IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L.

Sharma 2006-07

THE SEISMOGRAPH
By M. L. Sharma, Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee
1.0 Introduction
The earliest known instrument indicating the arrival of a seismic tremor from a distant source is reputed to have
been invented by a Chinese astronomer called Chang Heng in 132 A.D. The device consisted of eight inverted
dragons placed at equal intervals around the rim of a vase. Under each dragon sat an open-mouthed metal toad.
Each dragon held a bronze ball in its mouth. When a slight tremor shook the device, an internal mechanism
opened the mouth of one dragon, releasing its bronze ball, which fell into the open mouth of the metal toad
beneath, thereby marking the direction of arrival of the tremor. The principle of this instrument was used in 18th
century European devices that consisted of brimful bowls of water or mercury with grooved rims under which
tiny collector bowls were placed to collect the overflow occasioned by a seismic tremor. These instruments gave
visible evidence of a seismic event but were unable to trace a permanent record of the seismic wave itself: They
are classified as seismoscopes.
The science of seismology dates from the invention of the seismograph by the English scientist John Milne in
1892. Its name derives from its ability to convert an unfelt ground vibration into a visible record. The
seismograph consists of a receiver and a recorder. The ground vibration is detected and amplified by a sensor,
called the seismometer or, in exploration seismology, the geophone. In modem instruments the vibration is
amplified and filtered electronically. The amplified ground motion is converted to a visible record, called the
seismogram.
The seismometer makes use of the principle of
inertia. If a heavy mass is only loosely coupled
to the ground (for example, by suspending it
from a wire like a pendulum as in Fig. 1, the
motion of the Earth caused by a seismic wave is
only partly transferred to the mass. While the
ground vibrates, the inertia of the heavy mass
assures that it does not move as much, if at all.
The seismometer amplifies and records the
relative motion between the mass and the
ground.
Fig. 1 The Principle of the seismometer.
Because of its inertia, a suspended heavy mass
remains almost stationary when the ground and
suspension move to the left or to the right.
Early seismographs were undamped and reacted only to a limited band of seismic frequencies. Seismic waves
with inappropriate frequencies were barely recorded at all, but strong waves could set the instrument into
resonant vibration. In 1903, the German seismologist Emil Wiechert substantially increased the accuracy of the
seismograph by improving the amplification method and by damping the instrument. These early instruments
relied on mechanical levers for amplification and recording signals on smoked paper. This made them both
bulky and heavy, which severely restricted their application.
A major technological improvement was achieved in 1906, when Prince Boris Galitzin of Russia introduced the
electromagnetic seismometer, which allowed galvanometric recording on photographic paper. This electrical
method had the great advantage that the recorder could now be separated from the seismometer. The
seismometer has evolved constantly, with improvements in seismometer design and recording method,
culminating in modern broad- band instruments with digital recording on magnetic tape.
1.2 Principle of the seismometer
Seismometers are designed to react to motion of the Earth in a given direction. Mechanical instruments record
the amplified displacement of the ground; electromagnetic instruments respond to the velocity of ground
motion. Depending on the design, either type may respond to vertical or horizontal motion. Some modern
electromagnetic instruments are constructed so as to record simultaneously three orthogonal components of
motion. Most designs employ variations on the pendulum principle.
1.2.1 Vertical-motion seismometer
In the mechanical type of vertical-motion seismometer (Fig. 2a), a large mass is mounted on a horizontal bar
hinged at a pivot so that it can move only in the vertical plane. A pen attached to the bar writes on a horizontal
rotating drum that is fixed to the housing of the instrument. The bar is held in a horizontal position by a weak
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

spring. This assures a loose coupling between the mass and the housing, which is connected rigidly to the
ground. Vertical ground motion, as sensed during the passage of a seismic wave, is transmitted to the housing
but not to the inertial mass and the pen, which remain stationary. The pen inscribes a trace of the vertical
vibration of the housing on a paper fixed to the rotating drum. This trace is vertical motion seismogram of the
seismic wave.

Fig. 2 Schematic diagrams illustrating the principle of operation of the vertical-motion seismometer (a)
mechanical pendulum type (b) electromagnetic, moving coil type.
The electromagnetic seismometer responds to the relative motion between a magnet and a coil of wire. One of
these members is fixed to the housing of the instrument and thereby to the Earth. The other is suspended by a
spring and forms the inertial member. Two basic designs are possible. In the moving-magnet type, the coil is
fixed to the housing and the magnet is inertial. In the moving-coil type the roles are reversed (Fig. 2b). A coil of
wire fixed to the inertial mass is suspended between the poles of a strong magnet, which in turn is fixed to the
ground by the rigid housing. Any motion of the coil within the magnetic field induces a voltage in the coil
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. During a seismic arrival the vibration of the ground relative
to the mass is converted to an electrical voltage by induction in the coil. The voltage is amplified and
transmitted through an electrical circuit to the recorder.
1.2.2 Horizontal-motion seismometer
The principle of the mechanical type of horizontal-motion
seismometer is similar to that of the vertical-motion instrument. As
before the inertial mass is mounted on a horizontal bar, but the fulcrum
is now hinged almost vertically so that the mass is confined to swing
sideways in a nearly horizontal plane (Fig. 3). The behavior of the
system is similar to that of a gate when its hinges are slightly out of
vertical: alignment. If the hinge axis is tilted slightly forward, the
stable position of the gate is where its center of mass is at its lowest
point. In any displacement of the gate, the restoring gravitational
forces try to return it to this stable position. Similarly, the horizontal-
motion seismometer swings about its equilibrium position like a
horizontal pendulum (in fact it is the housing of the instrument that
moves and not the inertial mass). As in the vertical-motion
seismometer, a pen or light-beam attached to the stationary inertial
mass writes on a rotating drum (which in this case has a horizontal
axis) and records the relative motion between the mass and the
instrument housing. The trace of the ground motion detected with this
instrument is the horizontal-motion seismogram of the seismic wave.
Fig. 3 Schematic design of the pendulum
type horizontal-motion seismometer
The design of an electromagnetic horizontal-motion seismometer is similar to that of the vertical-motion type,
with the exception that the axis of the moving member (coil or magnet) is horizontal.

1.2.3 Strain seismometer

The pendulum seismometers described above are inertial devices, which depend on the resistance of a loosely
coupled mass to a change in its momentum. At about the same time that he developed the inertial seismograph,
Milne also conducted experiments with a primitive strain seismograph that measured the change in distance
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

between two posts during the passage of a seismic wave. The gain of early strain seismographs was low.
However, in 1935 H. Benioff invented a sensitive strain seismograph from which modern versions are
descended.
The principle of the instrument is shown in Fig. 4. It can record only horizontal displacements. Two collinear
horizontal rods made of fused quartz so as to be insensitive to temperature change are attached to posts about 20
m apart, fixed to the ground; their near ends are separated by a small gap. The changes in separation of the two
fixed posts result in changes in the gap width,
which are detected with a capacitance or
variable-reluctance transducer. In modem
instruments the variation in gap width may be
observed optically, using the interference
between laser light-beams reflected from
mirrors attached to the opposite sides of the gap.
The strain instrument is capable of resolving
strains of the order of 10-8 to 10-10
Fig. 4 Schematic design of a strain seismometer

2.0 Inertial Pendulum Systems

The theory of elastic waves explains how the earth vibrates as seismic waves pass through it and along
its surface. Quantitative analysis of these seismic disturbance requires that the vibrations be instrumentally
recorded. The instrument must
1. be able to detect the transient vibrations within a moving reference frame (the instrument moves with the
earth as it vibrates)
2. operate continuously with a very sensitive detection capability with absolute timing so that the ground
motion can be recorded as a function of time.
3. have fully known linear response to ground motion, or instrument calibration, which allows the seismic
recording to be accurately related to the amplitude and frequency content of the causal ground motion.
2.1 Principles of seismometer - Indicator equation
Almost all the seismometers are based on damped inertial-pendulum systems of one form or the other. Simple
vertical seismometer design is shown in Fig.

Ground displacement U(t) are communicated to the mass via the attached spring with favorably oriented
motions perturbing the system from its equilibrium position, leading to periodic oscillation of mass. Friction or
viscous damping, represented by dashpots, is generally proportional to the velocity of the mass and acts to
restore the system to its equilibrium position. Small scale fluctuations in the springs ad damping elements
determine the intrinsic instrument noise, below which the actual ground motion can not be detected.
The motion of the pendulum mass in an inertial reference frame is given by the sum of the ground motion plus
the deviation of mass from its equilibrium state, y(t). The force from the spring is –Ky(t), which is directly
proportional to movement of mass from its equilibrium position and which must involve stretching or
contraction of the spring which has the spring constant as K. The damping force, - − DY& (t ) is directly
proportional to the velocity of the mass, with D being a damping coefficient. Newton ’s second law (F=ma) is
then
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

− Ky (t ) − Dy& (t ) = m[ &y&(t ) + U&& (t )] (1)

rearranging the terms we get

&y&(t ) + 2γω 0 y& (t ) + ω 02 y (t ) = −U&&(t ) (2)

K
where ω 0 = , and γ = D / 2 KM is the damping factor. The significance of ω 0 is shown by
M
&& (t ) = 0
considering the undamped ( γ = 0 ) system with U

&y&(t ) + ω 02 y (t ) = 0 (3)
− i ω 0t
which has purely harmonic solutions of the form cos ω 0 t , sin ω 0 t , or e , where ω 0 is the natural or
resonant frequency of the undamped system.
All recording systems that translate the pendulum motion into an actual seismometer, x(t), involve at least a
magnification coefficient, G, that gives the indicator equation as
&x&(t ) + 2γω 0 x& (t ) + ω 02 x(t ) = −GU&& (t ) (4)
The solutions of equation 4 for prescribed functional forms U(t) can characterize the seismomgraph response.
This type of linear differential equation is readily solved using Laplac Transform ( for transient motions) or
Fourier Transform ( for stationary ground oscillations). It is straightforward to consider simple harmonic forms
of U9t such as
U (t ) = cos ωt − sin ωt (5)
− i ωt
Inspection of equation 4 indicates that x(t) will have the form x(t ) = x(ω )e , giving

− Gω 2
x(ω ) = (6)
ω 2 − ω 02 + 2iωγω 0
iφ (ω )
The complex function x(ω ) can be represented as x (ω ) = x (ω ) e with

Gω 2
x(ω ) =
(ω 2 − ω 02 ) 2 + 4ω 2ω 02γ 2

 2ωω γ 
φ = − tan −1  2 0 2  + π (7)
ω −ω0 
where x (ω ) is called the frequency response of the instrument, and x (ω ) is the amplitude response and
φ (ω ) is the phase delay. The actual physical seismomgram would correspond to the real part of the solution in
time domain,
∞
1
∫ x(ω ) e
iφ (ω ) iωt
x (t ) = e dω (8)
2π −∞

2.2 Effect of instrumental damping

The ground motion caused by a seismic wave contains a broad spectrum of frequencies. Equation (7) shows that
the response of the seismometer to different signal frequencies is strongly dependent on the value of the
damping factor γ . A completely undamped seismometer has γ =0, and for small values of γ the response of
the seismometer is said to be underdamped An undamped or greatly underdamped seismometer preferentially
amplifies signals near the natural frequency, and therefore cannot make an accurate record of the ground
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

motion; the undamped instrument will resonate at its natural

frequency ω 0 For all damping factors γ < 1 2 the
instrument response function has a peak, indicating
preferential amplification of a particular frequency.
The value γ = I corresponds to critical damping, so-called
because it delineates two different types of seismometer
response in the absence of a forcing vibration, If γ <1, the
damped, free seismometer responds to a disturbance by
swinging periodically with decreasing amplitude about its
rest position, If γ >1, the disturbed seismometer behaves
aperiodically, moving smoothly back to its rest position.
However, if the damping is too severe ( γ » I), the
instrument is overdamped and all frequencies in the ground
motion are suppressed.
The optimum behavior of a seismometer requires that the
instrument should respond to a wide range of frequencies in
the ground motion, without preferential amplification or
excessive suppression of frequencies. This requires that the
damping factor should be close to the critical value. It is
usually chosen to be in the range 70% to 100% of critical
damping (i.e., γ < 1 2 <I). At critical damping the
response of the seismometer to a periodic disturbing signal
with frequency ω is given by

Gω 2
x(ω ) = cos(ωt − φ )
ω 2 + ω 02
Long-period and short-period seismometers
The natural period ( 2π / ω ) of a seismometer is an important factor in determining what it actually records.
Two examples of special interest correspond to instruments with very long and very short natural periods,
respectively.
The long-period seismometer is an instrument in which the resonant frequency ω 0 is very low. For all but the
lowest frequencies we can write ω 0 << ω . The phase lag φ between the seismometer and the ground motion
becomes zero, and the amplitude of the seismometer displacement becomes equal to the amplified ground
displacement

x(ω ) = G cos(ωt )
The long-period seismometer is sometimes called a displacement meter. It is usually designed to record seismic
signals with frequencies of 0.01-0.1 Hz (i.e., periods in the range 10-100 s).
The short-period seismometer is constructed so as to have a very short natural period and a correspondingly high
resonant frequency ω 0 , which is higher than most frequencies in the seismic wave. Under these conditions we
have ω 0 >> ω the phase difference φ is again small then

Gω 2 1
x(ω ) = cos(ωt ) = − 2 U&&
ω02
ω0
This equation shows that the displacement of the short- period seismometer is proportional to the acceleration of
the ground. and the instrument is accordingly called an accelerometer. It is usually designed to respond to
seismic frequencies of 1-10 Hz (periods in the range 0.1-1 s). An accelerometer is particularly suitable for
recording strong motion earthquakes, when the amplitude of the ground motion would send a normal type of
displacement seismometer off-scale.
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

Table: Comparison of various earthquake recording instruments

Typical Zero frequency Conventional Strong motion High frequency Wide-band

Characteristics seismology seismology seismology seismology seismology
Familiar Earthquake Teleseismic Strong ground Microearthquake General
name(s) strain recording motion recording system earthquake
monitoring/ recording observation
recording system

Frequency O (DC) 0.25-15.0 1.0-15.0 50(10) 10-5-600Hz

Period(sec) - 40-1.0 1.0-0.02 0.1-0.02 10-5-.0017
Magnification 108 or more 103 -105 102-103 106 and more Selectable in
wide range
Recording 1 cm/hour 30-60 mm/min 1cm/sec 120-240 mm/min -do-
speed
Location of Underground Remote & Busy locations Sites of major -do-
recording Faults noisefree engineering
locations projects, borehole
Inter station Few hundred 100 1-10 30 -do-
distance(km)
Applications Earthtides, Earthquake Ground- Aftershocks All those listed
Prediction parameters acceleration Induced activity earlier
including time history fir Activity faults
locations earthquake Mining, Thermal
engineering zones, Sites
Risk analysis
source investigation,
mechanism Crustal structure,
Prediction

3.0 Seismographs and associated instruments

In general, a seismograph comprises a seismometer and a recording
arrangement. The seismometer responds to the ground movements and
generates signals suitable for recording. The more commonly used
seismometers can be grouped into three types-direct coupled (mechanical),
moving coil and variable reluctance. In the latter two types the output from the
seismometer is fed to a moving coil galvanometer before being coupled to the
recording arrangements. The various types of seismometers and their principle
are described and some examples given. The general features of the method of
recording and other arrangements are also given (Benioff, 1955; Willmore,
1959).
3.1 DIRECT COUPLED TYPE
In the direct coupled seismographs the output of the seismometer is directly
coupled to the recorder using a mechanical or optical lever arrangement
Naturally, the maximum magnifications possible through such seismographs are
limited. Examples are the Milne Shaw, Weichert and Wood-Anderson
seismographs.
Wood-Anderson Seismograph The Wood-Anderson seismograph, developed in
1925, makes use of the torsion pendulum, i.e., the restoring force is due to the
torsion of a wire. A diagram is shown in Figure to illustrate the principle. A
small copper cylinder of 0.7 grams weight. 2 mm diameter and 2.,) cm length is
attached eccentrically to a taut wire. The wire is made of tungsten and is 1/50
mm in diameter. A small plane mirror is fixed to the cylinder which reflects the
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

beam from a light source. By means of the double reflection of the light beam from the mirror. magnification up
to 2800 can be achieved. Electromagnetic damping (0.8 of the critical) of the eddy current type is provided by
placing the copper mass in a magnetic field of a permanent horseshoe- shaped magnet. The period of the
instrument is 0.8 sec. This instrument has proved the most suitable and stable one for recording tile horizontal
components of moderate local earthquakes. Since the magnification is low, the instrument is not good for
recording the feeble motions of a short period. It is considered the standard instrument for earthquake magnitude
determinations.
3.2 MOVING COIL TYPE
In order to overcome some of the limitations, particularly those of the
magnification of the direct coupled seismographs, Galitzin so attached a
coil to the pendulum that, when displaced, it would swing between the
poles of a magnet, as shown in Figure. The e.m.f. generated from such
movements is detected by connecting the coil to a sensitive
galvanometer. The e.m.f., which deflects the galvanometer, is
proportional to the velocity rather than the displacement of the
pendulum. The problem of zero line shift in this case is much less severe
than with direct coupled instruments. The galvanometer coil can be
made much lighter than series of mechanical levers reducing the total
inertia of the seismometer mass and enabling higher magnification.
Theoretical considerations show that the equation of motion for such a
system is a fourth-order differential equation. The constants of the
galvanometer and the seismometer enter symmetrically into all terms in
such a way that the constants of the galvanometer can be exchanged
with those of the seismometer without a1tering the shape of the response
curves. With a proper choice of periods of the seismometer and the
galvanometer, the instrument can be made suitable for a specific
purpose. Examples are the Sprengnether microseismograph and the
India Meteorological Department's short-period vertical component
seismograph.
3.3 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE
The response of the Galitzin seismograph is limited in the range of
magnifications available for short periods. For the same energy in
seismic waves the amplitude varies inversely with the period. Also,
the microseismic activity de- creases sharply for periods below 4 sec.
Hence, to record effectively the low period range up to 0.2 sec, it is
necessary that the pendulum be heavy, say 50 to 100 kg, with the
period in the neighborhood of 1 sec, so that the magnification is high.
There are limitations in providing a sufficiently strong magnetic field
to damp such a heavy pendulum by the reaction of the output
currents. Thus, the electromagnetic seismograph becomes inadequate
for recording short-period signals. This limitation has been overcome
by the development of a variable reluctance transducer. It consists of
a magnet set up between the two armatures on which the coils are
wound, as shown in Figure. The armatures are attached to a
pendulum while the rest portion is attached to a fixed frame, such
that the movement of the pendulum relative to the frame will change the length of the air gaps and thus the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit. This, in turn, changes the magnetic flux through the armature, and generates
e.m.f. in the coil surrounding the armatures.
1. Benioff-Vertical Component Seismograph This instrument makes use of a variable reluctance
transducer, as is schematically shown in Figure. A mass of 100 kg in the form of a hollow steel cylinder is
supported by a nickel-alloy spring having a very low thermal coefficient of elasticity. The motion of the
pendulum is guided vertically by means of guide ribbons and a constant tension is maintained on the spring
during motion of the pendulum, which is adjustable by a screw and serves to vary the period of the pendulum,
which is 1 sec. The magnet, which is the fixed portion of the transducer, is in the form of a square plate 7.5 x 7.5
x 1.6 cm that is in contact at its two ends with the flux-distributing members made of high permeability and low
hysteresis. alloy. The flux is thus transmitted to the two armatures, which form the moving portion of the
transducer, across the four air gaps, which are approximately 2 mm long each. The transducer is provided with
eight coils of 125 ohms resistance each. The output of this is large enough to operate two galvanometers with
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

periods of 0.2 sec and 90-100 sec. The

maximum magnification for a short-period
combination is of the order 2 x 105, which is
adequate. The temperature stability of this
instrument is an important feature. It remains
stable and operable over a temperature range
of approximately 550 C without adjustment. It
is one of the most powerful instruments in
common use in seismological stations.
2 Benioff-Horizontal Component
Seismograph
In the horizontal component seismograph the
mass is divided into two equal parts, rigidly
attached to each other, and the transducer is
mounted between them. Except for the
difference in mass suspension, it is similar to
the vertical component instrument. The
restoring force is not provided by a spring but
by the tension of the guide ribbons and gravity.

Types of particle motion Recording devices

Displacement Smoke paper

Velocity Wax Paper
Acceleration Inkjet
Optical/Photographic

Recording drum
Motion -------- Rotational Synchronous Motors
Transnational
Speeds : 8 mm/min Milneshaw
30 mm /min Sprengnether
60 min / min Benioff
Local recording 120 mm min 240 mm / min
Time marking arrangements
Clock to relay a signal every minute shut the light
Shift the light source
Calibration
Impulse method ; Shake table method; Harmonic device method
Modern equipment
• Digital recording ; Computer monitoring; Recording Hard disc/CD etc.
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

TELEMETERED DIGITAL SEISMIC ARRAYS

By M. L. Sharma

Surveillance of earthquake activity is a prime requisite for seismological investigations and research.
To accomplish this, appropriate instrumentation which could record and provide data in a standard
format must be used. Information on earthquakes in a region can be acquired through the installation
and careful operation of seismograph networks. Conventional instrumentation for microearthquake
surveys recording earthquake waves at individual transducer stations is not only cumbersome in
operation and its routine maintenance but also introduces appreciable errors in absolute times of
recorded phases. Therefore, it is highly desirable to have seismograph networks in which the seismic
signal from several seismometer stations are transmitted to a central recording station via
cables/telephone lines/radios for simultaneous recording with a common time reference.

EARTHQUAKE STATION NETWORKS

Earthquake station networks can be categorized as world wide networks, regional/national networks,
and local networks. We know that the smaller the magnitude of earthquakes one can record, the
greater the amount of data one can collect. Micro earthquake networks are designed to record vast
amount of earthquake occurrence data as shown by frequency magnitude relationship. The
conventional seismographs installed in world wide and regional/national networks are not designed to
record microearthquake activity at short distances. Monitoring of local seismic activity enables better
delineation of active faults, depth of activity and type of dislocation occurring along them.
Regional/national networks supplement information on events in the far field.

Why Telemetered Array of Seismic Stations ?

Location of an earthquake event depends on several factors including the accuracy in the arrival times
of P- and S-phases. Conventional microearthquake recording station networks with independent time
references at individual stations, in general, provide inaccurate estimates of arrival times of P- and S-
phases, thus limiting the reliability and accuracy of the location of events. Due to appreciable errors in
time correlations at individual stations and subjective interpretation of arrival times, the accuracy of
hypocentral coordinates is severely restricted. The telemetered array linking the seismometer
outstations to a central recording site takes care of most of the limitations of the conventional
recording. The biggest advantage of the telemetered network is the central recording of the data with
a common time base. Once the data is recorded from many stations at a central recording site, real
time processing of the data becomes possible. Another advantage of such type of arrays is the
triggered event recording which can conveniently reduce the volume of data to be stored for further
processing. The four main advantages of the telemetered seismic networks can be summarized as:
1. Central recording linking remote seismometer stations.
2. Data acquisition with common time base.
3. Real time data processing feasible.
4. Facility of triggered event recording.

Why Digital Telemetered Array of Seismic Stations ?

The advantages of the digital data over the analog data in seismology are well known. Due to the
advancement in digital technology it is possible now to record the seismic data in digital form. The
biggest advantage is that of larger dynamic range available. Low level activity close to the network is
often not picked up due to low dynamic range of the system. On the other hand, in case of large
earthquakes analog records show clipping of amplitudes of the recorded data. The digital data
recording has higher dynamic range and provides better resolution. The data recorded by digital
arrays is not affected by system noise and component drift. Signal quality in this case is not influenced
by spurious environmental disturbances. As the software packages are available, or may be
developed for data processing, on-line data processing of signal is possible in case of digital
telemetered arrays. The processing can be directly done in frequency domain which is the choice of
most of the scientists for post processing, due to its advantages on time-domain processing.
Small earthquakes occur more frequently as compared to major events and the small events
supplement the scarce instrumentally observed data on earthquake occurrence. Thus, in terms of
historical development all over the world to obtain information on seismicity, microearthquake station
networks were evolved from regional/national networks, initially through deployment of
mobile/temporary networks to study aftershocks in the region affected by major earthquakes and
subsequently as a practice for reconnaissance surveys and monitoring of earthquake activity for short
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

duration. Presently, microearthquake networks are also deployed as permanent array of telemetered
seismic stations with common time base. The methodology and techniques to study
microearthquakes by such networks developed more or less independently by various groups in
several countries notably in U.S.A., Japan and South Africa.
Advantages of digital over analogue
1. Component tolerance are critical
2. Component drift and spurious environmental signals have no significance on system
performance
3. Accuracy is high
4. Reliability is more
5. Physical size of equipment is small
6. Dynamic range is more

Sampling theorem
A band limited signal which has no spectral components above a frequency fn (Hz) is uniquely
determined by its values at uniform sampling interval less than 1/fn seconds apart. Fn Nyquist
frequency

Data Transmission
The advancement in technology made it possible now to telemeter the data from different transducer
stations to a central place where the data is recorded on a computer based data acquisition system. It
is easier now to record the seismic events by correlating the data from each station for confirmation of
the incoming time series to be a seismic event. The data may be transmitted to central recording site
through telephone cables or radios. In case of telephone cables the distance is the main constraint.
For a radio wave to convey a message some features of the wave must be varied in accordance with
the information to be transmitted. A sinusoidal radio carrier wave has only three parameters viz,
amplitude, frequency and phase which can be varied by superposing the message on the carrier
wave to produce modulation. Obliviously, three modulation schemes, amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) are possible. If a continuous modulation
parameter is used, it is called analog modulation, but if specific values are assigned, the modulation is
said to be digital. Even though AM, FM and PM are obvious, simple frequency translation (FT)
technique can also serve as modulation method. In FT the information or base band frequency is
simply translated in frequency spectrum to the range of carrier frequency. The translated spectrum is
then transmitted.
At the receiver, the signal recovery needs a synchronous or homodyne receiver which require a
coherent carrier. The data so received is demodulated and then serialized data is transformed to
parallel bit stream to feed in the computer for recording. In case of digital transmission the data is
digitized at the seismometer out stations and transmitted in digital form while in case of analog
telemetry the data is transmitted in analog form and digitized at the central recording station. Satellite
telemetry can also be made for the data transmission but is a costly affair
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

Trigger Algorithm
To detect earthquakes in the incoming signals, one must exploit their signal characteristics. The
background signals typically have a low amplitude and low frequency and their appearance is
quit random/periodic. Because of instrumental noise and cultural activity, transient signals over a
broad range of amplitudes and periods are often present. In case of seismic signals, depending
on the size of the event, teleseismic events can range from barely perceptible to those that
saturate the instruments. Their predominant periods are typically few seconds. As with the
teleseismic events, amplitudes of regional events can range from barely perceptible to large, but
their predominant periods are less than those of teleseismic events. Local earthquakes often are
characterized by impulsive onsets and high frequency waves. The envelop of local earthquake
signals typically has an exponential decaying tail. Another characteristic of all earthquake
signals is that predominant period generally increases with time from the onset of the first arrival.
To exploit these characteristics, the event detection techniques use the concept of short term and long term
averages of the incoming signals. If the amplitude of the incoming signal is denoted by x(i), where i is the time
index, the short term average (STA) can be defined as
1 i
STA(i ) = ∑ x(t )
n t =n−i
Similarly the LTA which is long term average can be defined as
1 i
LTA(i) = ∑ x (t )
n t = n−i
The STA represents signal while the LTA represents the back ground noise level. The STAP and
LTAP which are short term average periods and Long Term Average Periods are kept so as to record
the desired signal. The STAP is typically chosen as 1 to 5 seconds while LTAP is chosen as 60
seconds or so. The ratio of the two is called trigger ratio TR given as
TR=STA/LTA
An event is said to be detected when
TR > THR
where THR is the threshold level for event detection. In case of centralized recording the event will be
recorded when TR exceeds THR at least at some prefixed number of stations with in some time window. This
technique reduces the chances of recording of noise bursts. Figure indicates the various steps of event
detection technique. The pre event and post event recording periods are chosen so as to record some of the
portion of the time series before and after the earthquake for further studies. The maximum recording
period is chosen to terminate the recording in case of a continuous noise triggering the system for recording.
 IEQ:02 Engineering Seismology and Seismotectonics M. L. Sharma 2006-07

Gutenberg Hodgson method

Gutenbrg:Hodgson's method is applicable to the determination of focal depth for shallow earthquakes. The
method makes the following assumptions to simplify the problem:
1) The outer surface of the earth and the shallow discontinuities are parallel planes.
2) The effect of the sacrificial sedimentary layer on travel times is neglected.
3) An average constant velocity for each layer is taken, instead of a gradual increment, to make the ray path in
each layer a straight line.
These assumptions allow the representation of the problem ,as depicted in Figure. F and E are the focus and
epicenter of the earthquake respectively, S -the recording station, h -depth of focus, k -thickness of top crustal
layer and u and v -the velocities in the top layer and just beneath this layer respectively.
The P-wave can reach the recording station on a straight line path (FS) and a refracted path (FABS). Let us call
the travel times on these two paths t1 and t2 respectively.

Now
1 h 2 + ∆2
t1 = = where ∆ is the epicentral distance
u u2
k −h k −h k −h k k k
a= = = , similarity, c = = =
cos i 1 − sin 2 i u2 cos i 1 − sin 2 i u2
1− 2 1− 2
v v
b = ∆ − EC − DS = ∆ − a sin i − c sin i = ∆ − (a + c ) sin i
u ( 2k − h)
b=∆−
u2
v 1− 2
v
Substituting for a, b and c in the expression for t2
∆ 1 2k − h u ( 2k − h) ∆ u2
t2 = + ( − ) = + ( 2 k − h ) 1 −
v u2 u v2 v v2
1−
v2
therefore
h 2 + ∆2 ∆ 1 1
t1 − t 2 = 2
− − 2k − h) 2 − 2
u v u v
The epicentral distance can be calculated and an average value can be taken for v. Thus t1-t2 expression
contains three unknowns i.e., h, k and u. If the observations are available for three or more stations, these can be
determined.