Journal of Earth Science, Vol. 31, No. 1, p.

195–206, February 2020 ISSN 1674-487X

Printed in China
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-019-1211-3

Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and Accumulation in the

Eocene Niubao Formation in the Lunpola Basin, Tibet, China:
Insights from Basin Modeling and Fluid Inclusion Analysis
1
Yiming Liu , Jiaren Ye *1, Qiang Cao1, Baolin Yang1, Zhongrong Liu2
1. Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources, Ministry of Education,
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
2. Branch of Exploration Company, SINOPEC, Chengdu 610041, China
Yiming Liu: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8424-7718; Jiaren Ye: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5699-8074

ABSTRACT: The Eocene Niubao Formation is the primary research target of oil exploration in the Lunpola
Basin. Crude oil was extracted from Well Z1 on the northern margin of the basin in 1993. In this study, an
integrated evaluation of the source rock, geothermal, and maturity histories and the fluid inclusion and fluid
potential distributions was performed to aid in predicting areas of hydrocarbon accumulation. Due to the
abundance of organic matter, the kerogen types, maturity, and oil-sources correlate with the geochemical
data. The middle submember of the second member of the Niubao Formation (E2n2-2) is the most favorable
source rock based on the amount of oil produced from the E2n2-3 and E2n3-1 reservoirs. One- and two-
dimensional basin modeling, using BasinMod software, shows that the E2n2-2 source rock started to generate
hydrocarbon at 35–30 Ma, reached a maturity of Ro=0.7% at 25–20 Ma, and at present, it has reached the
peak oil generation stage with a thermal maturity of Ro=0.8% to less than Ro=1.0%. By using fluid inclusion
petrography, fluorescence spectroscopy, and microthermometry, two major periods of oil charging have been
revealed at 26.1–17.5 and 32.4–24.6 Ma. The oil accumulation modeling results, conducted by using the Trin-
ity software, show a good fit of the oil shows in the wells and predict that the structural highs and lithologic
transitions within the Jiangriaco and Paco sags are potential oil traps.
KEY WORDS: Niubao Formation, Lunpola Basin, source rocks, basin modeling, fluid inclusions, hydrocar-
bon migration and accumulation, petroleum geology.

0 INTRODUCTION
The Lunpola Basin covers an area of approximately 3 600
km2 in northeastern Tibet, southwestern China. Petroleum ex-
ploration in the Lunpola Basin commenced in the early 1950s
(Li, 1954); however, exploration activities were limited until
2015 (Fan et al., 2015) because of the harsh working conditions
in Tibet. Prior to 2018, over 67 exploratory wells had been
drilled in the Lunpola Basin and 8 oil fields had been discovered,
but only a small number of wells had sufficient production for
economic exploitation (Jiang et al., 2018; Zhang, 2011; Wang et
al., 2006; Chen and Du, 1996).
Though the Lunpola Basin is in the low-exploration stage,
several studies have shown that the Lunpola Basin is one of the
most valuable references for understanding the dynamics of hy-
drocarbon accumulation in the inner basin and in the adjacent
basins on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Fu et al., 2016; Ma et al.,
2015a; Sun et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2011a; Rowley and Currie,
*Corresponding author: jrye@cug.edu.cn
© China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) and Springer-Verlag
GmbH Germany, Part of Springer Nature 2020
Manuscript received November 11, 2018.
Manuscript accepted March 25, 2019.
2006). Petroleum surveys reveal that the source rocks are mainly
located in the second and third members of the Eocene Niubao
Formation (Liu et al., 2017; Li et al., 2016; Yuan and Xu, 2000).
The source rocks of the >900-m-thick Niubao Formation mainly
consist of dark gray mudstone and silty mudstone (Lei et al.,
1996). Based on geochemical and logging data, Liu et al. (2017)
determined that the high quality source rocks (TOC>1.0%) are
more than 400 m thick. Previous studies of hydrocarbon genera-
tion in the Lunpola Basin have mostly been one-dimensional
(Pan et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2001; Xu et al., 1996), so only a few
of these studies were able to accurately determine the accumula-
tion period. Thus, the hydrocarbon accumulation and migration
characteristics of the Niubao Formation have not been quantita-
tively characterized.
In this paper, new geochemical data for oil and rock sam-
ples are compared with the data collected by the Branch of Ex-
ploration Company, SINOPEC and previous studies (Wei et al.,
2017; Ma et al., 2015b; Wang et al., 2011b). The results of this
analysis are then used to identify the major source rock in the
Lunpola Basin. In addition, to better predict favorable areas for
hydrocarbon accumulation in the Lunpola Basin, we recon-
structed the petroleum generation, migration, and accumulation
processes using basin modeling and the petroleum charging his-
tory determined from fluid inclusion studies. The purposes of

Liu, Y. M., Ye, J. R., Cao, Q., et al., 2020. Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and Accumulation in the Eocene Niubao Formation in
the Lunpola Basin, Tibet, China: Insights from Basin Modeling and Fluid Inclusion Analysis. Journal of Earth Science, 31(1): 195–206.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-019-1211-3. http://en.earth-science.net
196 Yiming Liu, Jiaren Ye, Qiang Cao, Baolin Yang and Zhongrong Liu

this paper are as follows: to evaluate the Niubao Formation
source rock and identify the main source rock interval in the
Lunpola Basin; to reconstruct the burial, thermal, and maturation
histories of the source rocks; to determine the petroleum charg-
ing history using an integrated fluid inclusion investigation; and
to predict petroleum migration pathways and favorable accumu-
lation areas based on the source rock evaluation, fluid inclusion
investigation, and basin modeling. The results of this study will
provide an important reference for reducing the risks of petro-
leum exploration in this region.
1 GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Lunpola Basin is located in Bange County, the Tibet
Autonomous Region, China. It is bounded by the Bangonghu-
Nujiang suture zone to the north and by the Malajiong-Pengco
suture zone to the south (Ai et al., 1998). The basin is about 220
km from east to west and 1520 km from north to south (Fig.
1a). From north to south, the tectonic units include the northern
thrust nappe belt, the central depression belt, and the southern
thrust and uplift belt (Fig. 1b). The main study area is the central
depression belt, which comprises three sags from west to east,
the Jiangriaco, Jiangjiaco, and Paco sags.
The tectonic evolution of the Lunpola Basin was mainly
controlled by the Bangonghu-Nujiang suture zone (Wei et al.,
2017). Based on fault activity, individual tectonic characteristics,
and previous studies (Wu et al., 2018; Zhao, 2011; Gonsalves et
al., 2000; Luo, 1993; Xu et al., 1983), the tectonic evolution of
the Lunpola Basin can be divided into three stages from the Eo-
cene to the present (Fig. 1c). The first stage is characterized by
faulting during the Eocene (50.035.4 Ma). The second stage is
characterized by depression during the Oligocene (35.423.3
Ma). The third stage is characterized by uplift reconstruction
from the Late Oligocene to the present (23.30 Ma).
Figure 2 shows the generalized stratigraphic column from
the Eocene to the Oligocene in the central part of the Lunpola
Basin. The basin’s basement is composed of Cretaceous marine
carbonates, clastics, basal volcanics, and volcanic clastic rocks
(Deng et al., 2012; Lei et al., 1996). The overlying ~3 000-m-
thick Cenozoic sediments of the Lunpola Basin mainly include
the Eocene Niubao Formation and the Oligocene Dingqing For-
mation (Sun et al., 2014; Du et al., 2004; Xu, 1980).
The Niubao Formation, which can be seen in a 2 000 m rock
outcrop, is widespread and frequently exposed in the western and
northern parts of the basin (Fig. 1b). From the bottom of the for-
mation to the top, the Niubao Formation can be subdivided into
three members (E2n1, E2n2, and E2n3) and mainly consists of pur-
ple siltstone and mud shale sandwiched between glutenite and
tuff. The sedimentary facies fluctuate between fluvial to lacus-
trine several times, indicating multiple transgression and regres-
sion events. The Niubao Formation was deposited in a subtropical,
temperate environment (DeCelles et al., 2007; Xia, 1982).
The Dingqinghu Formation is mainly distributed in the cen-
tral and eastern parts of the basin (Fig. 1b). The Dingqing For-
mation is about 1 000 m thick and is composed of oil shale and
gray mudstone alternating with sandstone (Fu et al., 2012). Like
the Niubao Formation, the Dingqinghu Formation can be subdi-
vided into three members (E3d1, E3d2, and E3d3), which were de-
posited in a warm, humid, and temperate lacustrine environment.
Previous studies of petroleum source rocks have shown that
the oil source rocks of the Niubao Formation are superior to the
source rocks of the Dingqinghu Formation, which are mainly oil
shale (Xie et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2017; Du et al., 2016). In

Figure 1. (a) The location of Lunpola Basin in the Tibet Autonomous Region, modified from Fu et al. (2012), (b) simplified geologic map of the Lunpola Basin,
showing the tectonic units, the locations of boreholes, and the sections used in the modeling in this study, and (c) the tectonic evolution from the Eocene to present
along section AA’, modified from Fan et al. (2015). YTS. Yarlung-Tsangpo suture zone; MPS. Malajiong-Pengco suture zone; BNS. Bangonghu-Nujiang suture
zone; I. northern thrust nappe belt; II1. Jiangriaco sag; II2. Jiangjiaco sag; II3. Paco sag; III. southern thrust and uplift belt.
Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and Accumulation in the Eocene Niubao Formation in the Lunpola Basin, Tibet, China 197

the Lunpola Basin, three regional lacustrine mudstones within
the middle and upper submembers of the second member of the
Niubao Formation (E2n2-2 and E2n2-3) and the lower submember
of the third member of the Niubao Formation (E2n3-1) were iden-
tified as potential oil-generating source rocks (Liu et al., 2017;
Yuan and Xu, 2000; Gu et al., 1999; Xu et al., 1996). The reser-
voir units in the study area, which are located in the Niubao For-
mation, are clastics and dolomites (Ai et al., 1999; Luo et al.,
1999). The seal rocks are located in the Dingqinghu Formation
and in the second and third members of the Niubao Formation
(E2n2 and E2n3) (Du et al., 2004) (Fig. 2).
2 MATERIALS AND MODELS
The main data used for source rock evaluation and to deter-
mine the oil-source rock correlation include the TOC, chloro-
form bitumen “A,” total n-alkanes analysis of the oil and source
rocks, and elemental analysis of the kerogen. The analyses were
conducted by the Exploration Branch of SINOPEC. Additional
data were collected from the literature (Ma et al., 2015b; Sun et
al., 2014) and were originally obtained by the Wuxi Experi-
mental Research Center of SINOPEC and the Institute of Explo-
ration and Development of the Jianghan Oilfield Company. To
further understand the oil charging history of this area, a total of
38 sandstone samples from the second and third members of the
Niubao Formation (E2n2 and E2n3) were collected from wells
XL4, XL5, XL8, Z1, W1, and W2 in the central depression belt
of the Lunpola Basin (Fig. 1b). The depth of the samples ranged
from 1 578.9 to 1 987.8 m. These core samples were analyzed at
the Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources,
China University of Geosciences (Wuhan).
The BasinMod software and Trinity modeling software
were used in this paper. BasinMod was used to help evaluate the
hydrocarbon generation potential (Zhang et al., 2017; Guo et al.,
2012; Cao et al., 2011), including burial history, geothermal his-
tory, and organic matter maturity history reconstructions. Due to
the small amount of exploration in the Lunpola Basin (lack of
3D seismic survey and rare drilling), the Trinity software, the
basic principle of which is the fluid potential (England et al.,
1987; Dahlberg, 1982; Hubbert, 1953), was used to model the
hydrocarbon secondary migration paths in the study area.

Figure 2. Generalized Eocene–Oligocene stratigraphic column for the Lunpola Basin, illustrating the tectonic evolution stages, the paleoclimate (Ma et al., 2015a),
lake level fluctuations (Sun et al., 2014), and the petroleum system. Dotted lines indicate unconformities, and the red line indicates the studied interval.
198
Burial history reconstruction is a basic element in hydrocarbon
generation analysis. The measured thicknesses of the formations
and the amount of erosion used in the paper were based on the re-
sults of previous studies (Jia et al., 2015; Ma et al., 2013). The ab-
solute ages of the depositional and erosional events were deter-
mined from the chronostratigraphic framework of the basin (Fig. 2).
Due to the complicated genetic dynamics of the Lunpola Basin (Ma
et al., 2013; Zhao, 2011; Ai et al., 1998), the porosity-depth model
of Falvey and Middleton (1981) used for the compaction correction
was adopted. This model can be expressed as follows
1/φ=1/φ0+kz
where φ is the porosity, φ0 is the initial porosity, k is the com-
paction factor, and z is the burial depth.
The 1D BasinMod software defaults to the initial porosity
and compaction factor of a pure lithology, e.g., shale/mudstone,
siltstone, sandstone, dolomite, and limestone. In the two-
dimensional model, the lithologies are modified based on the
sedimentary facies. The mixed lithology and sealing ability
(non-dimensional) of the sedimentary facies measured in the
two-dimensional simulation are summarized in Table 1.
The burial history and heat-flow significantly influence the
geothermal history of sedimentary basins. The current-heat flow
was calculated from the underground geothermal gradient,
which was determined from the thermal conductivity of the rock
(Table 1) and the corrected bottom hole temperature (BHT). The
paleo-heat flow, which is difficult to determine, was determined
from the tectonic evolution of the region. The Transient Heat
Flow model of Jarvis and Mckenzie (1980), which considers the
vertical transmission of heat and the tectonic activity caused by
sudden thermal events, has been widely used to calculate the cur-
rent and paleo heat flows.
The Easy%Ro model of Sweeney and Burnham (1990),
which is considered to be the most accurate and effective method
for calculating the organic matter maturity history, is incorpo-
rated in the BasinMod 1D software. The good agreement be-
tween the measured and calculated Ro values implies that the
thermal maturity model can be used in the study area.
The basic principle of the Trinity software is based on fluid
potential (England et al., 1987; Dahlberg, 1982; Hubbert, 1953).
Hubbert (1953) first proposed the formula, which can be used to
determine oil migration pathways and accumulation in
sedimentary basins, for calculating the mechanical energy per
unit mass. With the following system of equations
p dρ q2
Ф=gz+ + 2,
0 ρ
where Ф is the fluid potential (J/kg), g is the acceleration caused
Table 1 Main lithotypes and their matrix thermal conductivity for different sedimentary facies used in the modeling
Facies Sandstone (%) Siltstone (%) Shale (%) Limestone (%)
Alluvial 40 30 20
Delta plain 25 30 35
Alluvial 35 20 45
Delta front 8 5 75
Shallow 20 12 57
Lake 5 11 84
Fault 5 5 90
Yiming Liu, Jiaren Ye, Qiang Cao, Baolin Yang and Zhongrong Liu
by gravity (9.81 m/s2); z is the altitude (m); p is the reservoir
pressure (Pa); ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3); and q is the fluid
velocity (m/s).
In this study, the locations of the structures and lithologic
traps were determined based on the sedimentary facies, faults,
and sandstone distribution. The sealing ability of these parame-
ters is presented in Table 1, in which the higher number is the
higher sealing ability.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Source Rock Evaluation and Oil-Rock Correlation
(1)
In this study, the source rocks were evaluated based on ge-
ochemical indicators such as the abundance, type, and thermal
maturity of the organic matter (OM). TOC is the most common
index used to determine the OM abundance of source rocks (He
et al., 2010). Based on the statistical data for 117 samples from
7 wells, the TOC contents of the three potential source rock in-
tervals (E2n2-2, E2n2-3, and E2n3-1) in the Lunpola Basin range
from 0.14 wt.% to 6.02 wt.%. The highest TOC ranges from 0.6
wt.% to 1.0 wt.% with an average of 0.79 wt.% (Fig. 3a), which
indicates that the source rock has a fair petroleum-generation po-
tential (Cao et al., 2009; Fu and Zhang, 2005).
The kerogen type within the Lunpola Basin was determined
using elemental analysis (Tissot and Welte, 1984). The kerogen
in the basin has a relatively high H/C atomic ratio, ranging from
0.74 to 1.56, and a relatively low O/C atomic ratio, ranging from
0.05 to 0.30 (Fig. 3b), indicating the predominance of Type I–II1
oil-prone kerogen. These results are consistent with the results
of previous studies (Ma et al., 2015b; Han et al., 2014; Wang et
al., 2011a, b).
The distribution of the total carbon number of n-alkanes of
the oil and source rocks in the Niubao Formation may reflect the
oil-source rock correlation (Li et al., 2016; Lu et al., 1997). The
oil produced from unit E2n2-3 in Well XL4 and unit E2n3-1 in Well
Z1 is similar to the source rocks of unit E2n2-2 in Well Z1 (Fig.
4a), while the oil produced from unit E2n3-2 in Well XL5 and unit
E2n3-1 in Well XL4 has a similar carbon number distribution of
n-alkanes to that of the E2n3-1 source rocks in Well XL4 (Fig. 4b).
These results indicate that there are two complete oil-reservoir
models, the self-generation model and the self-reservoir model
with a lower generation zone and an upper reservoir. Due to the
strong influence of tectonic activity, the shallower oil reservoirs,
e.g., E2n3, were damaged by fault activity, whereas the preserva-
tion conditions of oil reservoir E2n2 are better due to its greater
burial depth and minimum fault activity. In conclusion, these
(2)
features indicate that unit E2n2-2 is a good source rock, and units
E2n2-3 and E2n3-1 are good oil reservoirs.
Dolomite (%) Thermal conductivity (W/m·°C） Sealing ability
0 10 2.72 50
0 10 2.39 80
0 0 2.32 100
2 10 1.96 160
4 7 1.79 800
0 0 1.38 800
0 0 1.25 1 000
Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and Accumulation in the Eocene Niubao Formation in the Lunpola Basin, Tibet, China 199

Figure 3. (a) Histogram of the total organic carbon (TOC) distribution in the Niubao Formation; (b) Discrimination diagram of the organic matter types in the
Niubao Formation, i.e., the H/C atomic ratio versus the O/C atomic ratio. E2n2-2: the middle submember of the second member of the Niubao Formation; E2n2-3:
the upper submember of the second member of the Niubao Formation; E2n3-1: the lower submember of the third member of the Niubao Formation.

Based on the above analysis, E2n2-2 is a good potential
source rock interval in the Lunpola Basin due to its higher OM
abundance and Type I-II1 oil-prone kerogen. Additionally, an
oil-source comparison study suggests that the crude oils in the
Lunpola Basin are mainly derived from the E2n2-2 source rock,
while prediction of the favorable source rock distribution (Liu et
al., 2017) indicates that E2n2-2 has an average thickness of 223
m, making it the thickest and most widely distributed source rock
in the Lunpola Basin. Thus, the most favorable source rocks are
in unit E2n2-2 rather than units E2n2-3 and E2n3-1.
3.2 Geothermal and Maturity Histories of the Source Rocks
To better understand the hydrocarbon generation history of the
source rocks within units E2n2-2, E2n2-3, and E2n3-1, three representa-
tive seismic lines (BB’, CC’, and DD’) and three typical wells
(XL1, W1, and W2), which are located on these seismic lines in the
central depression belt, were selected to reconstruct the burial, ther-
mal, and maturity histories. Line BB’ and Well XL1 are located in
the northeastern part of the Jiangriaco sag; line CC’ and Well W1
are located in the southeastern part of the Jiangjiaco sag; and line
DD’ and Well W2 are located in the thick center of the Paco sag
(Fig. 1b). The database used to model the geothermal and maturity
histories includes vitrinite reflectance (Ro) and the BHT data.
The source rock maturity is the commonly used as an indicator
of vitrinite reflectance (Ro) (Hunt, 1996; Tissot and Welte, 1984).
The model used in this study calculates the vitrinite reflectance us-
ing the Easy%Ro method of Sweeney and Burnham (1990), which
can be used to reconstruct the organic matter maturity history. In
this modeling, the good connection between the measured data and
the calculated Ro and temperature curves implies that the models
are suitable for use in the study area (Fig. 5).
The current heat flow can be calculated from the thermal
conductivity and subsurface geothermal gradients, which are
confirmed by the BHT. The calculated current heat flow values
of wells XL1, W1, and W2 are 77.00, 70.27, and 66.75 mW/m2,
respectively. In addition, the results of the paleo-heat flow mod-
eling are affected by the tectonic evolution of the Lunpola Basin.
The modified Jarvis and Mckenzie (1980) algorithm, which was
used with typical values for the evolution of the basin, was used
to calculate the paleo-heat flows.
Based on the differences in the thermal history and the
burial history of the tectonic sag, the maturity of the source rocks
in wells XL1, W1, and W2 is different (Fig. 6). In Well XL1,
which is located in the Jiangriaco sag, the oil generation
(Ro=0.5%) of the E2n2-2 source rock began at a depth of 1 350 m
at 31 Ma, while that of the E2n2-3 source rock began at a depth
of about 1 500 m at 21 Ma. Currently, both the E2n2-2 and E2n2-3
source rocks are in the low maturity stage (Ro=0.5%0.7%),
whereas the E2n3-1 source rock has not yet reached the maturity
level required for oil generation (Ro=0.5%).

Figure 4. (a) Relative abundance versus carbon number of n-alkanes for the crude oils extracted from wells Z1 and XL1 and the E2n2 source rock from Well Z1. (b)
Relative abundance versus carbon number of n-alkanes from the crude oils extracted from wells XL5 and XL4 and the E2n2 source rock extracted from Well XL4.
200 Yiming Liu, Jiaren Ye, Qiang Cao, Baolin Yang and Zhongrong Liu

Figure 5. Calibration of the thermal and maturity modeling of wells XL1, W1, and W2, showing a good correlation between the measured data and the calculated
temperature and vitrinite reflectance curves.

Figure 6. The burial, thermal, and maturity histories of wells XL1, W1, and W2 and the current maturity distribution characteristics of Section BB’, Well W1 in
CC’, and Well W2 in Section DD’ in the Lunpola Basin. The locations of the section lines and wells are shown in Fig. 1b.
Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and Accumulation in the Eocene Niubao Formation in the Lunpola Basin, Tibet, China
Compared with the other two wells, Well W1 is the deepest
with a depth of 2 410 m. The E2n2-2 source rocks entered the oil
window (Ro=0.5%) at 34.2 Ma at a depth of 1 800 m, reached a
maturity of Ro=0.7% at 27 Ma at a depth of 1 800 m, and reached
their peak maturity (Ro=1.0%) at 19 Ma at a depth of 2 700 m;
the lower part of the source rock is currently in the late oil gener-
ation stage (Ro=1.0%1.3%), while the upper part of the source
rock is in the main oil generation stage (Ro=0.7%1.0%). The
E2n2-3 source rock entered the low maturity stage (Ro=0.5%) at
approximately 30 Ma at a depth of 1 680 m; entered the main oil
generation stage (Ro=0.7%1.0%) at 24 Ma at depth of 2 160 m;
and at present, it is still in this stage. The E2n3-1 source rocks
reached the oil generation threshold (Ro=0.5%) at 29.5 Ma at a
depth of 1 620 m, entered the main oil generation stage
(Ro=0.7%1.0%) at 22 Ma at a depth of 2 100 m, and it is pres-
ently still in this stage.
The newest drilled Well W2, which is located in the Paco
sag, reveals that the E2n2-2 source rock entered the oil window
(Ro=0.5%) at 35.5 Ma at a depth of 1 420 m; reached a maturity
of (Ro=0.7%) at 21 Ma at a depth of 2 390 m; and at present, it
is still in the main oil generation stage (Ro=0.7%1.0%). The
E2n2-3 source rock entered the oil generation stage (Ro=0.5%) at
38.5 Ma at a depth of 1 450 m; reached a maturity of Ro=0.7%
at 19.8 Ma at a depth of 2 300 m; and it is presently in the main
oil generation stage (Ro=0.7%1.0%). The E2n3-1 source rock
entered the oil window (Ro=0.5%) at 38 Ma at a depth of 1 470
m; and at present, it is in the early oil generation stage
(Ro=0.5%0.7%). Therefore, the E2n2-2 and E2n2-3 source rocks
have a higher thermal maturation and hydrocarbon generation
process than those of the E2n3-1 source rock.
Figure 7. Petrography, fluorescence, fluorescence spectra, and λmax versus QF535 of the fluid inclusions from Well W1.
201
Figure 6 shows the model of the present maturity of two-
dimensional geologic sections BB’, CC’, and DD’. The two-
dimensional maturity model is built on top of the precise one-
dimensional maturity results. At present, in Section BB’, most of
the E2n2-2 source rock has reached a maturity of Ro=0.5%1.0%,
only the bottom of the E2n2-2 source rock has reached the late oil
generation stage (Ro=1.0%1.3%), and most of the E2n2-3 and
E2n3-1 source rocks have reached a maturity of Ro=0.5%1.0%.
At present, in Section CC’, most of the E2n2-2 source rock has
reached a maturity of Ro=0.5%1.0%, only the bottom of the
E2n2-2 source has reached the late oil generation stage
(Ro=1.0%1.3%), and most of the E2n2-3 and E2n3-1 source rocks
have reached a maturity of Ro=0.5%1.0%. In Section DD’, all
of the E2n2-2, E2n2-3, and E2n3-1 source rocks have a similar ther-
mal maturation of Ro=0.5%1.0%.
In conclusion, the three main source rocks have a similar
thermal maturation and hydrocarbon generation process, except
for E2n2-2 source rock, which has a higher maturity than the other
two source rocks in the central part of the Lunpola Basin.
3.3 Oil Charging History
In field of petroleum research, fluid inclusion technology
has been widely used to recreate the hydrocarbon migration and
entrapment process (Liu et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2016; Feng et al.,
2010; Ping et al., 2010; Oxtoby, 2002; George et al., 2001; Sta-
siuk and Snowdon, 1997). In this study, 38 core samples (Fig. 7)
collected from 6 wells in the Niubao Formation sandstone reser-
voir in the Jiangjiaco and Paco sags were analyzed in order to
measure the fluid inclusion petrography, fluorescence, and mi-
crothermometry.
202
3.3.1 Fluid inclusion petrography
The micropetrographic observations indicate that the fluid in-
clusions in the samples from the Lunpola Basin are mainly located
in the micro-fractures and overgrowths of quartz grains and rarely
within the calcite cement (Fig. 7). Based on our microscopic ob-
servations, the fluid inclusions are mainly elliptical, rectangular,
and circular in shape. The fluid inclusions are 515 μm long and 8
μm wide. In order of most to least abundant, the three principal
types of fluid inclusions identified are as follows: (1) the abundant
aqueous inclusions appear black or dark grey under transmitted
light (Figs. 7a, 7b); (2) the less abundant hydrocarbon-bearing in-
clusions appear dark grey or grey under transmitted light (Fig. 7c);
and (3) the rare pure hydrocarbon inclusions appear as single
brown inclusions under transmitted light (Fig. 7e).
3.3.2 Fluorescence of oil inclusions
The oil inclusions have a variety of fluorescent colors under
UV-light. The two main colors (Figs. 7d, 7f) are yellow and
white-blue (visual study). However, visual identification of the
fluorescence colors can differ based on the person observing
(George et al., 2002; Oxtoby, 2002). A total of 45 oil inclusions
from 16 samples from Well W1 were analyzed to determine the
fluorescence spectral parameters of the main peak wavelength
(λmax) and the modified red-green quotient (QF535). The fluores-
cence spectroscopy results indicate a significant difference be-
tween the blue and yellow oil inclusions, which have λmax of 495
and 540 nm, respectively (Fig. 7). The QF535 value can be used
as an indicator of the organic matter maturity (Si et al., 2013;
Ping et al., 2012; Caja et al., 2009). It is defined as the ratio of
the confining area between spectral wavelengths 720535 and
535420 nm (Eq. 3). The larger the QF535 value, the lower the
maturity of the crude oil inclusions
QF535 = S(λ720–λ535)/S(λ535–λ420)
As can be seen from the plot of λmax versus QF535 (Fig. 7),
two oil charging events occurred, which correspond to λmax of
490525 and 535551 nm, originating from organic matter of
nearly the same maturity.
3.3.3 Fluid inclusion microthermometry
Analysis of the modified red green quotient indicates that
there are two crude oils with different maturities in the region.
Figure 8. Hydrocarbon charging history of the Niubao Formation reservoir based on data from the Lunpola Basin fluid inclusions.
Yiming Liu, Jiaren Ye, Qiang Cao, Baolin Yang and Zhongrong Liu
During hydrocarbon migration, the coexisting oil and aqueous
inclusions can simultaneously be captured (Liu et al., 2016; Guo
et al., 2012; Feng et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2009). So, homogeni-
zation temperature of the fluid inclusions from Well W1 along
with the burial history and isotherm curves (Fig. 8) in order to
determine an accurate hydrocarbon charging time.
The homogenization temperatures of the coexisting oil and
aqueous inclusions in the study area range from 90 to 150 °C.
The homogenization temperatures of the hydrocarbon inclusions
range from 90100 and 120140 °C, while those of the aqueous
inclusions and coeval oil inclusions range from 90110 and
110140 °C, respectively.
By projecting the average homogenization temperature
ranges onto the burial history and isotherm curves of the other five
wells, the timing of the hydrocarbon charging events can be deter-
mined (Fig. 8). The results show that the two main oil charging
event occurred at 26.117.5 and 32.424.6 Ma. This information
is helpful in determining the main oil accumulation phases.
3.4 Secondary Petroleum Migration
Secondary petroleum migration was modeled in the E2n2-2
interval, which is the major source rock and has a good match
for the reservoirs and sealing beds (Fig. 2). As mentioned above,
the hydrocarbon charging event in the Lunpola Basin occurred
at 32.417.5 Ma. The tectonic reversal, which occurred after the
Late Oligocene, changed the direction of hydrocarbon migration
and caused redistribution of the hydrocarbon accumulation
(Zhao, 2011; Ai et al., 1998). Therefore, secondary petroleum
migration pathways in the E2n2-2 carrier bed were modeled at 30
and 25 Ma using the Trinity software.
The modeling results (Fig. 9) illustrate that many factors,
e.g., the sedimentary facies, faults, structures, and source rock
properties, significantly influence the secondary migration direc-
(3)
tions. The modeling results show that at 30 and 25 Ma, most of
the predicted favorable oil and gas areas are located in confirmed
oil and gas wells, while most of the dry wells, which are far from
the hydrocarbon-generative location, are not located on the oil
and gas migration pathway, except for Well XL4. Well XL4
most likely has oil and gas because the well is located on the
edge of the central depression belt, which makes it easy for the
oil and gas to spread, and thus, the oil and gas are more obvious
in this well.
Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and Accumulation in the Eocene Niubao Formation in the Lunpola Basin, Tibet, China
Figure 9. Modeling results showing the hydrocarbon migration pathways and accumulation at the bottom of E2n2-2 at (a) 25 Ma and (b) 30 Ma in the Lunpola Basin.
Figure 9 shows the petroleum migration pathways and ac-
cumulation of the E2n2-2 reservoir in the central depression belt
from 30 to 25 Ma. As can be seen, the petroleum migration and
accumulation characteristics at 30 and 25 Ma are quite similar.
The secondary hydrocarbon migration directions in the E2n2-2
carrier at 30 and 25 Ma are both away from the central depres-
sion belt in the Lunpola Basin through the southern parts of the
Jiangriaco sag and the western and eastern parts of the Paco sag.
The three favorable hydrocarbon generation zones in the north-
ern thrust nappe, which has poor preservation conditions, are not
discussed in this paper.
In the southern part of the Jiangriaco sag, oil migrated from
the southern depocenter to the northern favorable reservoir area,
which is dominated by delta plains. However, the petroleum mi-
gration pathways and oil and gas accumulation are not concen-
trated in the southern part of the Jiangriaco sag due to the faults in
this area. In the western and eastern parts of the Paco sag, there are
numerous petroleum migration pathways because in this area, two
hydrocarbon generation areas converge into various oil accumula-
tion areas. The migration simulation results also show that at 30
and 25 Ma, there were more than five favorable oil and gas accu-
mulation zones in the southern and southeastern parts of the Paco
sag. Due to closing of the hydrocarbon-generation zones the and
favorable sedimentary areas, the oil accumulation zones in the
southern and southeastern parts of the Paco sag are much better
charged than other high-risk oil and gas exploration areas. In the
southeastern part of the Jiangjiaco sag, the area around Well W1
is the best hydrocarbon migration belt due to the hydrocarbon gen-
eration zone in the center of the Paco sag.
When all of the above factors are taken into consideration, it
can be concluded that the center of the Jiangriaco sag and the south-
ern and southeastern parts of the Paco sag are the main exploration
203
targets, which is in agreement with the results of previous studies
(Fan et al., 2015; Zhang, 2011).
3.5 Geological Significance
The hydrocarbon generation and migration modeling re-
sults of this study reveal that three main factors control the dis-
tribution of oil accumulation zones, including source rocks,
faults, and traps (Fig. 10).
There are three sets of potential Eocene source rock
intervals in the Lunpola Basin, E2n2-2, E2n2-3, and E2n3-1. How-
ever, the E2n2-3 and E2n3-1 source rocks have shallow burial
depths, low TOC values, and low maturities (Ro=0.5%0.7%).
Therefore, due to its higher thermal maturity and more prolific
and volumetrically important source rocks, unit E2n2-2 is the pri-
mary oil source and has major hydrocarbon generation.
Previous studies (Ai et al., 1999; Lei et al., 1996) found that
many faults formed in the central and eastern parts of the basin
due to intense tectonic activity. Thus, the faults in the central and
eastern parts of the central depression belt are more active than
those in the west; therefore, the preservation conditions of the
Jiangriaco sag are better than those of the Jiangjiaco and Paco
sags. Additionally, based on the oil shows and oil reservoirs ob-
served in the vertical layers, the faults played an important role
in vertical hydrocarbon migration.
Both structural and lithologic reservoirs were discovered in
this region. In addition to the structural traps, numerous small
sand bodies were also found in this area, indicating a relatively
low hydrocarbon exploration potential and limited economic
value. Both the structural traps and lithologic traps were mostly
pierced by a series of nearly vertical tensional-shear faults,
which formed in the Jiangjiaco and Paco sags after the Late Ol-
igocene, destroying the reservoirs (Fig. 10). Therefore, most of
204
Figure 10. Hydrocarbon migration and accumulation model for unit E2n2-2 in the Lunpola Basin.
the oil reservoirs discovered in these areas have abundant heavy
oil and bitumen resources. In contrast, there are few faults in the
center of the Jiangriaco sag, which contains favorable sedimen-
tary facies (delta plain, delta front, and fan delta). Therefore, due
to their better generation, accumulation, and preservation of oil,
the structural and lithologic traps in the center of the Jiangriaco
sag are favorable oil prospecting targets.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, we assessed the hydrocarbon generation, mi-
gration, and accumulation in the Lunpola Basin using basin mod-
eling and fluid inclusion analysis. Currently, there is no commer-
cially valuable crude oil exploitation in the basin; however, this
study provides an important quantitative evaluation for use in oil
exploration. Based on the results of our analysis, we draw the
following conclusions.
(1) Based on the geochemical data, the organic matter abun-
dances, types, and maturities of the source rocks in the Lunpola
Basin were evaluated. The results of this analysis indicate that
the E2n2-2 source rocks have a high organic matter abundance,
Type I-II1 kerogen, and a high maturity, and it is the largest con-
tributor to oil accumulation in the study area. The oil-source cor-
relation illustrates that the E2n2-3 and E2n3-1 oils were generated
from the E2n2-2 source rocks, and the E2n2-2 source rocks are the
thickest and most widely distributed. In summary, unit E2n2-2 is
the major source rock in the central depression belt of the Lun-
pola Basin.
(2) Hydrocarbon geothermal and maturity modeling indi-
cates that the E2n2-2 source rocks began to generate hydrocarbon
at about 3530 Ma; reached a maturity of Ro=0.7% at around
2520 Ma; and at present, they are in the peak oil generation stage
with a thermal maturity of Ro=0.8% to less than Ro=1.0%.
(3) Based on the petrography, fluorescence, and microther-
mometry analyses of fluid inclusions, two major oil charging
events occurred at 26.117.5 and 32.424.6 Ma.
(4) The secondary petroleum migration pathways at 30 and
25 Ma accurately predicted the petroleum occurrences in the
self-generating and self-preserving E2n2-2 system. The migration
modeling results and the goodness of fit with the oil shows in the
wells indicate that there are three favorable oil accumulation
Yiming Liu, Jiaren Ye, Qiang Cao, Baolin Yang and Zhongrong Liu
zones, which are primarily located in the structural and lithologic
traps within the Jiangriaco and Paco sags.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is financially supported by the National Science
and the Technology Major Project (Nos. 2016ZX05024002-003,
2017ZX05032-001-004, 2016ZX05027-001-005), the National
Science Foundation of China (No. 41672136) and the Branch of
Exploration Project, SINOPEC (No. G0800-14-KK-169). We
would like to thank the Branch of Exploration Company, SI-
NOPEC which provides background geological data and permis-
sion to publish results. The final publication is available at
Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-019-1211-3.
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