3. a.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation is the task of dividing a table into a set of smaller tables. The subsets of the
table are called fragments. Fragmentation can be of three types: horizontal, vertical, and
hybrid (combination of horizontal and vertical). Horizontal fragmentation can further be
classified into two techniques: primary horizontal fragmentation and derived horizontal
fragmentation.

Types –

Vertical Fragmentation
In vertical fragmentation, the fields or columns of a table are grouped into fragments. In order
to maintain reconstructiveness, each fragment should contain the primary key field(s) of the
table. Vertical fragmentation can be used to enforce privacy of data.

Horizontal Fragmentation
Horizontal fragmentation groups the tuples of a table in accordance to values of one or more
fields. Horizontal fragmentation should also confirm to the rule of reconstructiveness. Each
horizontal fragment must have all columns of the original base table.

Hybrid Fragmentation
In hybrid fragmentation, a combination of horizontal and vertical fragmentation techniques
are used. This is the most flexible fragmentation technique since it generates fragments with
minimal extraneous information. However, reconstruction of the original table is often an
expensive task.

b.Conditions for mvd

Multivalued Dependency
 Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each
other but, both depend on a third attribute.
 A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a third
attribute that's why it always requires at least three attributes.

c. Locking-

Locking protocols are used in database management systems as a means of concurrency control.
Multiple transactions may request a lock on a data item simultaneously. Hence, we require a
mechanism to manage the locking requests made by transactions. Such a mechanism is called as
Lock Manager. It relies on the process of message passing where transactions and lock manager
exchange messages to handle the locking and unlocking of data items.
Indexed sequential access method (ISAM)
ISAM method is an advanced sequential file organization. In this method, records are stored
in the file using the primary key. An index value is generated for each primary key and
mapped with the record. This index contains the address of the record in the file.

Pros of ISAM:
 In this method, each record has the address of its data block, searching a record in a
huge database is quick and easy.
 This method supports range retrieval and partial retrieval of records. Since the index
is based on the primary key values, we can retrieve the data for the given range of
value. In the same way, the partial value can also be easily searched, i.e., the student
name starting with 'JA' can be easily searched.

Cons of ISAM
 This method requires extra space in the disk to store the index value.
 When the new records are inserted, then these files have to be reconstructed to
maintain the sequence.
 When the record is deleted, then the space used by it needs to be released. Otherwise,
the performance of the database will slow down.

4.b>RDBMS vS DBMS

DBMS
The relationship between two tables
or files maintain by the program.
It doesn’t support client server
architecture.
There is no security of data.
It doesn’t support distributed
database
Each table is given an extension.
RDBMS
The relationship between two tables
or files specified at the time of table
operation.
It support client server architecture.
Its has multiple level of security
Supports distributed database.
Many table are grow up in one
database.
A .Difference between Physical and Logical Data Independence :  

Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence

It mainly concern about how the data is It mainly concerned about the structure or the
stored into the system. changing data definition.
It is difficult to retrieve because the data is
It is easy to retrieve. mainly dependent on the logical structure of
data.
As compared to the logical independence it is As compared to the physical independence it is
easy to achieve physical data independence. not easy to achieve logical data independence.
Any change at the physical level, does not The change in the logical level requires a
require to change at the application level. change at the application level.
The modifications made at the internal level The modifications made at the logical level is
may or may not be needed to improve the significant whenever the logical structure of
performance of the structure. the database is to be changed.

e.

Difference between Strong and Weak Entity:

S.NO Strong Entity Weak Entity

Strong entity always has primary While weak entity has partial discriminator
1.
key. key.
Strong entity is not dependent of
2. Weak entity is depend on strong entity.
any other entity.
Strong entity is represented by Weak entity is represented by double
3.
single rectangle. rectangle.
Two strong entity’s relationship While the relation between one strong and
4. is represented by single one weak entity is represented by double
diamond. diamond.
Strong entity have either total While weak entity always has total
5.
participation or not. participation.

D.Difference between Information and Data:

S.NO DATA INFORMATION

Data are the variables which helps
1 Informations are the meaningful of data.
to develop ideas/conclusions.
Information is refined form of actual
2 Data are text and numerical values.
data.
3 Data doesn’t rely on Information. While Information relies on Data.
Bits and Bytes are the measuring Information is measured in meaningful
4
unit of data. units like time, quantity, etc.
5 Data can be easily structured as the Information can also be structured as the
following: following:
1.Tabular data 1.Language
2.Graph 2.Ideas
S.NO DATA INFORMATION
3.Data tree 3.Thoughts
Data does not have any specific Information carries a meaning that has
6
purpose been assigned by interpreting data.
7 It is low-level knowledge. It is the second level of knowledge.

1.a What is ACID properties:-

To ensure the data entrigrity the DB system maintain the following

properties of transaction, these are
1. Atomicity- this property ensure that the oparetion of transaction
are replicated property in the DB. It ensure either all or none the
operations of transaction are carried out.
2. Consistency- this property ensure that the Db remains in a
constrains before the state of transaction and the transaction is
over.
3. Isolation- It ensure that it executed transaction execution of each
isolation. The transaction executing concurrently in the system.
4. Durability- this property ensure that after the successful
compilation of a transaction. When a transaction commits the
change of data base or the DB is irrespective and the system is
feliure.

c. Transaction State
1. Active- It define the state of transaction.
2. Partial Commmited- After the last statement Have been
executed then the state is executed.
3. Commited- Define the the successful execution is
completed.
4. Failed- When normal execution can no longer process then
its executed.
5. Abort- After The transaction have been rolled back and the
db restored to its state and prior to the start of transaction
then the state is executed.