Chapter 01

CHAPTER # 01 1 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
CHAPTER # 01
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OBJECTIVES
1. The three dimensional structure of a biological object can be seen with
a. LM b. EM c. SEM d. TEM
2. The resolution power of electron microscope is about
a. 250nm b. 250 mm c. 250 cm d. 250 pm.
3. is the heaviest organelle of the cell?
a. Mitochondria b. Nucleus c. ribosome d. Golgi body
4. A plant cell which contain complete information to develop into a plant is called
a. Stem cell b. Totipotent cell
c. sclerenchyma cell d. None of them
5. A technique which separate a mixture into its components on the basis of solubility is
called
a. Electrophoresis b. Spectrophotometer
c. chromatography d. Micrometry
6. One of the following is not part of cell protoplasm.

a. Ribosome b. vacuoles c. cell wall d. cell membrane
7. is the site of protein synthesis.
a. Chloroplast b. Lysosome c. Ribosome d. peroxysome
8. is present only in plant cell.
a. Mitochondria b. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
c. G.B d. chloroplast
9. All of them are present both in plant and cell except

a. Mitochondria b. vacuole c. Golgi body d. centrioles
10. are suicide bags of the cell.
a. Lysosomes, b. Peroxisomes c. glyoxisomes d. All of them
11. is the site of photo-respiration in plant cell.
a. Peroxisome b. Mitochondria
c. Chloroplast d. All of them
12. The most prominent cell organelles of a bacteria cell other than DNA is
a. Mesosome b. ribosome c. lysosome d. Nucleosome
13. The number of DNA molecule in nucleoid of a bacterium cell is _____
a. 1 b. 12 c. 3 d. 4
14. The cell organelle in eukaryotic cell which is not bounded by the membrane is/are
a. Ribosome b. centriole c. lysosome d. both a and b.
15. is present both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
a. Plastid b. Nuclear membrane
c. Mitochondria d. Ribosome
Answer Key:-
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. B
5. A 6. C 7. C 8. D
9. D 10. A 11. D 12. B
13. A 14. A 15. D
CHAPTER # 01
SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.1:-Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

True nucleus is absent. True nucleus with double layered
membrane is present.
Chromosomal DNA is present in Chromosomes are present inside the
region of cytoplasm called nucleotide. nucleus
Membrane bounded organelles like Membrane bounded organelles are

Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, present
mitochondria Plastids etc are absent.
Cell wall is made of murein Cell wall made of cellulose or chitin.

(peptidoglycan) or other types of
polysaccharide and protein
Ribosome granules are present but Ribosome are larger in size than
smaller in size with 70 S prokaryotic ribosome with 80 S
Cell division occur through binary Mitosis and meiosis are present.
fission.
Examples: Bacteria and Blue gree Examples all other plants, animals,
algea fungal and protista cells.
Q 2: What is tissue culture?

Tissue culture:
 Tissue culture is a technique through which a single cell or tissue is separated

from a healthy mother plant then grown in a liquid or semi-solid medium such as
agar or broth.
 Steward in 1960 showed that differentiated mature plant cell still have the genetic
information to develop into a complete plant. Such cell is called Totipotent.
 In tissue culture this ability of the cell to divide is resumed by application of
suitable nutrients and growth hormones.
Main steps in tissue culture Agar= Organic substance obtain
 The tissue (explant) is selected from from algae.

healthy plant
Explants= pieces or tissue taken
 The tissue is usually taken from
meristematic region (growing region) i.e. from stock plant
apical and auxiliary bud, but can also be
taken from non-meristematic region. Stock plant: From which tissue is
 The tissue must be sterilized to remove taken
the microorganisms, because the growth of microorganism is more vigorous and
faster than the normalplant cells.
 The explant is then established in a culture medium (agar) which may be solid or
liquid.
 The culture medium must contain correct nutrients and hormones. The nutrients
includes some mineral ions (like N, Mg, Fe and K) sucrose which is used for
energy and vitamins.
 Hormones are auxin and cytokine, all these substance are mixed in the medium
 Each plant species has particular medium requirements that are established by
trial and error.
 The explant undergoes division to form an undifferentiated mass of cells called
callus.
 Callus is stimulated to develop roots and shoots by application of auxin and
cytokinine in definite ratio.
 The low auxin and high cytokinine ratio encourage shoot development from
callus. the high auxine and low cytokinine ratio results in root formation
 After that the root and shoots (young clones) are transferred to pots and hardened
off by gradually decreasing the humidity.
Q 3: Describe Paper chromatography?
Answer: A technique in which a mixture is separated into its components.
The separation of the molecules depends upon the solubility and molecular mass of that
substance.
In column chromatography the stationary phase is filter paper made of cellulose while
mobile phase is organic solvent.
The mobile phase move over stationary phase carrying mixture along with itself , since
different components of the mixture has different solubility so they move with different
rate due to which different component of the mixture are separated from one another.
Q 4: Write short note on mitochondria?
Answer: Mito means thread, chondria means small grain
Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelle also called power house of the cell, because they
provide energy to the cell.
They are found in all eukaryotic cells except mature R.B.C, but their number varies from
cell to cell.
They are most abundant in energy demanding cells like muscle cells and actively dividing
cells.
They are double membrane bounded rounded bodies.
The outer membrane is smooth while inner membrane inviginate inside the matrix to
form cristae.
The matrix is semi fluid contain protein, lipids, ribosome, RNA, DNA and some enzymes
for Krebs cycle,
On the inner surface of cristae there are stalk particles called elementary particles or F1
particles or oxysome.
Krebs cycle and electron transport chain occur inside mitochondria.
Q 5: Describe the role of lysosome in cell?

Lysosomes Lyso=splitting, some= body
 Lysosome was 1st isolated by De-Duve in 1949 as a separate component.
 Lysosomes are present only in animal cells.
 They are called splitting bodies, because they contain fifty different types of
hydrolytic enzymes which are capable of digesting carbohydrates, protein, lipids,
Nucleic acid etc.
 They are also called suicide bags, because if these enzymes are released in large
amount in cytosole, it digests the whole cell quickly.
Function of Lysosome
 Lysosome perform the following functions
 Digestion of food particles taken in by phagocytosis (entry of solid food) or
pinocytosis (entry of liquid) e.g. Amoeba and macrophage of human being bring
about phagocytosis.
 It protect the cell from attack of bacteria, virus etc.
 It play role in developmental process e.g. removal of tadpole Tail.
 It eats up cellular organelles or old rupture cell. This process is called autophagy.
 During this process the complex molecules are broken down and the monomers are
recycle within the cell.
 It prevents the storage disease. The protein of the inner
surface of lysosomal
Structure membrane has three
dimensions conformation,
 They are roughly spherical, sac or vessel like, which protect vulnerable
containing digestive enzyme, surrounded by a bonds from enzymatic
single impermeable membrane. attack.
 The lysosomal membrane prevents outward flow

of enzymes and show resistance to digestive action of enzyme
CHAPTER # 01
Introduction
 This chapter is related to cell, structure, function and biochemistry of the cell and
some techniques for isolating and examining cell.
Discovery of the cell:
 The study of cell is related with invention of microscope. Galileo in 1610 invented
microscope.
 Robert Hook in 1665 discovered cell. He examined small slices of cork under the
microscope and observed small box like units with well defined walls. He called them
cells.
Cell
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms since all living
organisms are made up of cell, so their structure depends upon the structure of their
cell or cells. e.g. Paramecium is ovoid, bacteria is either rod shaped or oval etc. this
difference in their shape is due to difference in structure of their cell.
 Similarly cell is functional unit of living organisms. In case of unicellular organisms it
is very clear because all metabolic activities take place in a single cell of organism.
 But in multicellular organisms there is division of labor among the cells. i.e. different
metabolic activities are performed by different cells or tissues e.g. Nerve cells
transmit message, muscle cells contract, because of their special structure and RBCs
transport oxygen etc.
 In plants sclerenchyma give support, Parenchyma store food, xylem conduct water,
and all these functions of cell in collaboration give rise to living organisms.
Cell biology
 The microscopic study of cell is called cell biology and those who study it is called
cytologist.
Modern theory about cellular organization:
According to this theory

 All living organisms are composed of one or many cells.
 All new cells arise from, by division of pre-existing cells.
 Cell contains the hereditary material of living organisms which are transferred from
parent cells to daughter cells.
 All metabolic process takes place within the cell.
Techniques used in cell biology
 There are various techniques which have been used for isolating and examining
various cell components.
Microscopy:
 Microscopy is the technique of using microscopes to view samples and biological

objects that cannot be seen with naked eye.
Resolution Vs Magnification of Microscope
 Different microscopes have been developed with different resolution and

magnification power. i.e. Light microscope (LM), Electron Microscope (EM),
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM),
each one of them has its own limitations and applications.
Resolution Power:
 The ability of a microscope to distinguish close objects as being separated from one
another.
 The resolving power of light microscope is 250nm. This resolving power is 500x that
of naked eye. The resolving power of human naked eye is about 1mm (100µm). The
objects which are close than 1mm can’t be distinguished by naked eye and appear as
single object.
 The resolving power of electron microscope (EM) is about 0.5 nm.
Magnification:
 Magnification means increasing the apparent size of an object to a reasonable size.
Magnification power of a microscope is the multiplication power of two convex
lenses i.e. objective lenses and eye piece lenses.
 The light microscope (LM) can magnify a specimen object up to 10, 00 times the size
of the specimen. The electron microscope can magnify an object up to 10, 00000 (1
million) times. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) shows the three dimensional
surface view of the specimen object.
 The transmission electron microscope shows the internal ultra structure of the cells.
Staining:
 Staining is a technique which is used to make a contrast between different structures

of the living organism by applying stains or dye.
 As most of the biological structures are transparent and seem to be alike therefore
staining is applied to make difference between such structures.
Vital Stains:-
 Some stain are non toxic and do not kill living tissue when applied in low
concentration such stains are called vital stains. e.g. methylen blue and neutral red.
Counter stains
 Some stains are used in pairs (double staining) in which the first stain is called
principle stain and the second stain is called counter stain.
 The counter stain is used to color and contrast those parts which not retain the first
stain.
Centrifugation (Cell fractionation)
 Cell fractionation is a technique which is used to isolate different components and

organelles of the cell on the basis of their size and density, using a centrifuge machine
 Since it is difficult to study the function of different organelles in intact cells,
therefore different components and organelles of the cell are separated to study their
structure and functions.
Steps involved in centrifugation
 Step1: The cells or tissue are grinded up (homogenized) in a suitable liquid

medium (having correct pH value, ionic composition and temperature) with help of a
blender (food mixer).
 Step 2: The resulting homogenate mixture is poured in a test tube and spun in a
centrifuge with a little slow rate i.e. 1000g for 10
minutes. This will separate out heavier parts of 1000g = 1000 times the
homogenate e.g. remaining whole cells and nuclei. force of gravity.
They will sediment down at the base of test tube in Pellet = Small compressed
the form of pellet. mass of a substance.
Supernatant = the liquid
Step 3: The supernatant is poured in next fresh above the pellet in a test
tube and then spun with relatively greater speed i.e. tube.
20,000g for 20 minutes. This will precipitate the
cellular components of medium size like mitochondria and plastids at the bottom of
tube.
 Step4: The supernatant is then poured in next tube and is spun with still higher speed.
80,000 g for 60 minutes, this will precipitate out smaller components like microsomes
(pieces of plasma membrane and cell internal membranes)
 Step5: At last the supernatant (remaining homogenate liquid) is spun with higher
speed of 150,000 g for 3 hours, which will precipitate out smallest and lightest
components of cell like ribosomes.
Note: the high speed require a special centrifuge called ultracentrifuge.
Ultracentrifuge can spin as fast as 130,000rpm and can apply force on particles more
than 1 million times the force of gravity (1000000g)
Tissue culture:
 Tissue culture is a technique through which a single cell or tissue is separated from a
healthy mother plant then grown in a liquid or semi-solid medium such as agar or
broth.
 Steward in 1960 showed that differentiated mature plant cell still have the genetic
information to develop into a complete plant. Such cell
Agar= Organic substance
is called obtain from algae.
Totipotent. Explants= pieces or tissue
taken from stock plant
Stock plant: From which
tissue is taken
 In tissue culture this ability of the cell to divide is resumed by application of suitable
nutrients and growth hormones.
Main steps in tissue culture
 The tissue (explant) is selected from healthy plant
 The tissue is usually taken from meristematic region (growing region) i.e. apical and
auxiliary bud, but can also be taken from non-meristematic region.
 The tissue must be sterilized to remove the microorganisms, because the growth of
microorganism is more vigorous and faster than the normal plant cells.
 The explant is then established in a culture medium (agar) which may be solid or
liquid.
 The culture medium must contain correct nutrients and hormones. The nutrients
includes some mineral ions (like N, Mg, Fe and K) sucrose which is used for energy
and vitamins.
 Hormones are auxin and cytokine, all these substance are mixed in the medium
 Each plant species has particular medium requirements that are established by trial
and error.
 The explant undergoes division to form an undifferentiated mass of cells called callus.
 Callus is stimulated to develop roots and shoots by application of auxin and
cytokinine in definite ratio.
 The low auxin and high cytokinine ratio encourage shoot development from callus.
the high auxine and low cytokinine ratio results in root formation
 After that the root and shoots (young clones) are transferred to pots and hardened off
by gradually decreasing the humidity.
Chromatography:
Definition:
 Chromatography is a group of laboratory techniques used to separate a mixture (liquid
or gas) into its components by passing the mixture through a stationary phase
OR
 A technique in which a particular type of molecule or compounds are separated and
identified from a mixture.
 The separation of the molecules depend upon the solubility and molecular mass of
that substance.
Principle of Chromatography:
 All forms of chromatography work on the same principle.

 They all have two phases
Stationary phase: It is solid or a liquid supported on a solid medium (cellulose or
silica)
Mobile Phase: It is a liquid or a gas (solvent)
 The mobile phase flows through the stationary phase and carries the components of
the mixture with it. Different components travel at different rate.
Type of chromatography
 There are various types of chromatography techniques, two of them are discussed
here.
 Paper chromatography
 Column chromatography
Paper chromatography
 In paper chromatography technique, the solid phase is filter paper made up of
cellulose and the liquid phase is suitable organic solvent or mixture of organic solvent
taken in a container e.g. alcohol, ether etc.
Procedure
 A drop of a mixture (which is to be separated into components) is spotted near one
end of the filter paper.
 This end of the filter paper is dipped in the solvent in such a way that spot of the
mixture is just above the solvent.
 The solvent will raise up due to capillary action
 The solvent while moving on the filter paper will also move solute components along
with itself.
 The components of the mixture move with different rate which depends upon that
how much stronger a particular component of the mixture is adsorbed on the surface
of cellulose filter paper (stationary phase) and how much stronger is the attraction
forces between a particular component and solvent molecule.
 A component more soluble in organic solvent and low attractive force to cellulose
filter paper will move faster that those which are strongly absorbed to cellulose paper
surface and having low solubility in organic solvent.
 In this way different components of the mixture are separated
 Now to identify different components of the mixture, Rf (ratio of fronts) value of
different components are calculated and then compared with known Rf value of that
substance
Rf = Distance traveled by a component in mixture
Distance traveled by the solvent
 Rf value of a molecule is constant under same conditions.
Column chromatography
 In column chromatography the stationary phase is solid absorbent (usually silica or
aluminum gel) take in a vertical glass tube or column.
 The mobile phase is liquid solvent (usually benzene, aceton, hexan etc).
 The separation of the mixture into its components depends upon the different forces
of attraction between the solute components to solid absorbent (stationary phase) and
solvent (Liquid phase).
Procedure
 Take a pipette and plug a piece of cotton at its bottom
 Add silica gel into the column
 Add proper solvent at the top of the column, which will drip down due to gravity or
external pressure inside the column.
 Now add the sample mixture at the top of the column
 Once the sample is in the column, fresh eluting solvent is added to the top and you are
ready to begin eluting (extracting or separation processes).
 Since different components in the mixture have different interaction with mobile and
stationary phase, therefore the component of the mixture which is easily dissolve in
solvent will drip down quickly with solvent, than those which are strongly adsorbed
to solid absorbent.
Electrophoresis
 A technique which is used to separate charged molecules having different electrical
charges (+ive and –ive charges).
 In this technique an electric current is applied to solution in such way that one end has
cathode and other end has anode. The positively charged ions (molecules) will move
toward the cathode and negatively charged ions will move towards the anode. The
speed of the movement of charged molecules towards their opposite pole is affected
by two factors.
 The amount of charge i.e. greater the charge faster will be the movement of ions
(molecules) and vice versa.
 The size of molecules i.e. smaller the size of ions (molecules), faster will be the
movement and vice versa.
 Electrophoresis technique is mostly applied to colloidal solution, (i.e. protein, amino
acid, DNA etc solution) in order to separate different types of protein, amino acids
and DNA on the basis of their charge and size.
Spectrophotometery
 A technique which is used to measure the change in the percentage transmission of
light of a suspension material (optical activity)
OR
 A technique used to measure the quantitative concentration of a solution or turbidity

of a solution i.e. greater the turbidity of solution, greater would be the absorption of
light and less would be the transmission and vice versa.
Spectrophotometer
 A spectrophotometer is a device that measure the relative amount of light of different
wavelength absorbed and transmitted by suspension solution.
Mechanism
 The following steps are involved
 Step1: The white light is separated into various colors (wavelength) by a prism
 Step2: One by one different color (wavelength) of light is passed through the
sample (chlorophyll pigment, protein etc).
 Step 3: The light which is transmitted through the sample solution then strikes a
photoelectric tube, which converts light to electricity.
 Step 4: The electric current is measured by a galvanometer. The meter indicated the
amount (fraction) of light transmitted through the sample, from which we can
determine the amount of light absorbed by the sample solution. (Chlorophyll etc).
 The high transmittance reading on G.M indicated high transmission of green light
through the sample of chlorophyll solution and low absorption of green light.
Micro dissection
 It is variety of techniques in which microscope is used to aid the process of dissection
of cells or its organelles.
 The techniques which are used in the process of dissection are given below.
Chromosome micro dissection
 Is a technique in which a fine glass needle is used under the microscope to remove a
portion from a complete chromosome
Laser micro dissection

 Is a technique in which a laser is used through a microscope to dissect selected cells.
Laser capture micro dissection
 Is a technique in which a laser is used through a microscope to cause selected cells to
adhere to a film.
Micrometry: Measurement of size with microscope
Definition
 The measurement of a microscopic object is called micrometry. Micrometry or
measurement of a microscopic object can be done by using specially design scale or
micrometer.
 It consists of two scales.
 Stage micrometer
 Eye piece/ocular micrometer
 Stage micrometer is a scale with division of known value placed on the stage of
microscope.
 Eye piece/Ocular micrometer is a scale with equal but arbitrary divisions (usually 100
divisions) is placed in eyepiece.
 Now before using eyepiece micrometer to measure a particular structure, we have to

find out the real width of each division (unite) on the scale at each magnification (i.e.
to calibrate eyepiece micrometer).
 For this purpose stage micrometer is placed on stage and ocular micrometer is placed
inside eyepiece.
 The lower power objective is focused on stage micrometer.
 The eyepiece lens is rotated in order to adjust the ocular scale parallel and next to
stage micrometer, so that one can be read against the other.
 Now find out accurately that how many stage micrometer divisions overlape or
corresponds with to known number of eyepiece units.
 The real width of each division stage micrometer will be 0.01mm, written on the slide
(100x0.01=1mm)
 This information is used to calculate the width of one unit of eyepiece scale for these
objective lenses.
CELL WALL
Discovery of cell wall
 Cell wall was discovered by Robert Hook in 1665.
 Cell wall forms the outermost boundary of plant cell, while it is absent in animal cell.
 The cell wall of eukaryotic cell is different in structure and chemical composition
from Prokaryotic cell.
 Cell wall is an extra cellular ergastic substance, which is produced by living
protoplasm but itself is non-living
Structure of cell wall:
 The cell wall consists of three layers.
 Middle lamella
 Primary wall
 Secondary wall
Middle Lamella:
 Middle lamella is the 1st layer of cell wall produced in the middle of the dividing cell
and elongates towards the peripheries.
 It is present in between the two adjacent primary cell walls and cements them together
to form tissue.
Chemical Composition:
 Middle lamella is mainly composed of pectic compounds (Ca & Mg pectate) and
cellulose (less than 25%) the pectic compounds are sticky substance which adjoined
the neighboring cell to form tissue.
Primary wall
 Primary wall is the true wall formed on inner side of the middle lamella.
 In most of the cell it is the only wall which is present around the protoplast.
 Primary wall is thin and elastic, which changes its shape and volume according to
growth of young protoplast.
 Primary wall is mostly found in young developing and meristematic cells of plant.
Chemical composition of primary wall
 The primary wall is mainly composed of cellulose fibrils, which are arranged in a
criss-cross manner in a matrix of hemi cellulose and pectic compounds.
`
Hemicellulose = Group of
polysaccharide soluble in alkali such
as xylans, mannans, glucans etc
Pectic compounds = Derivative of

polygalacturonic acid and occur in
three types i.e. protopectin, pectin
& pectic acid
Secondary wall
 Secondary cell wall is found on the inner side of primary wall. It is rigid and thicker
than primary wall secondary wall further consists of three layers i.e. outer, middle and
inner layer
 Secondary wall is found in fully developed matured or specialized cell which has
ceased to grow.
Chemical Composition of Secondary Wall

 Secondary wall is composed of cellulose, liginine, Lignine= Polymer of high
cutine, suberine, waxes and minerals. carbon content distinct from
carbohydrates
Function of cell wall
Predominantly consists of
 Cell wall give shape to the cell phenylpropanoic units
 Cell wall provide protection and mechanical
support to the cell.
 Being permeable, all types of molecules can pass through it.
 Being hydrophilic, it is capable of imbibing water and hence helpful in movement of
water molecules across it.
Plasma membrane/ Cytoplasmic membrane/Plasma lamella:
 Plasma membrane form the outer boundary of the animal cell, while in plant cell it
form the second layer and lies just beneath the cell wall.
 It is thin, delicate and elastic membrane, any damage to cell membrane cause the
death of the cell.
Fluid mosaic model about the structure of cell membrane:
 Different models have been proposed about the plasma membrane, but the most
acceptable model is fluid mosaic model proposed by Nicolson and Sanger (1972) this
model coincides with photograph of cell membrane taken by electron microscope.
 According to this model, cell membrane is like a sea of lipids in which protein globes
are floating in a mosaic like manners.
Membrane lipids:
 The lipid bilayer consists of two ends.
Hydrophilic end:
 This is polar and water loving end. This end of bilayer is attached to protein and
carbohydrates.
Hydrophobic end:
 This is non-polar and water repellent. The hydrophobic ends of two layer lie opposite
to each other
 The lipid bilayer of plasma membrane is not a static structure, but continuously
moves laterally.
 The lipid bilayer make it differentially permeable, because it does not allow, polar
ionic molecules to pass through it, however non-polar molecules can pass through it.
Membrane protein:
 The membrane protein are globular protein, they are of two types.
 Extrinsic protein
 Intrinsic protein
Extrinsic Protein:
 These are smaller protein and present only one side of the phospholipids layer; they
are loosely attached with surface of bilayer.
Intrinsic Protein
 These are larger protein and extend completely through lipid bilayer from one side to
another side, some are partly intrinsic protein
 The membrane protein makes it selectively permeable that allow only selective
molecules to pass through it according to the needs of the cells.
Membrane Carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates are present on the surface of cell membrane. They are either attached
to lipids of the membrane as glycolipids or they are attached with protein of the
membrane as glycoprotein.
Chemical composition of Plasma membrane:
 Plasma membrane composed of lipids (20-40%) protein (60-80%) and small amount
of carbohydrates.
 The lipids are of different types i.e. phospholipids and cholesterols.
 Mostly animal cell membrane has cholesterol
 In plant and bacterial cell membrane cholesterol is absent.
Function of cell Membrane
 Cell membrane provides shape and protection to the cell.
 Glycolipids and glycoprotein provide receptor site that receive different types of
stimuli like hormones receptor site, stimulus of nerve impulse, antigen recognition
and food materials receptor site, thus inform the cell for response.
 Membrane carbohydrate is also responsible for endocytosis i.e. phagocytosis (taking
in solid food) and pinocytosis (taking in liquid).
 Extrinsic membrane protein act as receptor for receiving environmental stimuli and
inform the cell to respond.
 Integral protein also called permease regulates diffusion, osmosis and active transport
of ionic materials.
Cytoplasm:
 The entire region between the nucleus and plasma membrane is called cytoplasm.
This name was given by purkinje (1939)
Cytoplasm is made of two main components

 Cytosole
 Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytosole
 Cytosole is the semi fluid matrix, which surrounds and bathes the organelles outside
the nucleus.
 Cytosole is the soluble part of cytoplasm and occur in the form of true solution and
colloidal solution
 True solution is formed when small size biological molecules such as salts, glucose,
amino acid, and vitamins are dissolve in water to form a homogenous solution
 Colloidal solution or heterogeneous system is formed when large sized non-polar
molecules do not completely dissolve in water and remain suspended in water.
 The colloidal solution occur in two state
 Sol Stat (Runny State)
 Gel state(Jelly state)
Cytoplasmic organelles:
 There are various types of cytoplasmic organelles which are embedded inside
cytosole matrix. They are of different types i.e. endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
Lysosomes, Mitochondria etc.
 Beside cytosole and organelles, cytoplasm also contains some insoluble waste product
which is formed during various metabolic reactions.
Chemical composition of cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm composed of the following components
 Water: Cytoplasm contain 65-95% water, but its content varies from cell to cell
 Protein: Cytoplasm contain 10-20% proteins
 Lipids: it is about 2-3%
 Carbohydrates: it is about 1%
 Salt: it is about 1% which includes cations (Na+, Ca+, K+, Mg+, Zn+, and
Cl  , P  , HCO3 , No3 etc).
 Nucleic Acid: it is about 1% i.e. DNA (0.4%) and RNA (0.7%).

Function of cytoplasm:
 Cytoplasm show streaming movement called cyclosis, which transport various
products within the cell.
 Cytoplasm is store house of various chemicals like water, minerals carbohydrates etc.
 All cytoplasmic organelles are embedded in cytoplasm.
 The 1st step of respiration (glyc olysis) takes place inside cytosole.
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The endoplasmic reticulum was 1st reported by porter in 1945.
 Endo = within,Reticulum = network.
 The Endoplasmic Reticulumn is a network of membranous tubules and sacs called
cisternae.
 The membrane of Endoplasmic Reticulumn separate the internal compartment of E.R
called lumen or cisternal space from the cytosole
 The ER is found in all living Eukaryotic cells. Cisternae = Latin word

 There are two distinct (different) regions of same ER, which means
which are different in structure and function. reservoir for liquid.
Lumen = Internal
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum space
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)/Granulated Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 The ER has ribosome granules on its surface which make its surface rough or
granulated.
 RER is mostly found in cells, which take part in protein synthesis because ribosomes
are site of protein synthesis e.g. pancreas and salivary glands of mammals which
produce carbohydrates and protein digestive enzymes.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) /A-granulated Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 This type of ER does not have any ribosome on its surface which gives it smooth
appearance
 Chemical composition of ER:
 Endoplasmic reticulum is made of lipoprotein.
 Function of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 Rough ER is involved in protein synthesis
 Smooth ER is involved in synthesis of lipids like oil, phospholipids and steroids
 SER detoxify drugs and poisons especially in liver cells.
 SER store calcium ions in muscle cells.
 SER convert cholesterol of skin to vitamin D which is necessary for healthy bones
and teeth.
 SER is involved in transport of materials within the cell.
Ribosome:
 Ribosome was discovered by palade 1955
 Ribosomes are granular units of cells, without membrane, found throughout
cytoplasm of living cell.
 They are about 23nm in diameter.
 They are free in young cell, but attached to ER in mature cell.
 They are present both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Chemical Composition
 They are made up of RNA and protein, hence called ribonucleo protein particles.
 The RNA is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Ultra structure of Ribosome
 The ribosome consists of two sub-units
 Smaller sub unite
 Larger sub unite
 Smaller sub unite has 12 RNA molecules and 21 protein molecules; while larger sub
unite has 23 RNA molecules and 34 protein molecules.
 The smaller sub unite has 40S and larger sub unite has 60S, where as complete
ribosome in 80S.
 The association and disassociation of these sub unites depends upon the concentration
of Mg++ ions.
 If Mg++ ion concentration is greater, the sub unite associate to form a complete
ribosome and lack of Mg++ ions disassociate them.
 Sometimes large number ribosomes are attached to same messenger RNA to form
polysomes
Site of Synthesis:
 New ribosomes are assembled inside nucleolus (because rRNA which is part of
ribosome is synthesized by gene present in nucleolus)
 The ribosomes are then transported to cytoplasm via pores in nuclear membrane. We
can say nucleolus is the factory of ribosomes.
Function: S= Svedberg unite which
specifies sedimentation
 Ribosome is the factory of protein synthesis. rate of certain particles in a
medium during ultra
centrifugation
Golgi bodies/Golgi Complex/Golgi substance/Golgi apparatus/ Lipochondria /

Dictyosome/Idiosome etc
Discovery:
 Golgi complex was discovered by Italian cytologist Comillo Golgi inside nerve cells.
Occurrence:
 Golgi complex occurs in all living cells except the prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
RBCs, fungus filament, mature sperm and sieve tube of plants.
 In animal cell Golgi body is usually one and confined to a particular region usually
near the nucleus.
 In plant the number of Golgi bodies varies from several hundred to 25,000 per cell.
 In plant cells Golgi bodies are scattered in the cytoplasm.
Ultra structure of Golgi body:

 The ultra structure of Golgi body shows that it consists of two components
 Cisternae
 Vesicles
Cisternae
 These are flattened fluid filled membranous sacs, which are placed one above the
other to form a stack.
 There are about 4-8 cisterna per stack
 The cisternae are narrow in the middle region and dilated at edges.
 The cisternae of the Golgi body show polarization, having two distinct faces.
 The proximal (Cis) or forming face present close to Endoplasmic reticulum.
 The distal (Trans) or maturing face located towards the cell membrane.
 The vesicles pinched (budded) off from R.E.R flow and fuse with cis face to form
new cisternal membrane.
 The trans face give rise to vesicles which travel to other sites.
Vesicles:
 These are cluster of small spherical structure bounded by single membrane.
 They lies around the edges of saccules (cisternae) and are considered to be arise from
the edges of saccules and Trans face by the process of pinching off.
Chemical Composition of Golgi body

 Golgi body is made up of lipoprotein, low
level of polysaccharide and some
enzymes.
Function of Golgi bodies:

 The main function of the Golgi body is
modification and secretion of the
molecules therefore, they are most
abundant in secretary cells.
 It receives protein and lipids from ER, then the enzymes of Golgi body modify these
molecules, which then pinched off in the form of vesicles and move to target site e.g.
cell membrane, cell wall etc.
 Sometimes they manufacture polysaccharides from simple sugar. These
polysaccharides then combine with protein and lipids to form glycoprotein and
glycolipids.
Lysosomes Lyso=splitting, soma = body

 Lysosome was 1st isolated by De-Duve in 1949 as a separate component.
 Lysosomes are present only in animal cells.
 They are called splitting bodies, because they contain fifty different types of
hydrolytic enzymes which are capable of digesting carbohydrates, protein, lipids,
Nucleic acid etc.
 They are also called suicide bags, because if these enzymes are released in large
amount in cytosole, it digests the whole cell quickly.
The protein of the inner
Structure
surface of lysosomal
 They are roughly spherical, sac or vessel like, membrane has three
containing digestive enzyme, surrounded by a single dimensions conformation,
impermeable membrane. which protect vulnerable
bonds from enzymatic
attack.
 The lysosomal membrane prevents outward flow of
enzymes and show resistance to digestive action of enzyme
Synthesis of Hydrolytic Enzymes and Lysosomes:

 Being protein, enzymes are
synthesized on the ribosomes
present on endoplasmic
reticulum, they are then secreted
in the form of transport vesicles
and absorbed by cis face of
Golgi body, there it is modified
and pinched off (budded out) in
the form of lysosomal vesicles
from trans face of Golgi body.
Enzymes→on ribosome→R.E.R in the form of transport vesicle G.B→ Pinched off a

as lysosome.
Digestive mechanism of Lysosome:
It involve the following steps
Step: 1 Entry of large food particles (polysaccharide, protein, bacteria, virus etc in
the form of vacuole).
Step: 2 Attachment of lysosome to that food vacuole and engulf it.
Step: 3 Degradation of those food particles by hydrolytic enzymes.
Function of Lysosome
 Lysosome perform the following functions
 Digestion of food particles taken in by phagocytosis (entry of solid food) or
pinocytosis (entry of liquid) e.g. Amoeba and macrophage of human being bring
about phagocytosis.
 It protect the cell from attack of bacteria, virus etc.
 It play role in developmental process e.g. removal of tadpole Tail.
 It eats up cellular organelles or old rupture cell. This process is called autophagy.
 During this process the complex molecules are broken down and the monomers are
recycle within the cell.
 It prevents the storage disease.
Malfunction of Lysosoaml activity and storage disease

 When large compounds or bacteria or waste product are not degraded by enzymes
(genetic defect) then they will accumulate in lysosome and finally rupture.
For example:
Glucogensis type II: it is a storage disease in which glycogen accumulate in muscle
and liver.
Tay – Sachs disease: when lipid digestive enzyme is missing or inactive, then lipids
accumulate in brain cells, which results in mental retardation and even death.
Micro bodies:
 Micro bodies are variety of enzymes bearing membrane bounded vesicles.
 They are found in all eukaryotic cells.
 They are different from one another only in the distribution of their enzymes e.g.
peroxisome, Glyoxisome
Peroxisome: Perox= Peroxide, Soma = body

 Peroxisome is sub-cellular cytoplsmic organelles, which contain certain enzymes that
transfer Hydrogen from various substrate to oxygen producing H2O2 (hydrogen
peroxide) therefore, they are called peroxisome.
Discovery:
 They were discovered by Belgium. Cytologist De-Duve 1965 in liver cells and other
tissue.
Location:
 They are found both in plant and animal cell, but most common in liver and kidney
cells.
Structure:
 They are spherical surrounded by a single membrane, similar to lysosome but having
different enzymes system.
 They have oxidative enzyme such as peroxidase and catalase.
Function:
 Peroxisome detoxify alcohol and other harmful drugs in liver by transferring
hydrogen from poison to oxygen forming hydrogen peroxide H2O2.
 The H2O2 is break down to H2O and ½ O2 by another enzyme inside the peroxisome,
thus protecting the cell from corrosive effect of H2O2.
 In leaves of the plant peroxisome is involved in process of photorespiration.
Photorespiraiton:-
 In deficiency of CO2 oxygen (O2) combines with RUBP (ribulose biphosphate)
present in stroma and thus CO2 is produced instead of Carbohydrates.
Glyoxisome:- Glyoxi = Glycolic acid, some = body
 Glyoxisome is ctyoplasmic organelle present in plant cell, but most abundant in plant
seedlings (young plant) which are rich in lipids.
 They are absent in lipids poor seed and animals cell.
Function:-
 Its primary function is conversion of fatty acids into carbohydrates.
Cytoskeleton: Cyto means cell, skeleton = Frame work

 Cytoskeleton is network of protein fibers that extend throughout the cytosole in all
eukaryotic cells, connecting and suspending the organelles in three dimensional web.
 Cytoskeleton composed of three types of filament.
 Microfilament
 Microtubule
 Intermediate filament
Microfilament:-
 Microfilaments are extremely thin solid thread like filament.
 They are about 7nm in size.
 They are made up of globular protein called actin.
 A single microfilament consists of two actin chains arranged in helical manner
Discovery:-
 They were 1st seen in skeletal muscle, intermix with thick filament of myosin and give
striated appearance to muscle cells.
Function:-
 It play role in muscle contraction
 It provide path on which cytoplasm circulate in a particular direction called
cytoplasmic streaming.
 It play a role in pseudopodia formation
 They are also found in region of invigination to form a cleavage furrow during cell
division (Animal cell).
 They maintain the shape of the cell and provide strength to the cell.
Microtubules:-
 Microtubules are long, hollow, un-branched thick cylindrical tubules.

 They are about 25nm in size.
 They are made up of globular protein tubulin.
 A microtubules consists of a ring of thirteen (13) protein (α & β tubulin) proto-
filament which are arranged around a central core to form a tube shape.
Discovery:-
 They were 1st seen in the spindle of the dividing cell.
Function:-
 They play role in formation of spindle and
movement of chromosomes.
 They play structural role in cell i.e. they
form skeleton of the cell.
 They play role in intracellular transport
such as guiding movement of Golgi vesicles to cell plate and plasma membrane etc.
Intermediate Filament:-
 They are most durable filament once formed cannot be broken down easily.
 They are in between the microfilament and microtubules.
 They are about 8nm – 12nm in size.
 They are made up of fibrous protein, which are different in different tissues, i.e. in
skin they are made up of keratin protein.
 Intermediate filament is rope like
Function:-
 They provide mechanical support to the cell.
 They maintain shape of the cell.
 They give support to nuclear membrane.
Centrosome and Centrioles:-

 Centrosome/MTOC (Microtubulular organizing center)

 Centrosome is a region near the nucleus present both in plants and animal cell, but in
plant cell it does not contain centriol, while in animal cell centrosome contain pair of
centriol lie at right angle to each other.
 Before the cell division it replicates and moves towards opposite pole.
Centriole
 Centrioles are small hollow cylinders each centriole consists of nine groups of
microtubules and each group further composed of triplet tubules, so there are total
twenty seven microtubules in each centriole.
 Each centriole is 0.5µm (500nm) in length and 0.2µm (200nm) in diameter.
Function
 It plays a role in organization of
microtubules in spindle
formation, but it is not essential
for this function in all eukaryotic
cells.
 Centrosome of most plant cell
has no centriole, but well
organized microtubule
 It play role in formation of cilia
and flagella.
 It play role in location of
furrowing during cell division.
Cilia and Flagella

 Cilia and flagella are identical in structure, but flagella are few and longer while cilia
are short and many in number e.g. sperm has single flagellum, Chlamydomonas has
two flagella while Paramecium has large number of cilia.
 They are outgrowth of the cells and they are locomotry appendages.
 They produce movement by beating either in one direction (cilia) or like a wave
(flagella).
 The beating is produced by series of bends originated at the base and propagated
towards the tip
Internal Organization
 Both cilia and flagella are similar in internal organization, having central bundle of
microtubule called axonem with 9+2 microtubule arrangement.
 The central pair of singlet microtubules is surrounded by nine doublets.
 The bundle of microtubule (axoneme) is surrounded by plasma membrane.
Mitochondria: Mito means thread, chondria means small grain

 Mitochondria is cytoplasmic organelle found in all eukaryotic cell except mature
RBCs their number varies from cell to cell i.e. 500 to 1500 per cell.
 They are most abundant in energy demanding cells like muscle cells and actively
dividing cells.
 Since they provide energy to the cell, therefore also called power house of the cell.
Discovery:
 Mitochondria were 1st seen as granules in muscle cells in 1850.
Size:
 Their size ranges from 0.5µm-10µm.
Shape
 Mitochondria appear rod like, rounded or filamentous.
Ultra structure of Mitochondria

 Mitochondria is a double membrane spherical or rounded bodies
 Both membrane are selectively permeable and made up of lipoprotein.
 The outer membrane is smooth, while the inner membrane inviginate inside the
matrix to form cristae
 The matrix is semifluid contain protein, lipids, ribosome, RNA and small amount of
DNA.
 Some vitamins and enzymes for Krebs cycle are also present.
 The presence of ribosome and DNA shows that protein synthesis take place within
mitochondria, so it is self replicating organelle.
 On the inner surface of cristae there are present small stalk particles called elementary
particles (F1 particles or oxysome).
 They have some enzymes (ATPase) which are responsible for terminal oxidation
(ETC).
Function
 Krebs cycle and Electron transport chain of respiration take place in mitochondria.
 They provide energy to the cell, therefore also called power house of the cell.
Plastids: Plastid is a Greek word means form or mould Pigments are organic
compound that can
 Plastids are large membrane bounded pigmented absorb visible light
cytoplasmic organelles present only in plant cell and 1µm = 10-6m
algae.
 Their shape, size and number varies from species to species, but remain same in all
cells of the same species.
 There are three types of plastids on the basis of pigments.
i) Chloroplast ii) Leucoplast iii) Chromoplast
 All of them are interconvertible
Chloroplast: Chloro= Green, Plast = Plastid.

 Chloroplast are green plastids, having green color chlorophyll pigments,
 There is one or many chloroplast per cell.
Size:
 They are 2-4 µm thick and 5-10µm in diameter.
Shape:
 The shape of chloroplast varies, especially in algae. They may be reticulate, spiral,
cup like spherical etc.
Location:
 They are mostly present in leaf cells of higher plants, but also present green stem of
lower plants.
 They are also found in algae.
Ultra structure of Chloroplast

 The electron microscope show that chloroplast consists of three components
i) Double layered membrane
ii). Stroma
iii).Grana (Gramum)
 The chloroplast is surrounded by double membrane which separates the content of the
chloroplast from cytosol.
 Inside the chloroplast there is gelatinous fluid (matrix) called stroma, having
ribosomes, DNA, protein and enzymes.
 Dark reaction of photosynthesis takes place in stroma.
 Inside the stroma, there are flattened, membranous sacs called thyalkoids.
 In some parts of chloroplast, the 10 to 20 thyalkoids are stacked to form granum.
 The thyalkoids contain the chlorophyll and accessory pigments like carotenoids.
 Light reaction of photosynthesis takes place within thyalkoid membrane.
Chemical Composition of Chloroplast

 Chloroplast composed of protein 40-50%
 Phospholipids 23-25%, Chlorophyll 5-10%
 Carotenoids 1-2%, RNA 5% and small amount of DNA
Leucoplast
 They are colorless plastids
 The large leucoplast which store starch is called amyloplast
 The leucoplast which synthesis and store oil is called elioplast.
 The leucoplast which synthesis and store protein granules are called aleuroplast.
 The leucoplasts are abundant in cells of storage organs like underground roots of
carrot, potato tubers and seeds. They are also found in cells of many other parts of the
plant.
Function
 Leucoplast are primary organelle in which the protein, Starch, oil granules are stored.
Chromoplast:- Chrom = colored Plast= Plastid

 They are colored plastids other than green color.
 They can arise either from chloroplast. Or leucoplast e.g. petals, carrot, roots etc.
 They are found in flower petals, ripe fruit and autumn leaves etc.
Function
 It imparts different color to different organ of the plant.
 It attracts insect for pollination
 It attracts birds, which play role in fruit and seed dispersal.
Nucleus
 Nucleus was 1st discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
 It is also called Karyon
 Generally a cell contains a single nucleus called uninucleat, but in certain species,
more than one nuclei are found in cell called multinucleate e.g. paramecium and some
lower fungi.
 The number, size and shape of the nucleus vary. It may be spherical, oval, flattened or
irregular in shape.
Components of nucleus:
 A nucleus consist of the following four components
 Nuclear membrane
 Nucleoplasm
 Nucleolus
 Nuclear material
Nuclear Membrane
 Nuclear membrane makes the boundary between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
 It consists of double layer made up of protein and lipids.
 The nuclear membrane is provided with pores called nuclear pores. These pores are
formed by the indentations of double layer and contain special protein called carrier
which facilitate the transport of materials to and from the nucleus.
 For example the mRNA and newly partially assembled ribosomes come out through
nuclear pore while protein and nucleotide needed for synthesis of ribosomes and
DNA enter into the nucleus through these pores.
Nucleoplasm
 It is semi fluid gel like substance in which chromosomes and nucleolus are embedded.
 Nucleoplasm is covered by nuclear envelop.
 It is composed of DNA, RNA, Glycoprotein and enzymes, necessary for replication
of DNA are present in it.
Nucleolus
 Nucleolus is darkly stained spherical
structure present inside the nucleus.
 It is non-membranous body
 It may be one or many per cell.
 It contain DNA, RNA and protein
Function:
 Nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis: these cells that have no nucleolus have
short life span.
Chromososmes:- Chromo = colored some = body

 They are deeply stained with basic dyes therefore called Chromosomes
Discovery:
 The chromosomes were discovered by weldyer in 1876
 Chromosome is present within the nucleus
 When cell is in interphase (non-dividing) state the chromosome appears as thin

chromatin (complex of protein and DNA) network. At the time of division it become
thickened and shortened and appear distinguished structure called chromosomes
 Each chromosome consist of two arms called chromatids and a centromer
 The number of chromosomes varies from species to species but remains constant in
all cells of the same species.
 For example human being has 46 chromosomes, Frog has 26, Drosophila has 8, onion
has 16, pea plant has 14, chimpanzee has 48and potato has 48 numbers of
chromosomes.
Chemical Composition of Chromosomes:

 In eukaryotic cell the chromosome consist of DNA, histone protein and Ca ions,
while in prokaryotic cell it in the form of circular DNA only.
Function of Chromosome
 Chromosomes are the vehicles for transfer of genetic materials (DNA) from one
generation to next generation.
Diploid and haploid number of chromosomes

 The total number of chromosomes in a normal body cell or somatic cell is called
diploid (2n).
 The half set of chromosomes in a reproductive cell or germ or gamete cell is called
haploid (n) number of chromosome and the cell is called haploid cell.
 For example: Human normal body cell has 46 number of chromosome which is
diploid. Whereas Human sperm or egg cell has 23 number of chromosome which is
haploid number.

Chapter 01

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 01

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER # 01 1 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

6. One of the following is not part of cell protoplasm.

9. All of them are present both in plant and cell except

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Membrane bounded organelles like Membrane bounded organelles are

Cell wall is made of murein Cell wall made of cellulose or chitin.

Q 2: What is tissue culture?

 Tissue culture is a technique through which a single cell or tissue is separated

 The tissue (explant) is selected from from algae.

Q 5: Describe the role of lysosome in cell?

 The lysosomal membrane prevents outward flow

Modern theory about cellular organization:

According to this theory

Techniques used in cell biology

 Microscopy is the technique of using microscopes to view samples and biological

 Different microscopes have been developed with different resolution and

 Staining is a technique which is used to make a contrast between different structures

 Cell fractionation is a technique which is used to isolate different components and

Steps involved in centrifugation

 Step1: The cells or tissue are grinded up (homogenized) in a suitable liquid

 All forms of chromatography work on the same principle.

 A technique used to measure the quantitative concentration of a solution or turbidity

Laser micro dissection

 Now before using eyepiece micrometer to measure a particular structure, we have to

Pectic compounds = Derivative of

Chemical Composition of Secondary Wall

Cytoplasm is made of two main components

Cl  , P  , HCO3 , No3 etc).

 Nucleic Acid: it is about 1% i.e. DNA (0.4%) and RNA (0.7%).

 The ER is found in all living Eukaryotic cells. Cisternae = Latin word

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)/Granulated Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) /A-granulated Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Golgi bodies/Golgi Complex/Golgi substance/Golgi apparatus/ Lipochondria /

Ultra structure of Golgi body:

Chemical Composition of Golgi body

Function of Golgi bodies:

Lysosomes Lyso=splitting, soma = body

Synthesis of Hydrolytic Enzymes and Lysosomes:

Enzymes→on ribosome→R.E.R in the form of transport vesicle G.B→ Pinched off a

Malfunction of Lysosoaml activity and storage disease

Peroxisome: Perox= Peroxide, Soma = body

 Its primary function is conversion of fatty acids into carbohydrates.

Cytoskeleton: Cyto means cell, skeleton = Frame work

 Microtubules are long, hollow, un-branched thick cylindrical tubules.

Centrosome and Centrioles:-

 Centrosome/MTOC (Microtubulular organizing center)

Cilia and Flagella

Mitochondria: Mito means thread, chondria means small grain

Ultra structure of Mitochondria

Chloroplast: Chloro= Green, Plast = Plastid.

Ultra structure of Chloroplast

Chemical Composition of Chloroplast

Chromoplast:- Chrom = colored Plast= Plastid

Chromososmes:- Chromo = colored some = body

 When cell is in interphase (non-dividing) state the chromosome appears as thin

Chemical Composition of Chromosomes:

Diploid and haploid number of chromosomes

You might also like