator [39].

6
S. Liu et al.
aggregate in order to prevent the bitumen coated material from
sticking to the buckets as it is heated by contact, through the super-
heated aggregates.
A limit of 10–15% of RAP can be added via this method and is
related to the heating process as the material travels to the top of the
tower [39]. Depending on the percentage used, moisture content and
the environmental conditions the RAP can be sufficiently heated while
traveling up the tower.
Problems will arise when passing through the screens which are
used to sort particle sizes. The hot aggregate and RAP may stick to the
screens instead of passing through them. This may result in clogging or
blinding of the screen and impact the gradation of the new aggregate in
each of the hot bins.
The excessive moisture in the RAP can also blind the screens,
causing maintenance issues. It is recommended that if more than 10%
RAP used then removing screens may remove this problem however
this seriously affects the quality of mixes. If the screens become clogged
enough, shutdown of the plant may result [39].
(i) RAP fed to weigh hopper
The most common method for batch plants is to introduce the RAP
into the weigh hopper by a belt conveyor (Fig. 9). Once aggregate from
the hot bins has been deposited in the hopper and weighed, the RAP is
fed to the hopper as another aggregate material.
A maximum of 25% of RAP content is recommended via this
method [40].
The main advantage method is that virgin aggregate can be
screened allowing more control and precise metering by weight of
the RAP leading to better quality controlled asphalt.
(i) RAP added to mixer
By adding an extra weight hopper to the batch plant, RAP can be
conveyed and weighed into its own weight hopper while bitumen and
virgin aggregates are being weighed. This arrangement has allowed
producers to use 30–35% of RAP within their asphalt mixtures.
This method is gaining in popularity due to:
• Increased production rate per hour can achieved with shorter batch
cycle time;
• Less maintenance is required on the equipment due to less starting
and stopping; and
• Weight process can be done more accurately and is not affected by
instant stem release.
5.2.1. Common issues with cold feed systems
When RAP is mixed with superheated virgin aggregates the two
materials combining will cause a chemical reaction that will cause a
mild explosion and emissions released both by moisture and dust. The
amount of moisture vapour and blue smoke released can be significant,
Fig. 9. Cold RAP fed to weight Hopper [40].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
a mix containing 50% RAP material in a 2.7 tone batch, with moisture
content of 3%, which equates to 40 kg of water will be converted to
approximately 422 m3 of water vapour, released in about 5 s [38]. This
release of vapour will include large amounts of dust particles.
This excessive levels of steam generated, needs to be exhausted. The
steam produced from RAP will lead to higher temperature of the
exhaust gases, causing maintenance issues such as damage of the bags
in the fabric filters and potentially cause fire [41]. The higher the
temperature required for superheating the aggregates the more chance
problems will occur within bag house operation. The superheating of
virgin aggregate can cause both the RAP and virgin binders to suffer
from excessive hardening and ageing. This is caused by thin bitumen
layers being in contact with the extremely hot surfaces (275 °C) in the
presence of oxygen [20]. This excessive hardening can cause degrada-
tion of the bitumen used in the mix and lead to poor in-service
performance of the asphalt e.g. poor compaction initially and/or
premature ageing/cracking of the pavement in service [20].
For a cold feed system to be incorporated into an existing Asphalt
plant, a separate RAP cold feed bin to house the RAP, and a RAP
feeder/conveying system are required. These modifications will have
minimal impact on the aesthetics of an asphalt site and rarely require
planning permission. If superheated aggregates are heated to signifi-
cantly higher temperatures the service life of the dryer can decrease
and maintenance issues increase. As these superheated aggregates in
the dryer are of less volume when RAP is used, the veil of the aggregate
inside the dryer will not be adequate. This lack of veil will increase the
temperature of the dryer shell and may necessitate increased main-
tenance inside the dryer.
To summarise the advantages and issues associated with the cold
feed technology [20,38,41]:
• Throughput is limited by the screens of the aggregate storage bins
becoming blinded or clogged; RAP becomes very sticky and will stick
onto components;
• Superheated virgin aggregate contacts moist RAP, large quantity of
steam is generated. Higher amount of moisture and higher amount
of RAP leads higher volumes of steam;
• Bitumen being too hot for too long will damage the properties of the
bitumen binder. This can occur when RAP contacts super-heated
virgin aggregates;
• Limited amounts of RAP can be used highest being 35% due to
superheating effects on the dryer drum; and
• Relatively low start-up costs due to limited amount of modifications
needed.
5.3. Continuous plants: using a combination dryer
Combination dryers are used for continuous plants. In these dryer
drums hot RAP and virgin aggregate are kept in one drum before being
fed to storage bins. Depending on the technology, virgin aggregate and
the RAP are introduced in the same drum but in two different places.
These drums can be incorporated onto both a Batch and Continuous
plant but are most commonly used in continuous plants. These are
predominately in one of three formats (i) parallel flow drum (ii)
counter flow drum and (iii) double dryer drum [42].
5.3.1. Parallel flow drum dryer
A Parallel flow system is where the exhaust gases and virgin
aggregates move in the same direction. Essentially the burner is at
the front of the mixer, where the aggregate enters the dryer [43–45]. As
it travels through it is heated, removing all the moisture. RAP enters
the mixing drum at the halfway point, so it does not get hit with the
extreme heat of the burner (Fig. 10). As the combined RAP and
aggregate reach the rear of the mixing drum, Bitumen is pumped in.
The materials mix together and exit from the rear of the mixing drum
S. Liu et al.
Fig. 10. Parallel flow dryer drum [45].
onto a conveyor to transport the asphalt to a storage silo. The gases go
over the RAP so that the flow is parallel at the RAP exit.
With a parallel flow drum, the most critical aspects of successful
mix production is to get the aggregate dry and superheated before it
comes in contact with the RAP material. While there is some convective
heat transfer taking place within the RAP from the heated gases in the
drum mixer, it is more important that the virgin aggregates be
superheated as efficiently as possible.
5.3.1.1. Drum temperature profile. The airflow temperature around
the burner flame exceeds 760 °C. Temperature for gas leaving parallel-
flow drum mixers are typically as much as 30 °C higher than exit mix
temperatures however higher levels of gas temperatures leaving could
mean the mix is improperly flitted [43,45]. As the virgin aggregates
pass along the drum their temperature increases and gas temperature
decrease further away from the flame. The virgin aggregate by this
method are superheated to 305 °C before RAP is introduced which
rapidly reduces the temperature of the mix as a whole. The gas
temperature at this point reaches up to 315 °C and continues to
reduce the further away it gets from the flame. The added RAP is
heated by contact from the superheated aggregates and leaves the drum
at a mix temperature of about 149 °C.
The difference between the exhaust gas and mix discharge tem-
peratures represents the efficiency of the heat transfer process and the
amount of heat available to dry and heat the aggregate. Perfect heat
transfer in a parallel-flow drum would require that the mix discharge
and exhaust gas temperatures are equal at the point at which the mix is
discharged from the plant (Fig. 11).
The advantages and issues associated with Parallel flow mixers:
Fig. 11. Temperature profile for parallel flow drum drying [44].
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
• Up to 50% RAP, cold/wet aggregate is added where exhaust gases
are at highest temperatures which results in rapid evaporation and
cooling of the gas;
• Excessive exhaust temperatures going from the drum mixer to the
bag house can be seriously elevated. Temperature reported to be
anywhere from 10 to 100 °C higher than the discharged mix
temperature;
• Less volume of aggregate inside the drum leads to a less dense veil
which leads to reduced heat transfer between the virgin aggregate
and exhaust gases. This leads to several problems e.g. increased fuel
use, separation of some of the very fine aggregates from the mix
inside the drum and the increased damage and blockages occurring
to the filter bags;
• Build of fine aggregates, RAP and fresh bitumen will stick on the
metal flights and end plates when heated which will limit the ability
to mix cohesively and lead to segregation problem; and
• High exhaust temperature can also lead to significant premature
corrosion on one side of the ductwork between the discharge end of
the drum mixer and primary collector, leading to extra maintenance
costs or even cause fire in the bag house filtration system.
5.3.2. Counterflow
Counterflow mixers differ from the traditional parallel flow plant in
that the flow of hot burner gases and aggregate entry occur at opposite
ends (Fig. 12). Virgin aggregates are introduced at one end while the
exhaust gases travel in the opposite direction of the drum. RAP is
introduced midway. The burner nozzle is extended by aid of a tube well
into the drum so that heating of RAP takes place behind the flame
before entering the mixing zone. Therefore RAP and bitumen are never
in direct contact with the flame and heated gases.
Technically the counter flow principle enables a reduction of
temperature of the hot gases and improved environmental perfor-
mance through less heating of the recycled asphalt.
5.3.2.1. Drum temperature profile. Virgin aggregate is added at
ambient temperature and superheated to approximately, 404 °C. RAP
is added behind the burner flame and once mixed it will produce a final
asphalt mix temperature of 150 °C. Airflow temperature is highest near
the flame at around 870 °C and leave to the exhaust at 115 °C (Fig. 13).
This technology relies on superheating principles, as exhaust gases are
hardly present when RAP is added.
Typical superheating temperatures for a Counterflow drum are
shown in Table 3.
The advantages and issues of Counterflow dryer drums are:
S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Table 3
Superheating temperature Counterflow [36].

RAP content RAP moisture content Superheating temperature (°C)

(%) (%)
116 127 138 149

10 0 132 144 156 168

1 134 147 159 171
2 137 149 162 174
3 140 152 164 177
4 143 155 167 179
5 146 158 170 182

Fig. 12. Counterflow dryer drum [44].
• Up to 50% RAP mixing, RAP and Bitumen are protected from
damage from high exhaust temperatures;
• A shorter mixing time, and mixing area in the drum which not
always allow sufficient melting of the RAP when high percentages
are added;
• Requires virgin aggregates to be superheated to higher temperatures
than a parallel drum;
• The drum itself becomes very hot when high percentages of RAP are
used, this will lead to heat loss equating to fuel loss. Generally shell
temperature can equate or exceed the temperature of the aggregate;
• Unlike the parallel flow, none of the dust particles are coated in the
unit so they are picked up in the air stream as it is moves across the
dryer, leading to potential bag house filtration problems; and
• If the dryer is too small in diameter, larger particles and even
aggregate materials can be pulled out of the counterflow unit into
the primary and even secondary collectors, this will lead to several
maintenance issues.
5.3.3. Double dryer
The Double Barrel dryer drum mixer is one of the most advanced
dryer drum used for Asphalt production which includes RAP [43]. The
double dryer mixer combines the functions of a dryer and a continuous
process mixer in one compact system. Essentially it is an ordinary
revolving Counterflow drum surrounded by a fixed outer drum, RAP
and fresh bitumen is combined in the second drum. Drying virgin
aggregate is the first step in the process and takes place in the inner
drum. Mixing of the aggregate and other components follows, which
happens in the outer stationary shell.
50% RAP, and this will produce a final asphalt mix at 149 °C.
After drying, the virgin aggregate drops through the wall of the
inner and outer drum it meets with the RAP and the two are mixed. The
superheated aggregate melt the bitumen on the RAP and coat the virgin
aggregate, before virgin bitumen is added. Mixing time in this outer
shell lasts for 40–60 s, this is longer than usual compared to other
technology.
The air temperature within the inner drum reaches up to 760 °C,
the temperature going into the exhaust filters are approximately 115 °C
[43,46]. Outer shell of the drum does not rotate, and provide easy
access for adding other recycled materials. The double barrel heat
transfer method is primarily from the superheated aggregates (up 90%)
and other 10% comes from the heat conducted through the inner shell
and through the mixing blades (Fig. 14).
The outer shell temperature stays at approximately 50 °C. Smoke
coming from the mixing section is sucked back through the virgin
aggregate discharge holes in the inner drum. The pollutant is then re-
combusted by the flame.
The ASTEC Double Barrel Dryer/Drum Mixer is an example of such
as technology (Fig. 15). The drum that measure 2.6 m in diameter and
is 12 m long, where RAP and virgin aggregate is discharged into a twin
shaft asphalt mixer which is 1.8 m×3.3 m. This version of the plant is
rated at 360 t per hour, when using 5% moisture and running at 30%
RAP content [47].
Typical cost of this type of drum dryer can be anywhere between is
£1 and £1.5 million. A comparison of superheating temperatures of
double barrel and Counterflow is presented in Fig. 18. This figure
shows the temperature that a traditional Counterflow dryer must reach
to superheat aggregate when 50% RAP is used. The double barrel dryer
mixer required approximately 38 °C less heat to run the same amount
of RAP.
The advantages and issues of a double dryer drum are:

5.3.3.1. Drum temperature profile. Virgin aggregates are dried in the • Up to 50% RAP can be combined with Virgin Aggregate to be heated,
inner drum, they are superheated to 316–340 °C when running with

Fig. 13. Counterflow dryer drum temperature profile [44].

9
S. Liu et al.
Fig. 14. Temperature profile for double barrell drum (50% RAP and 5% moisture) [43].
Fig. 15. Double barrell [48].
RAP and fresh bitumen is not exposed to hot gases;
• Very high initial investment costs, these technically advanced drums
are reported excess of £1 million, which can rule out small to
medium scaled asphalt producers;
• Required virgin aggregate are to be superheated more than parallel
but less than a counterflow;
• Longer mixing time to ensure the RAP and virgin aggregate are
completely combined will results in more energy consumption; and
• The installation time of dryer drum vary but can be considerable,
leading to inactive production, this means a producer would lose
money and have a considerable buy back time.
6. Energy and economics of RAP mixing
One third of the world's final energy is used by industry which is
forever increasing. Improving the energy efficiencies could cut a
quarter of industrial energy use which will reduce the industrial
dependence on crude oil. According to Halstead, 1981 [49] the energy
related to a construction material consist of four types; calorific energy,
processing energy, transportation energy and construction energy with
their respective definitions being
– Calorific Energy – the energy contained within a fuel determined by
measuring the heat produced by the complete combustion of a
specified quantity, usually expressed in joules per unit of measure.
Typical Calorific values are shown in Table 4.
– Processing Energy – the amount of energy required to manufacture
or otherwise process a unit of material
– Transport Energy – Energy which used in the form of fuel to
transport the material from the place of origin to the manufacture or
Table 4
Calorific Value for fuels [50–52].
Fuel type Gross calorific value kW h/litre
Gas oil (litre) 38 Mj/litre 11
Kerosene (litre) 37 Mj/litre 10
Fuel oil (litre) 41.2 Mj/litre 12
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
usage point.
– Construction Energy – Energy that is used as a fuel in operating
construction equipment's to produce the material.
If asphalt production could lower its energy usage from 112 kW h/
ton to 95 kW h/ton, it would result in annual savings of £16million and
125,000 CO2 [53]. A conservative figure of how much energy is needed
to manufacture one metric ton of HMA is around 85 kW h [54].
Currently energy consumption at asphalt plants is focused into three
main areas:
• Drying the aggregate so Bitumen can be cohesively mixed;
• Ensuring the Bitumen is heated to keep its viscosity at an ideal state;
and
•
Power required operating a facility.
6.1. Case study of energy consumption at existing asphalt plant
Gillespie, 2012 [52] presented the results of an investigation into
the use of energy at an asphalt plant operated by Barr Limited, with the
aim to quantity the influence factors that affect energy use in asphalt
production. The asphalt plant has an area of approximately 9300 m2
and produces currently 44 different mixes with various aggregate sizes
[52]. The electrical consumption of the plant includes non-production
specific consumption such as water pumps, lighting and bitumen
heaters as well as production specific consumption which include the
drum dryer/mixer motor, exhaust fan and conveyor motors (Table 5).
The fuel consumption is solely related to the asphalt production.
The metered data in Table 6 is for a period of 5 months from the
Barr limited asphalt plant and was used as data in the report from
Gillespie to quantify the energy usage. The fuel usage is solely from the
drum dryer. The fuel used from the drum burner is a mix between
kerosene and gas oil the mix being 60/40 respectively [52]. The drum is
an eight metre long cylinder with diameter of 1.8 m fabricated from
mild steel which thickness is between 14 and 20 mm. By using the
calorific values from Table 5 the fuel consumption of the dryer drum
was converted to kW h and a pie chart was formed which showed that
at the plant the drum dryer consumed 92% of the total energy used at
the asphalt plant (Fig. 16).
The other 8% energy use was represented by electricity usage from
which 42% accounted towards asphalt production [52]. Therefore from
a total of 2,387,694 kW h, 95% is involved in the production of Asphalt,
where the dryer drum consumes 92% all of that energy in the form of
fuel [52].
Similar results where repeated in a study carried out on three
asphalt plants by the Carbon Trust found that the dominate energy
source in terms of consumption (Fig. 17), cost and carbon emission is
fuel for the asphalt burner, which can be liquid or gaseous fuels [55].
Whereas electricity is consumed in a wide variety of equipment,
such as motors, compressors, trace heating office power and lighting,
the fuels are almost exclusively used in the dryer burner components.
The main energy consumption on a hot mix asphalt plant is as a result
of heating in the drier. Energy consumption in HMA plants is mainly
due to the heating and drying of the aggregates in combustion devices.
The previous technology mentioned is adapted to use RAP, which
will impact the amount of energy consumption at an asphalt plant. As
Table 5
Energy consumption at an Asphalt plant [52].
Material quantity (tonnes) 22,838
£/litre
kW h 189,946
0.65 Litres 211,531
0.44 kW h/t 8
0.46 Litres/t 9
10
S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Table 6
Calculated energy consumption for Asphalt mixes, with and without RAP.

Final Mix temperature/ No Rap RAP Technology/ With RAP

moisture content (kW h) RAP % (kW h)

138 °C/5% 81.52 Cold Feed/30% 85.87

170 °C/3% 73.73 Pre Heater/60% 74.00
149 °C/5% 84.84 Parallel/50% 66.02
149 °C/5% 84.84 Counterflow/50% 81.02
149 °C/5% 84.84 Double Barrel/50% 67.69

Fig. 16. Fuel and other energy consumption.

metered data from plants using these types of RAP technology is not
readily available a theoretical analysis will be conducted on the energy
consumption.

6.2. Comparative energy performance

Temperature can be put to be a measure of how hot something is,

heat however is a measurement of the thermal energy contained within
something. When a certain amount of thermal energy is transferred to
an object the temperature will increase. This can be calculated through
the specific heat capacity formula:
Q = m × c × ΔT

where

c=specific heat, kj/kg

M=mass, kg
ΔT =change in temperature, °C

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy Fig. 17. Key fuel data from Asphalt plants (a) energy (kW h), (b) CO2 emissions (kg)
and (c) cost (£) [55].
needed to change the temperature of objected weighing 1 kg by 1 °C.
What has been gathered from the literature review is that all forms
technologies. Heat loss accounts for nearly 20% of energy used in the
of RAP technology require virgin aggregates to be heated to high
drying of aggregates, heating of bitumen and the heating of
excessive temperatures to compensate for the inclusion of RAP, as RAP
aggregates.Invalid source specified.As the true energy consumption of
is commonly added at ambient temperatures. Even when this is not the
certain RAP technology will vary with design and can only be
case and RAP is preheated through a separate dryer drum, it will not be
determined by metered values, the energy consumption will be
heated to excessive levels due to the potential damage that can be
completed based on specific heat analysis, assuming 20% heat lost
caused to the aged bitumen, so superheating of aggregates will still
during the heating and drying process.
takes place. Therefore from the specific heat capacity formula the
From the superheating temperatures obtained for specific RAP
amount of energy a certain RAP technology must transfer and consume
technology, the amount of energy required to be generated, will be
can be calculated. However this will present the theoretical amount of
calculated and converted into fuel usage. Heat losses will assume to be
energy needed to be transferred what it won’t represent is in-situ
20% and considered in the calculations. These values will then be
consumption of actual RAP technology.
compared to calculated values of asphalt mixes at the same final
The overall energy consumption of a drum dryer comes from the
temperatures but without the inclusion of RAP. This in turn will
fuel combusted to acquire thermal energy and the electrical power
provide a comparison of the energy consumed by dryer drum when
required to rotate the unit. The actual fuel combusted will equate to
RAP is used and when it is not. The superheating temperatures vary for
higher values due to heat losses which can occur for various RAP

11
S. Liu et al.
the type of technology, the final mix temperature, moisture content and
percentage of RAP.
Example of superheating temperatures obtained through the lit-
erature review is:
• Cold Feed: Final Mix Temperature of 138 °C with 30% RAP and 5%
moisture, superheating temperature=274 °C.
• Pre dryer: Final Mix Temperature of 170 °C with 60% RAP and 3%
moisture, superheating temperature=230 °C.
• Parallel Dryer: Final Mix Temperature of 150 °C with 50% RAP and
5% moisture, superheating temperature=305 °C.
• Counterflow: Final Mix Temperature of 150 °C with 50% RAP and
5% moisture superheating temperature=404 °C.
• Double Drum: Final Mix Temperature of 150 °C with 50% RAP and
5% moisture superheating temperature=316 °C.
(i) Calculation example of energy consumption Cold feed RAP
Asphalt mix produced to 138 °C with no RAP with 5% moisture
would consume:
Q = 1000 × 0.908 × (138 − 13) = 113, 500Kj
+ calculated (Table 7).
Q = (50 × 2257) + (50 × 4.18 × (100 − 13) = 131033Kj
Total=244,533 kj/kg K=67.93 kW h+20% (heat loss consid-
eration)=81.52 kW h
Cold Feed with 30% RAP
Q = 700 × 0.908 × (274 − 13) = 165, 891.6Kj
+ fuel oil (PFO). PFO is manufactured from used lubricating oils and is a
Q = (35 × 2257) + (35 × 4.18 × (100 − 13) = 91723.1Kj
Total=257,614.7 kj/kg K=71.56 kW h+20% =85.87 kW h
A total of 85.87 kW h of energy consumption which represents a
5.34% increase in energy consumption per tonne. Using other super-
heating temperatures obtained from the literature review the energy
consumption values have been calculated for scenarios using RAP and
not using RAP are summarised in the Table 6 below:
The amount of energy consumed by a RAP technology is directly
related to the superheating temperatures and the amount of RAP to be
added. Results from calculated theoretical energy consumption of RAP
shows that cold feed option and the pre-dryer will result in higher
consumption of energy, when compared to asphalt mixtures produced
at the same final temperatures. The cold feed for example, if annual
production was 50,000 t a year then your annual increase of energy
usage would be 217,500 kW h of energy.
The parallel, continuous and double barrel all consume less energy
when RAP 50% is added to the mixture, as RAP is not preheated and
high amounts are added energy consumption is less. As the amount of
RAP added is reduced the superheating temperature drops, this leads
to less energy required. For example a Counterflow drum producing a
mixture at 149 °C with 5% moisture but with 20% RAP would consume
71.23 kW h a 12% decrease in energy consumption (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18. Graph for the difference in energy consumption.
12
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
However when the amount of RAP increases, superheating tem-
peratures also increases, but as the mass of virgin aggregates to be
superheated reduces this impacts the energy consumption. As shown in
Fig. 18, the maximum recommend RAP percentage for specific
technology in most cases will use less energy.
6.3. Fuel consumption and cost
Fuel consumption of a dryer drum plays the leading role in the costs
and the carbon footprint of an Asphalt plant. More fuel is required to
dry the aggregate than to heat it in an asphalt plant e.g. it takes four
litres of fuel to dry one ton of aggregate compared to three litres to heat
it.
The amount of thermal energy required to achieve temperature
changes for the superheated aggregates have been calculated and
shown in Fig. 18. The actual energy consumption of a dryer drum will
come from the amount of fuel combusted to achieve this transfer in
thermal energy. These can be calculated by various calorific values of
fuel. As stated the calorific value of fuel is the quantity of heat produced
by its combustion, as the energy consumption has been calculated, the
amount of fuel required to achieve that thermal energy can also be
Table 6 shows how much fuel would have been consumed if asphalt
plants where using fuel oil for the heating and drying of their
aggregates. As fuel consumption is directly related to the amount of
energy used a similar pattern presents itself. Again the cold feed option
will use significantly more fuel over a period of time.
The most common fuel used at plants today is known as processed
direct replacement for medium and heavy fuel oil [56]. The cost of PFO
from suppliers has said to been in the range of 35p+10.7p for duty per
a litre, [56]. According to the UK greenhouse gas inventory the calorific
value of PFO is 42.5 Mj/kg [57].
The cost of fuel for asphalt plant sites varies on the type of fuel
used, the amount used and the location of the asphalt plant site
(Table 8). Values for fuel consumption are shown in the Fig. 19.
7. Environmental impact
Hot bins, dryers and mixers are the primary emission sources
associated with hot mix asphalt plants (HMA). These plants emit range
of particulate matter and variety of gaseous pollutants [58]. Other
sources of emissions of HMA also include storage silos, truck load out,
liquid asphalt storage tanks, hot oil heaters and yard emissions
(Table 9).
In the present paper carbon footprint for different RAP technolo-
gies is calculated in more detail. A Carbon Footprint is defined as: the
total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly
support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tones of CO2.
Whenever fuels are burned such as gas, coal or oil to release their
energy content, the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. A
products or in the case of asphalt the carbon footprint are they
Table 7
Fuel consumption in litres with and without RAP.
Final mix Fuel consumption RAP technology/ Fuel consumption
temperature/ (no RAP) RAP % (with RAP)
moisture content
138 °C/5% 6.9 Cold Feed/30% 7.2
170 °C/3% 6.1 Pre Heater/60% 6.2
149 °C/5% 7.1 Parallel/50% 5.5
149 °C/5% 7.1 Counterflow/ 6.8
50%
149 °C/5% 7.1 Double Barrel/ 5.6
50%
S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Table 8 Table 10
Cost of fuel consumption, per tonne. Carbon emission factors [57,59].

Final mix Fuel RAP Tech and Fuel consumption Fuel type Measurement unit Emissions factor kg CO2/per
temperature/ consumption cost RAP/RAP % cost (£) with RAP unit
moisture content (£) no RAP
Burning oil/ kW h 0.24555
138 °C/5% £3.17 Cold Feed/30% £3.31 kerosene
170 °C/3% £2.81 Pre Heater/60% £2.85 Electricity kW h 0.44548
149 °C/5% £3.27 Parallel/50% £2.53 Gas oil kW h 0.27176
149 °C/5% £3.27 Counterflow50% £3.11 Fuel oil kW h 0.26876
149 °C/5% £3.27 Double Barrel/50% £2.59

Table 11
Carbon emissions from fuel consumption.

Final mix temperature/moisture kg/CO2 RAP Technology/RAP CO2 (kg)

content %

138 °C/5% 21.91 Cold Feed/30% 23.08

170 °C/3% 19.82 Pre Heater/60% 19.89
149 °C/5% 22.80 Parallel/50% 17.74
149 °C/5% 22.80 Counterflow/50% 21.77
149 °C/5% 22.80 Double Barrel/50% 18.19

RAP tends to have maximum CO2 emissions, whereas parallel drum

heater is the least.
Fig. 19. Graph of fuel consumption.

Table 9
Matrix for emission factors developed for hot mix asphalt sources [58].
8. Discussions
Plant type Source Criteria HAPs Other
pollutants pollutants
The review of RAP technology, has presented current types of
Batch mix Dryer, hot PM-10, NOX, 24 organic CO2 technology used in the process of re-using asphalt, in asphalt mixtures.
screens and CO, SO2, VOC HAPs Comparative summary of different technologies are discussed in
mixers 9 metal 4 other
Table 12.
HAPs organics
3 other metals Table 12 summarises the associated advantages and disadvantages
Hot oil heaters 22 organic associated with each RAP technology. All of the technology above uses
HAPs a method in which virgin aggregates are superheated to certain
Load-out PM, CO, VOC 41 organic 3 other temperature in order to provide heat for the RAP. Three primary
HAPs organics
Yard emissions VOC 19 organic
variables determine these temperatures which are the moisture con-
HAPs tent, mix discharge temperature and the amount of RAP to be added.
Drum mix Dryer PM-10, NOX, These three factors also relate to the energy consumption, the costs and
CO, SO2, VOC the carbon emission associated with each technology. The high the
Hot oil heaters 22 organic
superheating temperature requires more energy. As the moisture
HAPs
Load-out PM, CO, VOC 41 organic 3 other content increases the required superheating temperature increases. If
HAPs organics 20% RAP is to be used in the mix and the moisture content is 1% and a
Silo filling PM, CO, VOC 28 organic 3 other final mix temperature of 127 °C is required the virgin aggregates need
HAPs organics to be superheated to 177 °C. However if the same RAP moisture had
Yard emissions VOC 19 organic
HAPs
content of 4% the superheating temperatures would be 199 °C.
Similarly if 30% RAP is to be added with moisture content 3%,
virgin aggregates would have to be superheated to 196 °C to deliver a
emissions over the whole life of a product or service. According to a mix at 104 °C. If the discharge temperature required is risen up to
report published by the Carbon Trust, the asphalt sector emitted 138 °C the superheating temperatures increase to 246 °C. If the
830,000 t of CO₂ in 2007 from the manufacture of 26 million tonnes amount of RAP in the recycled mix increases the superheating
of product from 350 plants [55]. temperatures will also increase. If only 20% RAP is used with 4%
Energy consumption is directly related to carbon emission as the moisture content the mix discharge temperature is 138 °C super-
more energy-intensive the process of creating a product the more fuels heating temperature will 213 °C. Increasing the amount of RAP to
is burnt and the more carbon dioxide is released. Conversion Factors to 50% the superheating aggregate temperature increase to 405 °C. This is
measure the CO₂ emission released from various energy supplies are impracticable for producer using the cold feed method.
provided through (Table 10) UK governments Department for Energy All the technology heats RAP through aggregates that are exces-
and Climate Change (DECC) [59]. sively heated, and if the process is badly controlled this can lead to
Through the use of these conversion factors, the carbon emissions overheating the bitumen and degradation of its properties so that
released by specific RAP technology can be calculated. This is done by adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate particles is poor allowing
converting previously ascertained consumption of energy for heating water ingress which accelerates road surface break-up and early wear
materials, and converting to kg/CO2. Converted values are shown in and failure. This degradation, or ageing, of the bitumen causes it to
Table 11 on the basis the specific RAP technology is combusting fuel oil become susceptible to UV degradation by oxidation once laid as a road
to obtain the thermal energy. It has been found that cold feed with 30% surface.

13
S. Liu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xx (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Table 12 Acknowledgement
Summary table of advantage and disadvantage associated with RAP technology.
The authors are thankful to the Knowledge Exchange and
RAP Technology Advantages Disadvantages CO2 emissions
and cost Enterprise Network (KEEN021/A) for funding the project.

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