?*-" ?

"P)'*e-z' %d4
eaeAivgz e"f 4"e-
\ V"e ' \t
"A. A b6,M leflrtr,>.L
7. G. Barhet'.
D-d"..*-^,r??d
EARLY NEOLITHIC LAND USE IN YUGOSLAVIA

Early Neolithic Land Use in Yugoslavia

.B3 Gnernar BaRrBnl

Ever since the publication of Gordon Childe's Danube in Prehistory, almost fifty years ago, the
first neolithic colonisation of temperate Europe through the Balkans has been one of the corner-
stones of European prehistory. There is still a consensus of opinion in most of the recent literature
on the general character of this process: that it involved the transmission of farming techniques and
probably the movement of groups of peoples-the first farmers. Farming was 'carried into central
Europe up the Danube . . . a stone-using agricultural peasantry was widely established in eastern
Europe by 5ooo n.c.' (Piggott 1965,46). However, it has been extremely difficult to proceed beyond
this kind of general statement, because i.there is still an alarming shortage of detailed economic
'pvidence from early neolithic sitesinthe Balkans, Plant remainsandanimal bones have bedn reported
from neolithie sites scatter-ed,across the area fMurray r97o; Renfrew 1973), tin in inariy cases the
'recovery of this kind of 'eeonornic evidence was not the primary obje.ctive of excavation and, as a
result, the methods employed'io gather such eviilence hav6 raretiBeen sufficiently refined to meet
'the Stfliifient requirements of nioflern faunal and plant analysi$.. Alexander (tg72,34) noted recently
that, in the case of the First Neolithic of Yugoslavia, 'there is as yet no detailed analysis of the anim-
mal bones from any site' and adequate faunal and botanical reports from early neolithic excavations
are still all too few in the Balkan area as a whole.
Because the economic evidence is limited, most authors in recent years writing about neolithic
economies, whilst accepting the basic 'colonist' hypothesis, have necessarily confi.ned themselves
to the generalisation that the first farmers probably practised.shifting economies of some kind,
combininlg plant agriculture with stock keeping and, perhaps to some degree, with the exploitation
of wild resources (Alexander ry72; ehl.de rgST; Piggott 1965; Renfrew 1969, 1973; Tringham
r97r). 'The rural economy must have been one of shifting agriculture and pastoralism combined
with hunting and collecting. This will account for the relatively rapid spread of such a homogenous
culture over so vast a province'(Childe r957, 85-6), To attempt a more detailed analysis of neolithic
economy, relying only on the excavated evidence currently available, entails using the very small
sample of sites with economic data as a basis for interpreting the economies of the scores of neolithic
sites in the Balkans lacking any data of this kind. This is clearly a dangerous procedure, For example,
Murray's evidence for her assertion (rg7o, r ro) that 'sheep and goat were the basic domestic animal
of the Early Agricultural Neolithic of Greece and of the Stardevo-Kdrcis culture' (i.e. in Yugoslavia
and Hungary) consisted only of high sheep and goat percentages at Nea Nikornedeia in Greece and
Maroslele-Pana in Hungary, over 6oo km to the north. Tringham (rg7r,9r) gives the most detailed
description of Starievo land use: 'the settlements of the earliest agriculturalists in central and east
Yugoslavia are generally situated on the upper terraces of the river vaileys or on the edges of plat-
eaus'; but, she adds, 'what this reflects in terms of basic economy is impossible to tell until the faunal
and floral evidence of at least one site has been analysed' (Tringham ry7r, gr).
There is, however, one recent study which has progressed successfully beyond generalisations
about early neoiithic farming in the Balkans. The work of Dennell and Webley (rqZS) in southern
1 Address: Department of Ancient History, Sheffield University.

85.
 l'i I
t:
l

THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY I

i
I

Bulgaria was based on the technique of site catchment analysis described by Higgs and Vita-Finzi I

GgTz), augmented by the analysis of new faunal and plant samples recovered by Dennell. In this I

paper I shall discuss the first neolithic economies practised in temperate Yugoslavia, basing my
argument likewise on a field survey of Stardevo neolithic sites employing site catclrmcnt anelysis, I
,i
integrated with the available arclaeological evidence for the area.
It has become clear that the early neolithic cultures in the Balkan area share in an overail tradition I

of pottery, stone tools and other artifacts and a'culture group'has been defined: Karanovo I in
southern and Kremikovci in western Bulgaria, Stardevo in the eastern half of Yugoslavia, Kords in
eastern Hungary and Cri$ in Rumania (Tringham rg7r, 78-96). The Bulgarian sites have been
dated by radiocarbon to c..S7oo-Sooo bc, thus a few hundred years after the neolithic settlement at
Nea Nikomedeia in Greek Macedonia c. 6ooo bc (Rodden 196z). Dates for Stardevo sites range
from c. 55oo to c. +Soo bc and for Kiirds sites from just over 5ooo bc to c. 43oo bc (Tringham r97r,
zzo-r).
Within the Star6evo culture of Yugoslavia it is possible to discern at least three major sub-groups
in the archaeological record. In the south near the Greek border, at the junction of Mediterranean
and temperate Europe, is a southern group, about zo sites in all (fi.g. r: rr z,3), the painted pottery
of which is usually as complex as that of the Karanovo I and Proto-Sesklo cultures to the east and
south respectively. The central Stardevo sites, perhaps 35 in number, are characterised by one
painted ware, the classic black-on-red fine ware; they are scattered along the Morava and its
tributaries as far as the Danube (fig. r: 5). In the northern group, the Stardevo-Kdrds culture of
some authors, the repertoire grows simpler but painted pottery still occurs rarely. Theie are over
8o sites known in the Sava and Drava valleys and on the Pannonian Plain up to the Hungarian
border (fig. r: 9, ro), which draws what is essentially an artificial division between these sites and
those further up the Tisza river and its tributaries, on the plains to the north. In addition to the
three major groups, outlying sites are known in the Dinaric Alps and to the east at the Iron Gates
(such as Lepenski Vir, fig. r: 6). Within the major groups the material culiure grows increasingly
less complex from south to north; and the same trend can be observed in the culture group as a
whole. The trend seems to be in part chronological: the earliest radiocarbon dates are consistently
from the southernmost neolithic sites (c. 57oo bc in Bulgaria, c. S+oo bc in southern Yugoslavia),
whilst the earliest dates so far from sites in the central and northern Stardevo grgups and in
Hungary fall in the following millennium.

THE ENYIRONMENT
Landforms and climate
Yugoslavia divides into four major geographical regions (Osborne 1967; Shackleton 1964): the
Mediterranean littoral, the Dinaric highlands, the Morava-Vardar corridor lands and the Vojvodina,
the plains north of the Danube which are part of the great Pannonian Basin. r\ few Stardevo sites
are known in the Dinaric highlands, but the pajority lies in the Morava-Vardi?'corridor lands and
in the Vojvodina (fiS. ,). The Dinaric highland systlm rises to 3ooo m above sea level; within the
system there is a series of rift valleys or polja (Shackleton ry64, 433), many of which contain old lake
soils. To the north, aeolian deposits such as lgess and sand were laid down in the Pieistocene on the
Vojvodina. The Vardar-Morava corridor lands stretch 5oo km from the ,A.egean to the Danube-
the shortest route connecting central Europe to the Mediterranean. There are distinct climatic
differences between the Morava and the Vardar drainage areas, which are divided by the Crna Gora
rnountain range (fig. l). The Vardar basin experiences the hot dry summers of a Mediterranean
climate. North of the Vardar river the climate is continental, with cold winters and hot summers:
the average July temperature is zr"C, the average January temperature littie above freezing point.

86
E
tii
,!
1i\
,t&
A
l.t
r,rt

7. G. Barker. EARLv NEoLITHIc LAND usE IN yucosI.AvlA

iiit:
LT

ii{

ffi_

notionol boundory
I :_::
A I lond over 5oom
E"
I GffiruE-@
zoo
km

Fig. r
Yugoslavia, showing the distribution of Stardevo sites. The numbers refer to study areas or specific sites:
t.Bitolapolje;z.Bregalnicabasin;3.Zelenikovo;4.Kosovopolje;5. lqwerMorava;6.LepenskiVir;7.Vinda;
B. Stardevo; 9.lower Sava; ro, Vojvodina.

Precipitation on the lower ground is moderate: an average of 650 mrn per annum falls in the Vojvo-
dina and in the Morava and Vardar basins, mostly in the spring and early summer. The Dinaric
rnountains bet,veen the Adriatic coast and the Vardar-Morava corridor are noted for their much
higher rainfall: for example, some zsoo mm per annutn fall in Montenegro.

Soils
The soils of Yugoslavia vary according to the parent rock, the local climatic conditions and past
vegetation. However,.five major soil groups can be defined in the areas of Stardevo settlement.
t."Rnd*inoit Carbonate soils cover the limestone area of highland Yugoslavia. These soils are
generally shallow and stony, so that any. patches of deeper soil are often of local importance for
cultivation. The limestone substratum and the steep topography combine to produce excessive
drainage, so that little water is available for plant growth and the soil is liable to drought in a warm

o^
 , THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

season. Thus although these soils have a high or rnoderately high amount of organic matter and
mineral nutrients, fet-titiq, i. low, principally because of the excessive drainage.
z*B-gAWEgra&;8atls(German Braunerde, Serbo-Croat gajnjata). These soils, relatively fertile
today but often in erodgd and leached forms, are the most common soil type of the hill country
south of the Danube, occurring on a wide variety of parent materials and in areas of very varied
relief (PeBi6 1967). Such soils are assumed to have formed under forest conditions; certainly they
are very susceptible to erosion when tree cover has been removed. Erosion can have a drastic effect
on fertility: on moderate slopes, for example, erosion may reduce yields by as much as 25-35 per
cent (Dudal et al. ry66,6t).
3. Chernoze;W ad S-Wnt"tas.: f'ertile but heavy black earths (chernozems) have developed on
the Vojvodifia plains and in the vblleys of the Sava and Drava, probably because of steppe conditions
in the past (Tanasijevi( et al. ry66). lhere are also isolated pockets of black earths to the south
of the Danube, in the lower Morava ialley. Richer than most soils in plant nutrients, as well as
having a favourable texture and a good stable structure, they are one of the major natural resources
of Yugoslavia today and are highly valued. They usually require deep ploughing. On the loess
plateaux the groundwater may be at a great depth (rS-:S m), but it is usually much nearer the
surface (:-6 *) on the terraces (Dudal et al. ry66,65). The principal heavy soil of the Morava-
Vardar corridor lands is called smonitsa or sruolnitsa ('pitch'); it is usually considered to have
developed on lacustrine clays and is found on high lacustrine terraces. Texture is heavy and pre-
dominantly clayey, structuie unstable. A principal feature of smonitsa is the tendency to swell
when wet. 'A considerable quantity of water is so strongly held that plants cannot absorb it'
(PeBi6 ry67, 5o). i
4. .Diluuiat Sodlir Erosion of the highland soils has resulted locally in the formation of diluvial
sandy soils in fans and shelves at the foot of the hills, particularly on the edge of the valley floors
of the rivers in the Morava-Vardar corridor lands. Today their gradients are less suited to mechanised
agriculture than the heavy plain soils and they are less valued. However, these soils are stony, well-
drained and can be relatively fertile, because their fertility is restored periodically by silt-laden
waters from the higher ground.
5..Fii.v*'tue srbdils:tThe soils which form on recent alluvial deposits vary considerably in texture
and drainage. In the Morava-Vardar corridor lands along the upper reaches of the rivers where
the gradients are steeper, the adjacent soils are light and sandy. These soils are not regarded as
very useful for agriculture today. Further downstream, as the gradients lessen, the soils becoine
progressively more loamy and then more clayey.

Soil Potential
Arable. It will be apparent that some of the soils described above are much more attractive to
the modern farmer than others. However, many of the qualities which make the soils rich or
potentially rich today would in fact have worked against the prehistoric farmer. Thus in the case
of the chernozems and smonitsa.s, 'efficient management requires mechanical power' (Dudal et al.
ry66, 7t); although their potential is recognised today, principally because their gentle gradients
favour mechanised cultivation,..the heavy texture would clearly have been extremely unfavourable
to early neolithic technology and expertise. On the other hand, the same technology could have
coped satisfagtorily with the lighter soils: thus the diluvial sandy soiis, now thought inferior to
the black earths, would probably have been attractive soils for early neoiithic cultivation. Likewise,
the neolithic f-armer would have preferred the lighter and less clayey stretches of alluvium, for
exarnple in the upper and middle reaches of the Morava. $s a secondary resource he could have
also tackled the forest soils. In their original state the forest soils would have been relatively rich

8B
 7. G. Barkel. EARLv NEoLITHIc LAND usE IN yucosI-AvlA

in mineral nutrients; once cleared, however, they would have been very susceptible to leaching
and erosion.
'Grazing..Soils which retained their moisture in the summer would have been a vital source of
all-year-rotird graziogt Such grazing could probably have been found on the heavy riverine clays,
lake soils, $monitsas and chernozems. All-year-round grazing near the settlement would have been
particularly valuable in the case of swine, to meet their needs when pannage was unavailable or
limited in wooded areas, and also for any cattle which had to be kept nearby through the year
for draught purposes. (However, it is assumed that the ard was not used in the Balkans for early
neolithic agriculture-the first direct evidence so far comes from later in the Neolithic.) Winter'
grazing would have been found in lowland areas on those soils too heavy to be cultivated but too
dry in summer to provide a year-round resource. Under their original vegetation, the forest soils
would have offered browse and winter fodder. Summer grazing, especially for sheep and goats,
would probably have been plentiful throughout the highlands on either side of the Morava-Vardar
corridor lands, on the rendzinas. In some cases changes in topography are so drastic that such
summer pasture lies within a few hours' journey of the river valleys, particularly in Macedonia;
but exploitation of the major areas of summer grazing would have necessitated transhumant
systems involving at least part of the community of a lowland neolithic settlement. Historically,
major areas used for summer.grazing have been the Dinaric Alps, the central highlands between
the Vardar and Morava (the Sar Planina and Crna Gora), and the mountains east of the corridor
(Sherratt rg7z, 528; Yugoslaoia,3, t945, 5zz-6).

al C hang e
G e omor phologic
Thus far the soils of temperate Yugoslavia have been discussed in terms of their attraitiveness
or otherwise to a neolithic community, on the assumption that their modern distribution is a
useful guide to the prehistoric situation. The assumption is warranted for rnost of the soils. Certainly
the ren&inas, the forest soils and many of the diluvial soils were in existence at the time of Stardevo
settlement in the sixth and fifth millennia bc. Most of the chernozem-smonitsa formations had
probably developed at this time. In Czechoslovakia chernozems on clays have been dated to c. gooo
Lp, on marls to c. 5ooo bp (Nemedek r97r). Most cheq.nozem and smoruitsa soils are thought to have
originated in the early Postglacial in Bulghria"(Dennell and Webley 1975, roo) and Yugoslavia
(PeEi6 r967). Elowever, there is also evidence in the Balkans for black earth formation and for the
transformation of alluvial soils in later periods. Dennell and Webley (1975, roo) argue that, in
Bulgaria, erosion of the high ground in the Early Bronze Age caused the formation of more smonitsa
soils and also the expansion of the heavy clayey alluvium upstream from the lower reaches of the
major rivers. Because the smonitsa will have developed in areas of irnpeded drainage, it is very
unlikely that such areas would have been selected for cultivation by neolithic agriculturalists.
Changes to the alluvial soils, on the other hand, are much more likely to have had a direct effect
on prehistoric settlement. In the Morava valley, for example, where the low relief and high water
table were always likely to impede drainage, erosion on the high ground at some time in the
past has resulted in the transformation of the 6oils on either side of the valley floor in the middle
and lower reaches of the Morava from fairly iight, loamy alluvium to healy'alluvial smonitsa', which
has most of the characteristics of true smonitsa (Pe5i6 1967).

THE FIELD SURVEY

The archaeological evidence recovered from a prehistoric site, including a tell, rarely provides
unequivocable proof of peimanent, seasonal or transitory occupation. Moreover, it is apparent that
in any case there is very little direct economic evidence for the 'first farrners' in Yugoslavia. Hence

89
 TIIE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

[ah" p.rrpose of the survey was to assess the possibilities inherent in the location of the StarEevo
I sites, as a foundation for building future models of Stardevo exploitation systems. I applied the
ftechnique of site catchment analysis to the Star6evo sites, defining the area within a S km radius
fi of each site as an 'economic territory' and endeatouring to assess the economic potential of the site
$'in te.m. of the natugal resource6 likely to have been available in the territory at the time of occu-
tpution. Of course it is difficult to ialculate the extent of tree cover on the various soils in
the past, particularly in thd Balkans, where pollen evidence is still very limited, but as Higgs and
Vita-Finzi have argued (1972,33-6), categories of seasonal grazing (and potentially seasonal grazing)
or of different kinds of arable (and potential arable), based on the different soils within the economic
territory, are probably a useful guide to the p4st economic potentia[ of a site. There must have
*been instances when the economy of a Startevo group entailed journeys beyond the 5 km territory,
"{but Chisholm's analysis of peasant economies suggests that in fact a much smaller area is usually
Scrucial for subsistence agriculture: 'at a distance of one kilometre the decline in netreturn is large
'i{enough to be significant as a factor adversely affecting the prosperity of a farming population'
.'i(Chisholm 1968, 66).

aitob rogi
The southernmost Stardevo sites (fig. r: r) are those of the Pelagonian basin, an enormous
polje sone 6o km long (north to south) by ro-r5 km wide. The basin experiences a climate transi-
tional between the Mediterranean and the continental. On the one hand, total precipitation during
the year is less than 5oo mm and most of it falls, as in the Mediterranean, during the winter months.
On the other hand, temperature variation is considerable and the climate is 'as rigorous as that of
almost any part of Yugoslavia' (Yugoslaoia, t, 1944, 238); mean January temperaturesrange from
-tz"Cto rzoC, mean July temperatures from rroC to 35"C, almost exactly the same regime as
at Belgrade on the Danube (Yugoslaaia, r, 1944, 47). Thin podzolic soils cover the hills round
the basin; below them are alluvial fans at the bottom of side valleys and there is also a narrow band
of diluvial soils round the basin edge. The backswamp or old lake soils on the polje floor have only
recently been drained for cultivation by modern co-operative farms.
Figure z shows the Stardevo settlements in Bitola polje, the southern half of the basin. The
most extensively excavated site is Velu5ka tumba (or tell) (fig. z: r). Porodin (Gara5anin 1953, 19541
Grbi6 196o; fig. z: z) is a very low mound on the edge of the former Vir Reka marsh, almost z km
from the polje edge, whereas Velu5ka tumba is an impressive tell some 6 m high, less than a kilo-
metre from the potje edge. A lake may still have filled the -centre of the plain during the period
of the neolithic occupation of these sites (Grbi6 196o); certainly there would still have been extremely
marshy areas, as shown in figure z.
Both settlements 'vr'ere able to exploit the backswamp soils on the floor of the basin. These soils
would have been heavy but water-retentive and thus less subject to strong seasonal desiccation
than the lighter sandy soils at the junction with the hills. In this respect the position of these
southernmost Stardevo sites is similar to that of Nea Nikomedeia in Greece or of Qatal Hiiyiik in
Anatolia (Sherratt rgTz). The Bitola tells were in the most 'Mediterranean' climatie situation (in
terms of rainfall at least) and the neolithic communities clearly chose to be near the backswamp
soils despite their marshy and perhaps malarial condition: at both Nea Nikomedeia and Qatal
Hiiynk, for example, Angel observed porotic hyperostosis in the skeletal remains, which is
probably associated with a form of anaemia conferring resistance to malaria (Angel 1968).
It is assumed that water retentive soils were selected by neolithic groups for cereal cultivation
(Sherratt rgTz),brt it ispossible thatstock rather than cropswere thedeciding factor forsite location
in the Bitola polje. At Velu5ka the faunal sample was dominated by sheep and goats (as at Nea

9o
 7. G. Barker. EARLY NEOLTTHIC LAND usE rN YUGoSLAvIA

Fig. z
Bitolapolje. The nurnbered triangles are tells, with 5 krn territories shown. r. Velulka; z, Porodin; 3. OptiEare;
4. Grgur; 5. Mogila; 6. Trn.

Nikomedeia) and also included pigs, cattle and red deer (Sanev,pers. comm.). Winter grazingfor
the sheep and goats would have been plentiful on the backswamp soils of the polje floor; in summer
flocks could have been taken up to the mountain pastures around the basin by village shepherds.
Wheat would certainly have been suited to the backswamp soils, but the lighter soils on the edge
of the basin were probably at least as important to the settlement, particularly for barley cultivation.
Velu5ka was much better located for this dual exploitation than any of the other Stardevo sites
in Figure e.

9I
 THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

*rflT:-t-ttdevo tells hthepoljeare some 5-ro km apart, with the exception of Porodin and Veluska,
fo, tt.i'^"- so close together that their contemporary occupation would have involved competition
s"ttle*Ile resources in the 5 km territory-the winter grazrng especially. However, the Velu5ka
seems to have been the more attractive site. The impressive tell stands clear of the plain
""a .tiilit
ir tittt.'I-t hetres of depositcontain Stardevo material; at Porodin, however, the Stardevo occupation
o""r.*',*oYl. a metre tfrict< ahd the site is virtually covered by alluvium. Extensive flooding still
nooAir,.]'.-tn. fpring and presumably the settlement lay too near the Crna Reka marshes: even slight
i" n*,l1would have been enough to ruin standing crops in the vicinity. The other Star6evo tells
z are all as far from the areas liable to inundation as Veluska.
Tf,"::
ro economic d4ta from these sites, but their territories suggesg that the neolithic
"o**..,l,.1t.
gro"o'-*)l'ls.here probably practised the same kind of mixed economy postulated for the Velu5ka
fr""tin"'IlnPrning crop cultivation with stock-keeping (principally caprines) and perhaps also with
.".o,r""1lnd fishing in the marshes. The position of the Bitola sites enabled the use of a variety of
neolitf,]]" and thus the development of stable mobile-cum-sedentary economies. Presumably the
occupying the tells integrated mobile stock-keeping with fairly sophisticated
""ttiu"r;-^jtoups
the cr-^"ll systems of fallow, crop rotation and infield grazir,g to manure the arable land, as in
-" ur the
Bulgarian tells where site location is very similar (Dennell and Webley rgzil.

'\{:::: Bregarnica basins and Kosoao potje

,.ra *".tltt Stardevo sites in the southern group are situated in the valleys of the Vardar (fig. ,, :)
"i..*.lJ.ot tributary, the Rregalnica (fig. r, z), with outlying sites in Kosovo polje (frg. r, 4). The
^r""
sumqrj,l"Ptby the cold northerly 'Vardaric' wind and, like Bitolapolje,is characterised by scorching
J"lV, a,llnd very cold winters. Precipitation is as limited as in the Pelagonian basin, but although
d.firr.a*ltt] and September are the driest months, the winter precipitation maximum is much less
4s
regim"l these ur" transitional between the Mediterranean and the continental precipitation
"..u. z-1oa m above sea level, are surrounded by hills rising up to zooo m. The
tt i" .to",,tfe.valleys,
sire q.r;f_ *otls of the hill country, like the hills around Bitola polje, carry mixed forests and exten-
"r. fi.l'*'S Sreas today, especially for sheep. Most of the lower ground is now cultivated: there
Bregalni sorls, szorzfsas and various grades of alluvium. Five Stardevo sites are known in the
art.-oi',"]_basin (fig.3). Vr$nik (Gara5anin and Gara5anin 196o-6r; fig.3:3) has aradiocarbon
fig. 3, rfvrS bc + r5o and there are seven radiocarbon dates for Anzabegovo (Gimbutas r97z;
ni* ,"i-'.i[[!["l,13.Oi[t.O93o bc. Rectangular houses were found at the latter site, built of
Or;;
"" iitlllld
g."guto',.^c-nt*.ides
(Gara5anin et al. r97r ; fig. 3: 4) occupy almost identical iositions, though
of the Bregalnica. Both sites are on the fans of streams running down to the
eviden".""i Yomestic animals (without percentage detaiis) were reported at Vr5nik, where cereal
villagss-.-urcludes einkorn, emmer, bread wheat and barley (Hopf 196o-6r). Like the modern
".rd
linl*" the Bregalnica basin, these two settlements were placed at the junction of the heavy
of th""-^..iultivable winter grazing for stock was available within the territories
-"{rernents soils; abundant
one of and higher summer pastures were easily accessible at the head of the valley,
Futf,^-- )t..*"t grazing areas traditionally used by Vlach pastoralists.
, trown
of S.nii., stopingthe Bregalnica river, the Anzabegovo settlernent was situated on the southern end
settlerne.i spur, on a low terrace of the Nikolska river (fig. :, z). The spur occupied by the
rorms the
sector of ;;_ western boundary of the Ovde p olje ('sheep basin'), whioh fiils the north-east
from th"'ill 5hrnterritory.Ovtepoljeiscoveredbycoarsealluvium,whichisverydifferentintexture
Th" .'^' lake soils and which has only been put under the plough in the postwar period.
^u.i^'1tola
Elven to the basin is the result of its use until the last war as one of the traditional wintering

92
 7. G. Ba*er. EARLY NEoLITHIC LAND usE IN YUGoSLAVTA

Fig. :
The Stardevo settlements in the Bregalnica basin, with 5 kmterritories shown. r, Rug Bajr; z. Anzabegovo;
:. VrSnik; 4. Orizare;5- Leskovica.

areas for the transhumant, flocks (e.g. Yugoslaoia t, t944; plate 5B). The southern half of the
Anzabegovo territory covers rolling hills with a thin soil cover-another enormous grazing resource.
Signifi.cintly, the nlolithic faunal sample at the site was dominated by sheep and goat,bones,
fofiowed by those of cattle, pig and dog. There are heavy smonitsas in the northwest sector of the
territory ,nd thrr. the only area which was probably cultivable by the Stardevo group would have
been thl narrow strip of comparatively well-watered soil along the Nikolska. The group grew wheat,
barley and lentils.
Resorrrces upriver at Rug Bajr (Gara5anin et al. ry7r; fig.3: r) are very.similar.to those of the
Anzabegovo teiritory. At Leshovica (Gara5anin tg14;fig.3: 5) the only area likely to have been used
for agriJulture is the thin strip of alluvium along the Lakavica stream and the narrow diluvial band

93
 THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

on either side, for the entire 5 km territo ry apartfrom these soils consists of thin stony rendzinas.
The major resource around the site is the winter sheep grazing; the modern hamlet is a shepherd
community. Zelenikovo (Galovii ry62-63; fig. r : 3), on the right bank of the Vardar rivei near
Skopje, is situated on a thin diluvial band of light soils above the Morava flood plain (fig.
4); as at

ZELEN IKOVO

ffi mountoin soils - posturelwoodlond

Eil fon ond diluviql soils - light oroble

tl
t==:l
olluvium

E::=l morsh
o
- Yorying oroble

5,
--A,;r

Fig.+
Soils and land use in the 5 km territory of Zelenikovo.

Orizare and Vr5nik, there are heavy soils and marshy areas in front of the site and mountain soils
behind. The Kosovo polje sites (fig. r: 4) occupy identical positions (fig. S). The heavy soils in front
of these sites are now the more valuable arable soils, but this is a recent phenomenon: 'the Kosovo
polje was chiefly used as a r.vinter pasturing place for transhumant livestock before the Serbian
occupation it tgrz' (Yugoslaoia 3, 1945,32). Until then, the main arable was limited to the edge of
the polje around the villages (Yugoslaaia r, r94S; pTate 5z), on the lighter soils on which the ihree
prehistoric sites in Figure 5 are located.

94
 7. G. Barkel. EARLv NBoLITHTc LAND usE IN yucosr-AvlA

Gt ADN IC E PRISTINA VITINA

ffiM ro.nroin ioils - posture/woodlond EE ,." qnd diluviol soils - lisht oroble EI :monilsor - heovy oroble
I
L--Jol!uvium - vorying oroble
l"
i
s
-...=...-:_-_afi

Soils and land use in the 5 t* ,"rri,ol"l jf ,nr". Stardevo sites in Kosovo polje.

The material recovered from these southern Stardevo sites is uniform, but the localities selected
for Stardevo settlement, and thus (presumably) the economic systems practised, were not. Caprines
seem to have been an important part of the econornies of the Vardar, Bregalnica and Kosovo sites:
the Stardevo groups selected positions which enabled their flocks to use the large areas of seasonal
gtaziflg in the territories and the amount of good cultivable soil seems to have been a secondary
consideration. Settlement of this nature was extensive and, unlike the Bitola tells, sites are not
located near one another. An intensive survey of Ovi,e polje found only the Anzabegovo settlement
(Sherratt rg72, Srg).
Mobile stock-keeping was equally adapted to the Thessalian plains, Bitola polje and the other
Macedonian basins: the contiguous areas of highland summer grazing could be used to overcome
the summer drought. Cereals, however, although successfully adapted to the winter rainfall of the
Mediterranean regime (progressively Iess defined north of Bitolapolje), had also to adapt to climatic
fluctuations north of the Greek border much more severe than to the south. In the Vardar basin,
for example, the extreme range between absolute summer maximum and absolute winter minimum
temperatures is from 36"C to
-r5"C (Yugoslavia t, 1944,238). One hypothesis to account for the
selection of the southern Stardevo sites beyond Bitola polje, which I have suggested from the
territories were predominantly pastoral, would be that neolithic cereal cultivation in fact lagged
behind caprine rearing in southern Yugoslavia. Certainly the constraints to the new resources were
not equally restrictive in Macedonia and we should not therefore expect identical rates of change or
adaptation.

The Moraoa Bqsin

The Morava basin stretches from the Crna Gora mountains north to the Danube. The region is
the heart of Old Serbia, or the Sumadija-literaily, the 'forested region': beech and oak forests
covered the basin until the last century. The climate is truly continental, with hot summers and
very cold winters. Rainfall is slightly more than in the Vardar basin (5-6oo mm compared with 5oo
mm a year), but it is differently distributed, falling mainly between May and September. At the
same time the Morava basin enjoys less sunshine than the Vardar (Yugoslaoia t, 1944, z4z). The
natural constraints affecting plant growth are clearly different in the two areas.

95
 THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

The lower Morava, below the confluence of the Zapadna and Binadka Morava rivers, meanders
across a wide flood plain, frequently changing its course. On either side of the river there are
abandoned channels dnd ox-bow lakes. There are two kinds of alluvium today: the loamy alluvium
has the best water, air and heat properties for cultivation, whereas the heavy texture of the clayey
alluvium makes its water and air properties much poorer (Pebi6 ry67, z4z). Although the depth of
the latter soil makes it potentially very fertile for mechanized farming, it still consists mostly of wet
meadows or marsh. The plain of the lower Morava is subject to fl.oods every spring and autumn,
whilst winter and summer floods are not infrequent. Oscillations in the water level of the Morava
are greater than in any other Yugoslav river (PeIi6 ry67, t64). Although the floods can be catastro-
phic, the alluvium is valuable today because the water table is high and because periodic flooding by
silt-laden waters can increase fertility. The rolling hills on either side of the Morava have two major
soil types: s?nonitsa and forest soils.
The Stardevo sites in the Sumadija (fig. I : 5) fall into two basic groups: those.in the main valley
(fig. 6: 3, 6-9) aad those in the adjacent hill country (fig. 6: r,2,4, 5, ro). All the Stardevo settlements
in the first gioup occupy positions on the edge of the Morava flood basin, at the junction between
the forest soils and what are now alluvial sffionitsas.It is probable, however, that the alluvium was
then more attractive for cultivation. Recent excavations at Drenovac (fig. 6: 9) revealed a 3-4 m
Star6evo deposit, sealed by later alluvial stnonitsas. Presumably flooding and deposition made the
position of the settlement less and less attractive: a later Star6evo and Vinda site has been found
nearby on higher ground (Vetni6, pers. comm.). Small pockets of light diluvial soils or fan soils were
also available at the foot of the slopes near the sites in this group.
Of the sites ip the second group, Tedi6 and Divostin have been excavated in recent years. At
Tedi6 (Galovi{ 196z-63; fig. 6: 4), there are fertile strips of well-watered soil along the Lugomir in
the vicinity of the site, but heavy wonitsas and forest soils cover the rest of the territory. The Bunar
territory (fig. 6: 5) is very similar. There are eight radiocarbon dates for the Stardevo occupation at
Divostin (fig. 6: z), between 5r5o and 495o bc (McPherron and Srejovid r97r). About 8o per cent
of the 5 km territory consists of the heavy waterlogged smonitsas but, as at Tedi6, there are strips of
well-drained soils along the streams which rise on the high ground west of the settlement and tra-
verse the territory. Grivac (west of Divostin, just off Figure 6) and Rajac (fig. 6: r) occupyvery
similar stream-side positions, surrounded by heary smonitsas. The 5 km territory of Crnokaladka
Bara, on the other side of the Morava (fig. 6: ro), encompasses forest soils, but the settlement itself
is also located on a narrow band of alluvium. Pollen from Divostin consisted mostly of a local weed
and grass vegetation, whilst there was also arboreal pollen of oak, elm and lime. The small faunal
sample included 45 per cent cattle, 43 per cent caprines and 4 per cent pig; red and roe deer were
also represented.
It is impossible to define chronological or economic relationships between the ten Stardevo
settlements in Figure 6. According to the excayator of Drenovac, the Divostin and Tedi6 sites
should be later than the Morava settlements (Vetnii, pers. comm-) ; but the Divostin radiocarbon
dates are uniformly early..One possibility, on the assumption that all the sites in Figure 6 were used
by farmers, is that the earliest agriculture took place on the Morava soils and that less attractfve
localities for agriculture were then selected by later Stardevo groups in the hill country on either
side of the main valley. An alternative hypothesis is that the two groups of sites were contemporary
but economically different-the peripheral sites could be separate agricultural sites, for example, or
satellite sites used by the Morava groups for seasonal grazing. There is clearly a wide rangfe o
possibilities to account for these Sumadija territories. We have no evidence for cereal cultivation,
little for stock-keeping and virtually none for the exploitation of wild resources. The Morava
neolithic settlements are for the mgst part ro-r5 km apart, so that the 5 km territories are usually
contiguous but not overlapping (fig. 6). Thus the impression is that the intensioe systems of mixed
 7. G. Barher. EARLY NEoLITHIC LAND usE IN YUGoSLAvIA

DI
l
I
ffil t'"::,, fo'"'t ffil oodrol F smonitso flffi dilrriu, WV rlluriol smonirso E oilr"im

05
r_km

Fig. 6
StarEwo settlements in the lower Morava basin, plotted on a soil map adapted from PeSid, 1967. 5 km terri-
tories shown. r. Rajac; z. Divostin; 3. Dobrovodica; 4. TediC; 5. Bunar; 6. Bukovde; 7. Supska; 8. Para6in;
9. Drenovac; ro. Crnokaladka Bara.

farming which had probably developed in parts of Macedonia at this time were replaced north of
the Crna Gora mountains by extens;ae systems of scattered sites. Within this pattern, however, the
varying territories (whether contemporary or not) imply varying economic systems: the basis of
further work in this area, as in Macedonia, should be the variation in Stardevo site location, rather
than the simplistic thesis of an undefined 'agriculture' carried by farmers inexorably north from the
Vardar to the Danube.

97
 THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

The Danube and the Sava Valleys

Th"_.gt"1J tell of Vinda is situated on the right bank of the Danube on the northern tip of the
=
Sumadija (fig. r: 7). To the east of the site is a narrow strip of alluvium, flooded in winter and
spring. The hills in'the 5 km territory are mantled with chernozems and, to the south, with forest
soils. The Boledica stream which runs past the site to the Danube has created a narrow belt of light
sandy alluvium. In many respects, therefore, the location of the Vinda tell at the junction of hei'1y
and light soils is similar to that of the Morava sites discussed above. The low mound of Stardevo
(fig. r: 8), however, situated only a few kilometres away on the other side of the Danube, exploited
a completely different territory (fig. 7). The settlement is on the southern edge of the Banat plains,
next to waterlogged soils seasonally inundated by the Danube until recent co*rok. Half of the km
5
territory extends over this marsh, the other half over the black earths of the Banat. There are no

STARCEVO

tu

rn
v

05
@Km
rrffir brown r--r
lr:il:irliil io[!i' ,oit E.h*,nozem W4 q ltuvium
a-i..-il
l-..:.-:-l morsh block soil ond minerol bog soil
Fie.z
The 5 km territories of Vinda and Stardevo.
 7. G. Barker. EARLY NEoLITHIC LAND usE rN YUGoSLAVTA

reliable economic data for the fwo sites, but the contrast between the two territories could scarcely
be more drastic.
Site location in the Sava valley at this time was as diverse (fig. r: 9). The river plain consists of
loamy or clayey alluvium with widespread areas of marshy bog soil (fig. 8). Today the Sava alluvium
is potentially a first class productive soil because of the shallow gradient, the soil depth and the
groundwater depth-in many places only z-3 m below the surface (Tanasijevi6 et al. 1966). How-
ever, flood control measures are essential to its fertility and a watertable only a little higher causes
severe waterlogging. Without strict control, seasonal waterlogging or flooding is inevitable over a
very wide area on either side of the Sava, where many of the Stardevo sites are located. The flooding
has caused extensive river 'wandering'over a distance of sevgral miles (Yugoslaztia t, rg44;42).
To the south, the higher ground has a mantle of forest soils, many of them now podzolised.

ffil bt13,fo'"tt
Elporopod.olEchernozem. El .oroh block soil ond minerol bog ,oil W ollu"iu^
Fig. 8
Stardevo settlements in the lower Sava basin, plotted on a soil map adapted from Tanasijevit et al,, 1966.
5 irm territories shown. r. Korito Milo5evice, Lipolist; z. BelotiC; 3, Kasarske Livade; 4. Dumaia, Sabac;
5. Obrez (Beletinci); 6.Obrcz (Ba5tine);7. Skela;8. Grabovac; g.Zvetka; ro. Barid. Theheavydottedline
marks areas of the Sava alluvium liable to.seasonal inundation, after Yugoslaoia r, tg44:35.

Several types ofterritory were used by the Stardevo inhabitants ofthis region. There are sites, for
example, on the alluvial plains near the modern rivers or by former watercourses, often near areas
of waterlogged bog soil and in areas liable to inundation (fig. B : z, 3, 4,7, 9). Other sites are on the
edge of the flood plains with territories like that of Stardevo, straddling the alluvium and the black
earths (fig. B: 5, 6). South of the river there are sites on the edge of the Pliocene hills, overlooking
the flood plains (fig. B: B, ro) and a few sites such as Lipolist (fig. B: r) are higher still.
The flood plain sites along the Sava must have been seasonal camps, occupied in the surrurrer.
Our only economic evidence for Stardevo economies in this region comes from one of these sites,
Ba5tine at Obrez (fig. B: 6), where Brukner (196o) reported a fauna of red deer, cattle and probably
sheep and goats. Seasonal camps on the Sava plains such as Obrez could have been satellites of
year-round agricultural settlements on higher ground, or they rnay have been unrelated economic-
ally to the higher sefflements. This is simply speculation: the Obrez faunal sample may be typical
or atypical of the riverside sites and there is no economic evidence of any kind from the other sites.
Howlr,"., as in the other areas of Stardevo occupation discussed above, the range of settlement types

99
I
i
l
I
 THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

selected by Stardevo groups in the Sava valley meant that a different range of resources was available
in the vicinity of the early neolithic sites. The corollary to this is that Stardevo subsistence activities
are likely to have been as diverse in the Sava valley as in central and southern Yugoslavia.

The Vojvodina
The modern fertility of the Pannonian basin conceals the fact that there were very considerable
limiting factors in this areato neolithic agriculture. Much of the basin is far too dry or far too wet
for culiivation systems unassisted by modern technology. Precipitation in both Hungary and northern
Yugoslavia averages 5oo mm or more, which ought to be adequate for effective cereal economies;
most of it falls inlhe summer months. The average evapotranspiration rate, however, is equal to or
greater than average annual precipitation, so that most of the Pannonian plains in Hungary and in
iorthern Yugoslavia 'must 6e classified as moisture-deficient for agriculture' (Dohrs ry/r, 275).
In particular, the loeSs plateaus away from the major rivers are immensely thick and extremely dry:
their soils are very fine textured 43d so porous that deep wells are often necessary to secure an adequate
water supply. Iriigation systems'are oI increasing importance today for intensive cereal cultivation
(?lltsl'.:li
problem is flooding. The Danube and risza rivers meander across wide flood plains
which are bordered by lowland a-reas of great extent. Much of the Vojvodina and the Hungarian
plains to the north lies between 5 and ro m above the mean water level of the two rivers..pith
iiver maxima in late spring, large areas are liable to very serious flooding for up to several miles on
either side of the ,iv.. destroying the standing crops. The Sava, Drava and Tisza flood
"o-rrrc";flow of the Danube, whilst a rise of 4 m in the level of the Danube
waters may even hold back the
causes the Tisza to flow backwards (and flood the adjacent land) for over roo km as far as the Hungar-
ian plains (Nandris tg7o,6o). There are extensive areas of permanent marsh and the floods leave
behind other stagnani waters temporarily. The wide alluvial terraces above the flood plains are wet
but not so regularly flooded as the riverside alluvium.
Virtually ,11 of if," hundred or so early neolithic sites known on the Vojvodina plains (fig. r: ro)
consist simply of surface scatters of mateiial, principalty pottery (Brukner r968)' Some of thes6 sites
are found by-watercourses on the loess and sand o.rt.topt, but most of them cluster on the alluvial
plains, including many in the inundation areas (fig. g). The neolithic sites on the alluvium are all
near water-corrr.", or near former channels of the major rivers such as the Tisza. Clearly the large
areas of loessrand sand were less attractive for neolithic settlement, presumably because of their
aridity. On the alluvial plains of the Vojvodina, the Starievo groups selected small areas of drier soil
for their settlements, like the Korcis groups on the Hungarian plains (Nandris r97o). In both areas,
however, these dry 'islands' are often only a few hundred metres across; the 5 km territories and
even the land within r km of the settlements usually encompass areas which would have been liable
to seasonal inundation.
There is no direct archaeological evidence for the subsistence activities carried out at the Vojvo-
dina sites. The Kdros sites fuither up the Tisza and its tributaries are in similarly waterlogged
locations (Nandris r97o) and l(utzian (rg+il reported the frequency of game over stock in many
faunal samples. Excavations at Ludvar and Maroslele-Pana in recent years have confirmed the
importance of the local wild resources to the l(orijs riverside settlements-forest game, turtles,
fish, freshwater shellfish and waterbirds were an important part of the neolithic diet at these sites
(Bok6nyi 1964; Tringham r97r, 9z). The same resources would have been available to the Vojvodina
sites in similar rivers-ide lo"uiio* and are likely to have been exploited. At Maroslele-Pana and at
other I(or,ijs settlements, sheep and goats wereby far the most important animals. B6k6nyi (rq6+)
remarked. on the apparent illogicality of breeciing sheep in such marshy.areas; today, for example,

roo
 7. G. Barker. EARLY NEoLTTHIC LAND usn IN YUGoSLAvIA

1.--r-.'1 5qnl qncl rn*-=r loom (moinlv

l:::::::::J grovel f+ry;ill on loess) ' ffi4.8{ ctoy [---l ollrri,n
0 50
[-==:-J ollrrium lioble to inundotion
km
Fie.g
Stardevo settlements in the Vojvodina, after Brukner (r968), plotted on a soil rnap adapted from the Soil ll[ap
of the Middle Danube Atea (rg44), London, Geographical Section, General Staff, War Office.

sheep breeding is very limited on the Pannonian plains. Howevero whilst the waterlogged areas by
the major rivers are obviously unsuitable for sheep during the winter and spring floods, the lack of
sheep on the plains today is principally because of modern economic factors: intensive arable
agriculture, much of it irrigated, is a morl profitable activity on the black earths (Yugoslaztia 3, r9*5,
rrz). In the fifth millennium bc, however, the Pannonian chernozerns probably carried a mixed
light forest and grassland vegetation (Tringham ry7r, 321} Much of the area, as lrye saw above, is
climaticaliy marginal for cereal cultivation and the permeable loess soils with their very deep water
table can hardly have been an attractive proposition for primitive agricultural systems based on an
early neolithic iechnology. On the other hand, the same areas could well have supplied important
seasonal grazingfor game and stock. Thus the Maroslele faunal sample need not be anomalous; and
it is a reasonable hypothesis that early neolithic economic systems in the Vojvodina were likewise
founded on the exploitation of mobile stock such as sheep and goats and of wild resources, vrith
little or no dependence on cereal cultivation. When the rivers were low, the Stardevo groups on the
Vojvodina plain could have camped with their stock on the lower ground, hunting, fishing and
fowling at the same time; when the flood waters rose, man, stock and game would have moved up
to the safety of the higher ground, away from the river plains.

IOI
 THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

CONCLUSION
The publication of the first radiocarbon dates for the European Neolithic confirmed previous
theories about the spread of neolithic cultures across Europe from the eastern Mediterranean
(Clark 1965). More r"ecently, Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza (rgZl) have attempted to measure the
rate of neolithic dispersal across Europe moie accurately, using the greater number of radiocarbon
dates available. They stated their basic premise as follows: 'early farrning and Neolithic are virrually
equivalent, if we employ an economic definition of the latter term . . . the spread of pottery over
most of Europe takes place in association with and essentially at the same time as the spread of early
farrning' (Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza ry7t, 674). They constructed a population diffusion rate
of o'7 km per year through the Balkans or r'o8 km per year across Europe as a whole. They con-
cluded that the major implication of their 'wave of advance' model was that their analyses 'would
seem to offer little support . . . (for) : . . the traditional view that environmental factors (climate,
soils, forest cover, etc.) have played a major role in determining the rate of expansion of early farming
over Europe' (Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza ry74 686).
There seem to me to be three major criticisms for their model, for south-east Europe at least.
Firstly, it will be apparent ftom this study that the vast majority of sites with early neolithic pottery
in the Balkans is entirely without economic data of any kind, so that in this area at least it is impos-
sible to equate 'neolithic' with 'early farming' or anything else at the moment, The rate of dispersal
shown thus far by radiocarbon in the Balkans is at best the dispersal of pottery or potting techniques.
Secondly, the steady Balkan 'wave of advance' constructed by Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforzahad
to be based on radiocarbon dates from only twelve sites: five in G-reece, one in Bulgaria, one in
Yugoslavia and five in Hungary; a coarse chronology of this kind cannot possibly detect major or
minor fluctuations in dispersal rates over the r5oo km from south Greece to north Hungary. In
Yugoslavia neither the one radiocarbon date available to the authors, nor the several dates for
Stardevo sites now available, would seem to warrant their hypothesis of a steady rate of dispersal of
Stardevo settlement from Macedonia to the Danutre unhampered by environmental faciors. Thirdly,
and finally, the range of territories used by Starievo cornrnunities must imply a range of exploitation
patterns. The hypothetical nature of the economic systems put forward in this paper does not have
to be emphasised. However, they at least integrate the available economic evidence, such as it is,
with the site location data, and they are all testable by further faunal and plant analyses. They seem
at least as reliable a basis of further research into Stardevo economy and the neolithic phenomenon
in the Balkans as the assumption in much of the current literature that we are simply dealing with
'early farmers' spreading inexorably into temperate Europe.
The study of the First Neolithic intemperate Euiope now demands the resolution of fundamental
economic problems, and until these are adequately tackled, we cannot begin to understand the
demographic processes at work in the area during the later Postglacial. We have to separate the
components of the 'neolithic hypothesis' in any further research. Thus far the spread of pottery-
using only can be plotted adequately across Europe. We now need to be able to measure the rate of
dispersal of other new factors, such as the various cereals, or pulses, or sheep, or goat. Was the
dispersal of one related to the dispersal (or temporary failure) of another ? Was it at the expense of
an existing resource? Did the roles of the new resources change in local subsi.stence patterns from.
one area to another as different environmental, economic, cultural or other factors came into play ?
Dispersal rates may or may not have been uniforrn across Europe: we do not know, for neither
hypothesis has yet been tested. I have tried to dernonstrate in this paper that, as a first step, by
cornbining location sudies with the available economic evidence, \ve can at least frame the questions
which are central to neoiithic studies in the future.
 Acknutedgem",ul*'*,ff:n,"il:;::T::::J:"-::::::.'"::::m,heResearchFund
of Sheffield lJniversity, with a supplementary grant from the British Academy; I would like to express my
gratitude to both financing bodies fpr these grants. I received considerable help from many archaeologists in
Yugoslavia, but I woul{ larticularly like to thank Dr Alan McPherron (Department of Anthropology, IJniver-
sity of Pittsburgh, U.S.A.) and Dr Sava Vetnii (Svetozarevo Museum, Serbia) for their hospitality, kindness
and assistance.

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