See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/329786609

Student Report on FRM 403 Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry

Technical Report · January 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31494.63042

CITATIONS READS

0 2,743

1 author:

Alex Onatunji
Universitat de Lleida
28 PUBLICATIONS   3 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Student Associations volunteerism View project

Career prospects among forestry students in Nigeria View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Alex Onatunji on 19 December 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Student Report on FRM 403

Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry

By

Alex B. ONATUNJI (14/10AS053)

2016/2017 Practical Year Training Programme,

Department of Forest Resources Management,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria.
June, 2017.

14/10AS053 Page 0 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
Cover image: Map of Nigeria showing different vegetation zone.

Abstract
The report focused on the Practical Year Training Programme
carried out in Introduction to FRM 403: Aerial Survey and
Photogrammetry. The course and the practical work
undergone in the course are discussed. I introduced various
terms such as Aerial survey, photogrammetry, Geographical
Information System (GIS), remote sensing and satellites.

I also reported on the use of Quantum GIS (QGIS) software in

map preparation stating the requirement and basic knowledge
required on the type of data used i.e. raster and vector data
and our field visit to a GIS laboratory in Federal University of
Technology, Akure in May, 2017; reporting the uses of the
laboratory equipment‟s and safety precautions followed.

I concluded the report on my personal lessons learnt on the

course, recommendation and list of references.

14/10AS053 Page 1 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Table of Content
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Table of Content................................................................................................................................. 2
List of Plate .......................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction to Practical Year Training Programme ................................................................... 5
Introduction to FRM 403: Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry ................................................ 6
1.1 The course.............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 The field trip .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.1 The objective of the field trip..................................................................................... 7
1.2.2 The Federal University of Technology, Akure ......................................................... 7
1.2.2.1 School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology (SAAT) ............................... 7
1.2.2.2 Department of GIS and Remote Sensing ................................................................. 7
1.3 The Training .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 The trainer ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Quantum GIS (GIS) ....................................................................................................... 8
Introduction to Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry ................................................................ 10
2.1 Aerial Survey ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Definition...................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2 History .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.2 Principle of use ............................................................................................................ 11
2.1.3 Uses ............................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Photogrammetry................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Definition...................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.2 History .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 Principle of use ............................................................................................................ 13
2.2.4 Types of photogrammetry ......................................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Some terms used in photogrammetry...................................................................... 14
2.3 Inter-relationship between Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry ............................... 15
2.4 Geographical Information System (GIS) ........................................................................ 15
2.4.1 Definition...................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 History .......................................................................................................................... 15
14/10AS053 Page 2 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
2.4.2 Application of GIS in forestry ................................................................................... 16
2.4.3 Basic components of GIS ............................................................................................ 18
2.5 Remote Sensing................................................................................................................... 20
2.5.1 Definition...................................................................................................................... 20
2.5.2 Applications of Remote Sensing ............................................................................... 20
2.5.3 Importance of Remote Sensing ................................................................................ 21
2.6 Satellites ............................................................................................................................... 21
2.6.1 Definition...................................................................................................................... 21
2.6.2 Types of Satellites....................................................................................................... 21
2.6.3 Examples of Satellites ................................................................................................ 22
Training on the Use of QGIS ......................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Introduction of QGIS ......................................................................................................... 23
3.1.1 Basic requirement........................................................................................................ 23
3.1.2 Understanding of Spatial Data.................................................................................. 24
3.1.2.1 Types of Data use in GIS software ........................................................................ 24
3.2 Practical usage of QGIS ..................................................................................................... 26
3.2.1 Spatial Data Download .............................................................................................. 26
3.2.2 Spatial data file extensions ........................................................................................ 27
3.2.3 Drawing a Map on QGIS ........................................................................................... 27
3.2.3.1 To work on state level ............................................................................................... 28
3.2.3.2 To work on Local Governemnt Level ..................................................................... 28
3.3.3.3 Adding or editing information on a map ............................................................... 29
3.3.3.4 Extracting a smaller map from a larger one .......................................................... 29
3.3.3.5 Exporting a map from QGIS .................................................................................. 29
Department of GIS and Remote Sensing .................................................................................... 32
4.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 32
4.2 Some equipment used in the laboratory ......................................................................... 33
4.2.1 AO printer .................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.2 Digitizer ........................................................................................................................ 33
4.2.3 Global Positioning System (GPS).............................................................................. 34
4.2.4 Light Table ................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.5 Map cabinet .................................................................................................................. 35
4.2.6 Map Scanner ................................................................................................................ 35

14/10AS053 Page 3 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
4.2.7 Mirror Stereoscope ...................................................................................................... 36
4.2.8 Set of Computers ......................................................................................................... 36
4.2.9 Sets of Inverters ........................................................................................................... 37
4.2.10 Spectrum Radiometer ................................................................................................. 37
4.3 Safety precautions taken in the lab .................................................................................. 38
Concluding Chapter ........................................................................................................................ 39
5.1 Personal lessons learnt on the course .............................................................................. 39
5.2 Recommendation................................................................................................................ 40
Reference ........................................................................................................................................... 41

List of Plate
Plate 1 - Map of Nigeria showing various towns ........................................................................... 6
Plate 2 - Prof. Akindele S. O. ............................................................................................................. 8
Plate 3 - Map of Nigeria showing ecological variations. ............................................................. 10
Plate 4 - Map of Kwara State Communities .................................................................................. 23
Plate 5 - A QGIS interface ................................................................................................................ 27
Plate 6 - Map of Nigeria showing various states and their capital. ........................................... 31
Plate 7 - A0 Printer ............................................................................................................................ 33
Plate 8 - Digitizer ............................................................................................................................... 33
Plate 9 - Garmin GPS Unit ............................................................................................................... 34
Plate 10 - Light Table ........................................................................................................................ 34
Plate 11 - Map Cabinet ..................................................................................................................... 35
Plate 12 - Map Scanner ..................................................................................................................... 35
Plate 13 - Mirror stereoscopes ......................................................................................................... 36
Plate 14 - Computer Sets .................................................................................................................. 36
Plate 15 - Inverters ............................................................................................................................ 37
Plate 16 - Spectrum Radiometer ...................................................................................................... 37

List of Figures
Figure 1 - How photogrammetry information are captured. ..................................................... 13
Figure 2 Components of GIS ........................................................................................................... 19
Figure 3 - Quantum GIS Application Logo ................................................................................... 23

14/10AS053 Page 4 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Introduction to Practical Year

Training Programme
The guiding philosophy of the B. Forestry and Wildlife Management Programme in
University of Ilorin is “to produce graduates with sound theoretical and practical knowledge in
productive and sustainable forestry, forest products, wildlife resources and environmental
management”1. Practical Year Training Programme is carried out in 400 Level within a full
calendar year dedicated to in-depth practical and training of students in the department of
Forest Resources Management, University of Ilorin as in other universities where forestry
and related programmes are offered in Nigeria. The main aim of this activity is to expose
students to practical knowledge of the activities and processes carried out in the field of
forestry and natural resources management and directly contribute to the programme
objective of “imparting graduates with skills in all areas of forestry and wildlife”2.

The 2016/17 session for PYTP started in August, 2016 and has been full of learning new soft
skills such as communication in writing through the reports written and verbally through
presentations made, leadership summit, teamwork and the designing and carrying out of
field work. During the PYTP period, several practicals were carried out from Nursery
Management at the Teak Plantation to Apiculture practices, Ecological survey to
Ornithology, Wood parameters testing to introduction to Forest Operation, and
Communications and Entrepreneurial skills in Renewable Natural Resources. Field trips to
New Bussa (Niger State), Akure (Ondo State) and Ibadan (Oyo State) has been both
challenging and rewarding as we were exposed to various form of specialty and activities
carried out in the field of forestry.

During the time under review, I have also attended two (2) conferences, two (2) workshops
and an international meeting in Ghana and taken up new roles and my knowledge has
been broaden and networking with both great and small in my field also facilitated. I
would forever be grateful to the department and its entire supportive academic and non-
academic staff that have contributed to the success of this programme.

1 Department of Forest Resources Management (2015): Prospectus

2 Ibid
14/10AS053 Page 5 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Introduction to FRM 403:

Aerial Survey and
Photogrammetry
The section introduces the course mentioned above and the activities carried out in the
course.

Plate 1 - Map of Nigeria showing various towns

1.1 The course The aim of course is to expose forestry practical year students
to the practical and theoretical aspects of Aerial Survey and
Photogrammetry, especially on the use of remote sensing
technology in the sustainable assessment and presentation of
natural resources .
1.2 The field trip In order to fulfill the objective of the course; a field trip was
organized by the department to Federal University of

14/10AS053 Page 6 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
Technology, Akure.

1.2.1 The objective of the field trip

To teach the practical year student on
1. The use of GIS (remote sensing) and various aspects
of aerial survey and photogrammetry.
2. The use of Quantum GIS (GIS) for basic map design.
3. The basic use of some remote sensing equipments.

1.2.2 The Federal University of Technology, Akure

The Federal University of Technology Akure was founded in
1981 under a drive by the government of Nigeria to create
universities that specialised in producing graduates with
practical as well as theoretical knowledge of technologies. It is
located in Akure. The training was carried out in two (2)
venues within the University.

1.2.2.1 School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology

(SAAT)
The first lap of the training was carried out in SAAT, a faculty
within the university, it was established in the year 1982; it has
programmes in agricultural and natural resources
management. Departments in the faculty includes; Animal &
Crop Production; Soil Science and Pest Management;
Agricultural and Resources Economics; Food Science and
Technology; Water Resources, Fisheries and Aquaculture;
Ecotourism and Wildlife Management; Forestry and Wood
Technology and Agricultural Extension and Communication
Technology (http://saat.futa.edu.ng/page.php?pageid=33).
The training was received in the GIS Laboratory of the faculty
and anchored by Prof. Akindele S. O.
1.2.2.2 Department of GIS and Remote Sensing
This department is established for the purpose of providing

14/10AS053 Page 7 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
training and research in remote sensing and GIS technology
application in another faculty within FUTA but outside SAAT.
The department of remote sensing and geo-science
information system offers various specializations within the
application domain of remote sensing and GIS technology,
useful for individual and corporate organisation to meet the
millennium challenges in the field of special technology.
They provide the following quality services: Education and
training in remote sensing and GIS; Ground water and
mineral exploration and exploitation; Environmental studies;
Highway and route planning; Agricultural and forestry
applications; Land use studies and urban planning and
Consultancies.

1.3 The Training The training was done with a series of practical knowledge on
the use of Quantum GIS (QGIS) and an excursion to a
department of GIS and Remote Sensing in FUTA to enable
students see some instruments and learn their function in a
well equipped laboratory.

1.3.1 The trainer

Prof Akindele S. O. is the trainer of this programme. He holds
his Phd. in Remote Sensing; a lecturer in the department of
Forestry and Wood Technology and Dean of School of
Agriculture and Agriculture Technology (SAAT). He has train
various kind of people on the application of GIS in forestry

Plate 2 - Prof. Akindele S. O. and he has a vast knowledge on the use of various software in
the field of GIS.

1.3.2 Quantum GIS (GIS)

Quantum GIS is a software that is free of cost economically
and free in a social sense. It is managed as an open source
software that enables building of own skills, freeing money to

14/10AS053 Page 8 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
be spent on important things like food and shelter and
boosting our own economy and help others create a better
world with informed decision. QGIS is used for the training
beacuase of its contonous availablilty anf free odf cost for
users who may be unable to purchase a high premium on
similar software by ESRI, named ArcGis.

14/10AS053 Page 9 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Introduction to Aerial Survey

and Photogrammetry

Plate 3 - Map of Nigeria showing ecological variations.

2.1 Aerial Survey This section introduces the term aerial survey with detail
definition, principle, uses and terms used etc.

2.1.1 Definition
Aerial survey is a method of collecting geomatics or other
imagery by using aeroplanes, helicopters, UAVs, balloons or
other aerial methods. Typical types of data collected are aerial
photography, LiDAR, remote sensing (using various visible and
invisible bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as
infrared, gamma, or ultraviolet) and also geophysical data (such
as aeromagnetic surveys and gravity. It can also refer to the

14/10AS053 Page 10 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
chart or map made by analysing a region from the air. Aerial
survey should be distinguished from satellite imagery
technologies because of its better resolution, quality and
atmospheric conditions. Today, aerial survey is sometimes
recognized as a synonym for aerophotogrammetry, part of
photogrammetry where the camera is placed in the air (Pillay,
2015).

2.1.2 History
Aerial photography was first practiced by the French
photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon,
known as "Nadar", in 1858 over Paris, France. However, the
photographs he produced no longer exist and therefore the
earliest surviving aerial photograph is titled 'Boston, as the
Eagle and the Wild Goose See It.' Taken by James Wallace Black
and Samuel Archer King on October 13, 1860, it depicts Boston
from a height of 630m. Kite aerial photography was pioneered
by British meteorologist E.D. Archibald in 1882. Frenchman
Arthur Batut began using kites for photography in 1888, and
wrote a book on his methods in 1890. Samuel Franklin Cody
developed his advanced 'Man-lifter War Kite' and succeeded in
interesting the British War Office with its capabilities. The first
use of a motion picture camera mounted to a heavier-than-air
aircraft took place on April 24, 1909 over Rome in the 3:28 silent
film short, Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine (FAO, 2012;
Pillay, 2015; “Principles of Photogrammetry,” 1993).
2.1.2 Principle of use
Aerial survey uses a measuring camera where the elements of
the interior orientation are known, but a camera that has much
larger focal length and film and more lenses is used. In order to
carry out aerial survey, a sensor (examples are Vexcel
UltraCam Eagle; Leica ADS100; WaldoAir XCAM; RIEGL LMS-
Q780; Trimble AX80) needs to be fixed to the interior or the

14/10AS053 Page 11 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
exterior of the airborne platform with line-of-sight to the target
it is remotely sensing. With manned aircraft the this is either
through an aperture in the skin of the aircraft or mounted
externally on a wing strut. With unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAV) the sensor is typically mounted under or inside (FAO,
2012; Pillay, 2015; “Principles of Photogrammetry,” 1993).
Aerial survey systems are typically operated with the
following:
1. Flight Navigation Software, which directs the pilot to
fly in the desired pattern for the survey
2. GNSS, a combination of GPS and Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU) to provide position and
orientation information for the data recorded
3. Gyro-stabilized mount to counter the effects of
aircraft roll, pitch and yaw
4. Data storage unit to save the data that is recorded.

2.1.3 Uses
Aerial surveys can provide information on many things not
visible from the ground and are therefore used in a wide range
of field and disciplines which includes, Archaeology; Fishery
surveys; Geophysics; Hydrocarbon exploration; Land survey;
Mining and mineral exploration; Monitoring wildlife and insect
populations, called aerial census or sampling; Monitoring
vegetation and ground cover; Reconnaissance; Transportation
Projects in conjunction with Ground Surveys (Roadway, Bridge,
Interstate) etc. (FAO, 2012; Pillay, 2015; “Principles of
Photogrammetry,” 1993).

2.2 Photogrammetry This section introduces the term aerial survey with detail
definition, history, principle, uses and terms used etc.
2.2.1 Definition
The word “photogrammetry” is composed of the words

14/10AS053 Page 12 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
“photo” and “meter” which means measurements from
photographs, a classical definition of photogrammetry is the
art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information
about physical objects and the environment, through processes
of recording, measuring, and interpreting images on
photographs. Photogrammetry is the science of making
measurements from photographs, especially for recovering the
exact positions of surface points (Schenk, 2005).

Figure 1 - How photogrammetry information are captured.

2.2.2 History
Photogrammetry is as old as modern photography, dating to
the mid-19th century and in the simplest example, the distance
between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the
photographic image plane, can be determined by measuring
their distance on the image, if the scale (s) of the image is
known (www.wikipedia.com).

2.2.3 Principle of use

Photogrammetric analysis may be applied to one photograph,
or may use high-speed photography and remote sensing to
detect, measure and record complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields
by feeding measurements and imagery analysis into
computational models in an attempt to successively estimate,
with increasing accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions. From

14/10AS053 Page 13 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
its beginning with the stereoplotters used to plot contour lines
on topographic maps, it now has a very wide range of uses.

2.2.4 Types of photogrammetry

There are two types of Photogrammetry, Aerial
Photogrammetry and Terrestrial (Close Range)
Photogrammetry.
• Aerial digital photogrammetry, often used in
topographical mapping, begins with digital photographs or
video taken from a camera mounted on the bottom of an
airplane. The plane often flies over the area in a meandering
flight path so it can take overlapping photographs or video of
the entire area to get complete coverage.
• Close-range, or terrestrial, digital photogrammetry
often uses photographs taken from close proximity by hand
held cameras or those mounted to a tripod. Close-range
photographs can be used to create 3D models, but they are not
usually used in topographical mapping. This type of
photogrammetry is useful for the 3D modeling of many objects
or areas such as buildings, automobile accident scenes, or
movie sets.
2.2.5 Some terms used in photogrammetry
- Exposure station or air station: The position of the optical
centre of the camera at the moment of exposure.
- Flying height: The elevation of the exposure station above the
datum (usually mean sea level).
- Altitude: The vertical distance of the aircraft above the earth
surface.
- Tilt: The angle between the aerial camera and the horizontal
axis perpendicular to the line of flight.
- Tip: The angle between the aerial camera and the line of flight.
- Principal point: The point of intersection of the optical axis of
the aerial camera with the photographical plane.

14/10AS053 Page 14 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
- Isocentre: The point on the areal photograph in which the
bisector of the angle of tilt meets the photograph.
- Nadir point: The image of the nadir, i.e. the point on the areal
photograph where a plumbline dropped from the front nodal
point pierces the photograph.
- Scale: Ratio of the focal length of the camera objective and the
distance of the exposure station from the ground.
- Azimith: The clockwise horizontal angle measured about the
ground Nadir point from the ground survey North meridian
the plane of photograph.

2.3 Inter-relationship The relationship of aerial survey and photogrammetry is very

between Aerial Survey clear. Photographs can not be measured when they are not
and Photogrammetry taken neither can the cameras or technologies used in capturing
data measure same. The result of an aerial survey would
directly impact the result of the photogrammetry work.

2.4 Geographical This section introduces the meaning of GIS, its history and
Information System (GIS) application in forestry and forest management.

2.4.1 Definition
GIS is an "acronym for geographic information system. An
integrated collection of computer software and data used to
view and manage information about geographic places,
analyze spatial relationships, and model spatial processes. A
GIS provides a framework for gathering and organizing
spatial data and related information so that it can be displayed
and analyzed (FAO, 2012, 2014; Gibbs, Brown, Niles, & Foley,
2007; Pillay, 2015; Prasad, Kotwal, Rathore, & Jadhav, 2001;
Ridder, 2007).
2.4.2 History
Roger F. Tomlinson, GISP, CM, (17 November 1933 – 9
February 2014) was an English geographer and the primary

14/10AS053 Page 15 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
originator of modern computerized geographic information
systems (GIS), and has been acknowledged as the "father of
GIS". It was during his tenure with the federal government in
the 1960s that Dr. Tomlinson initiated, planned and directed
the development of the Canada Geographic Information
System, the first computerized GIS in the world. From the
1970s to his death, Dr. Tomlinson worked in geographic
consulting and research for a variety of private sector,
government and non-profit organizations, largely through his
Ottawa-based company, Tomlinson Associates Ltd., which has
branches with consulting geographers in Canada, the United
States, and Australia (www.wikipedia.com).

2.4.2 Application of GIS in forestry

GIS technology is widely and increasing being used in forest
assessment and monitoring worldwide. (Sonti, 2015) give an
overview of this in his paper titled “Application of Geographic
Information System (GIS) in Forest Management”. A summary of
the paper is given below.
The evolution of GIS, the Global Positioning System (GPS),
and Remote Sensing (RS) technologies has enabled the
collection and analysis of field data in ways that were not
possible before the arrival of computers. Nowadays,
computers and modern technologies, GIS is becoming
increasingly popular for resource management. The power
of a GIS lies in its ability to analyze relationships between
features and their associated data.

GIS applications can be grouped into various categories

depending on the level of integration with other forest
management and financial systems. These categories include
Data collection and maintenance.
Map production.

14/10AS053 Page 16 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
Data viewing and query.
Decision support systems.
GIS application in forest management
GIS for strategic planning and modeling: GIS stores both the
geographic and numerical structure of the forest stands and
links that spatial database to the planning models. It allows
the manager to effectively add both the important temporal
and spatial dimensions to the management planning
process. Within the limits of the inventory and model, the
manager can then map what the forest will look like in 5,10,
25, or 100 years in the future.
Map production: Forest managers require a wide variety of
maps to assist with their daily activities. Plantation maps are
most commonly used for location purposes and may contain
additional useful information such as roads, rivers,
compartment boundaries, planted species, and compartment
size.
Fire management: Forest fire managers have used GIS for fuel
mapping, weather condition mapping, and fire danger
rating. Forest fires have an important influence on the
vegetation cover, animals, plants, soil, stream flow, air
quality, microclimate, and even general climate. The key to
managing approved burning activities was the ability to
anticipate fire behaviour aſter ignition.
Harvest planning: Harvest planning activities include the
identification of felling directions, extraction routes, depots
and sensitive zones such as wetlands. Maps constitute a
basic planning tool for these activities.
Resource management: Collecting forest inventory data and
monitoring changes are critical to forest management
activities. Yet, a GIS can build on these activities by
incorporating models to guide, for example, timber
harvesting, silviculture and fire management activities, or

14/10AS053 Page 17 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
predict fuel wood, timber production combined with
habitat protection and other resource supplies.

Uses of GIS in forest management

GIS is a good tool for forest management because it answers
the following question that helps in forest management
activities.
Location: What is at?
Location of forest resources in the earth in many ways such
as a place name, post or zip code, or geographic references
such as latitude and longitude.
Condition: Where is it?
Non forested land of certain size distance from road or river.
Trends: What has changed since?
It helps to find out what has changed within study forest or
land use an area over time.
Patterns: What spatial patterns exist?
Determine whether landslide in forest area.
Modeling: What if?
Determine what happens, if a road network is added in a
forest.

Other literatures have aslo indicated uses of GIS in forest

management and they include Global Forest Resources
Assesment
2.4.3 Basic components of GIS
The basic components of GIS are:
1. Hardware: it is the computer on which a GIS operates. It
also includes Global positioning system (GPS), servers,
scanners, plotters, printers, digital cameras among
others.
2. Software: GIS software provides the functions and tools
needed to store, analyse and display geographic

14/10AS053 Page 18 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
information. They include Linux, windows, UNIX,
Database, Microsoft access, QGIS etc.
3. Data: Geographic data and related tabular data can be
collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data
provider. In some cases, it can be downloaded online.it
is the most important component of GIS.
There are 2 types of data namely spatial data and raster
data.
4. Human ware: GIS technology is of limited value without
the people who manage the system and develop plans
for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range
from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their
everyday work.
5. End users are the people who make use of the GIS
developed information.
6. Methods: A successful GIS operates according to a well-
designed implementation plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to
each organization (Sutton, Dassau, & Sutton, 2009).

Hardwar
e

Software Data

GIS
Methods
People

Figure 2 Components of GIS

14/10AS053 Page 19 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
2.5 Remote Sensing 2.5.1 Definition
Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information
about an object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of
data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object,
area or phenomenon under investigation. Back in the days,
area cameras were mounted on low flying airplanes; the
cameras were used to take snap shots at regular intervals.
Remote sensing was initially used as a military tool. Area
photographs were used to prepare maps and stereoscopy is
used to measure tree‟s height (Akingbogun, Kosoko, &
Aborisade, 2012; Chae, Yoon, & Park, n.d.; Dudley, Baldock,
Nasi, & Stolton, 2005; ESRI, 2013; FAO, JRC, 2009; Gitas, San-
Miguel-Ayanz, Chuvieco, & Camia, 2014; Pillay, 2015; Ridder,
2007; Sajjad et al., 2000; Sutton et al., 2009; Tang & Shao, 2015).

2.5.2 Applications of Remote Sensing

• Ocean applications: Monitor ocean circulation and
current systems, measure ocean temperature and
wave heights, and track sea ice. Data can be used to
better understand the oceans and how to best
manage ocean resources.
• Hazard assessment: Track hurricanes, earthquakes,
erosion, and flooding. Data can be used to assess the
impacts of a natural disaster and create
preparedness strategies to be used before and after a
hazardous event.
• Natural resource management: Monitor land use, map
wetlands, and chart wildlife habitats. Data can be
used to minimize the damage that urban growth has
on the environment and help decide how to best
protect natural resources.
• Other uses include different areas of the earth

14/10AS053 Page 20 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
sciences such as natural resource management,
agricultural fields such as land usage and
conservation, and national security and overhead,
ground-based and stand-off collection on border
areas.
2.5.3 Importance of Remote Sensing
Remote has a wide range of importance it serves, and they
includes: Large area coverage enables regional surveys on a
variety of themes and identification of large features;
Repetitive coverage allows monitoring of dynamic themes like
water, agriculture etc.; Remote sensing is to ease collection of
data at a remote distance. It takes advantages of technology to
take information of forest area and Remote sensing makes it
possible to collect data of dangerous or inaccessible areas
(Akingbogun et al., 2012; FAO, JRC, 2009; Ridder, 2007; Sajjad
et al., 2000).

2.6 Satellites 2.6.1 Definition

Satellites are objects orbiting another object in space. They are
objects launched into space and orbit Earth, or another body in
space, and carry instruments for collecting information and
communicating it back to Earth. Satellites are equipped with
one or more sensors or instruments depending on their
purpose. Some sensors are passive and record reflected solar
radiation (such as visible light) and emissive radiation (such as
thermal energy) while some are active and send pulses of
energy (by radar or laser) through the atmosphere to the
surface of the Earth and record the returning signal. The
science of satellite observation is called „remote sensing‟ (Chae
et al., n.d.; Fazakas, Nilsson, & Olsson, 1999; “Infrared:
radiated energy of objects,” n.d.; Running et al., 2004).

2.6.2 Types of Satellites

Satelite are designed for various purposes and functions, some
14/10AS053 Page 21 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
are listed below.
1. Scientific satellite: It is used by scientist for research on
earth.
2. Weather satellite: It is used by meteorologist.
3. Navigational Satellite: It is used by ships and aircrafts.
4. Communication Satellite: It allows radio, television, and
telephone transmissions to be sent live anywhere in the
world.
5. Military Satellite: It is used by the military for
intelligence gathering, navigation and military
communications.
6. Earth Observation Satellite: They are intended for non-
military uses such as environmental monitoring,
meteorology, map making etc.
2.6.3 Examples of Satellites
Below is a list of some satelites already launched in the space.
1. IKONOS 2
2. NIGERIASAT1
3. EROSA 1
4. NOAA 12,16
5. RADARSAT
6. ORBVIEW 2
7. LANDSAT

Satellite Landsat Spot HRV Nigeria SAT1

instrument 4+ (TM) (DMC Image)
Swath 185km 60km 600km
Typical revisit 16 days 26days 3-4 days
GSD 30m 20m 32km
Pixels 6000 3000 19000 (600 × 32)

14/10AS053 Page 22 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Training on the Use of QGIS

Plate 4 - Map of Kwara State Communities

3.1 Introduction of Quantum GIS otherwise known as QGIS is an open source

QGIS software for preparation of map with similar functions to that
of ArcGIS. It is free to use and manipulate etc.

3.1.1 Basic requirement

To use QGIS, you must have installed the software on your
computer, this can be done in various ways such as
downloading from the internet or obtaining the installer
through flash drive or CD Rom.
Figure 3 - Quantum GIS A precaution is to make sure you obtain the right installer
Application Logo
for your operating system (Windows, Linux or Apple) and

14/10AS053 Page 23 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
the right bit – 32 or 64 bit. It may take up to 30 minute to
finish an installation and you can use lesser version when
you encounter continuous problem while installing it.

3.1.2 Understanding of Spatial Data

The information we use in a GIS normally has a geographical
aspect to it which is the Longitude & Latitude columns and
other associated data collected through its use. GIS
Application can store many pieces of information which are
associated with each place - something that paper maps are
not very good at e.g comparing data based on a defined
criteria.
3.1.2.1 Types of Data use in GIS software
GIS Systems work with many different types of data.
1. VECTOR DATA is stored as a series of X,Y coordinate
pairs inside the computer‟s memory. Vector data is
used to represent points, lines and areas. It provide a
way to represent real world features within the GIS
environment i.e. a feature is anything you can see on the
landscape which have attributes, which consist of text
or numerical information that describe the features.

Scale and vector data

Map scale is an important issue to consider
when working with vector data in a GIS. When data is
captured, it is usually digitised from existing maps, or by
taking information from surveyor records and global
positioning system devices. Maps have different scales, so if
you import vector data from a map into a GIS environment
(for example by digitising paper maps), the digital vector data
will have the same scale issues as the original map.

14/10AS053 Page 24 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
What can we do with vector data in a GIS?
At the simplest level we can use vector data in a GIS
application in much the same way you would use a normal
topographic map. The real power of GIS starts to show itself
when we begin to ask more complex questions. A GIS is a
great tool for answering these types of questions with the help
of vector data. Generally we refer to the process of answering
these types of questions as spatial analysis.

2. RASTER DATA are stored as a grid of values. There are

many satellites circling the earth and the photographs
they take are a kind of raster data that can be viewed in
a GIS.
Raster data is used in a GIS application when we want to
display information that is continuous across an area and
cannot easily be divided into vector features. Other features on
a landscape can be more difficult to represent using vector
features - It would be easy enough to make a single polygon
around each grassland area, but a lot of the information about
the grassland would be lost in the process of simplifying the
features to a single polygon.
When you are trying to represent large areas with
continuously changing values, raster data can be a better
choice.

Georeferencing
Georeferencing is the process of defining exactly where on the
earth‟s surface an image or raster dataset was created. This
positional information is stored with the digital version of the
aerial photo. When the GIS application opens the photo, it uses
the positional information to ensure that the photo appears in
the correct place on the map.

14/10AS053 Page 25 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
Sources of raster data
Raster data can be obtained in a number of ways. Two of the
most common ways are aerial photography and satellite
imagery. In aerial photography, an aeroplane flies over an area
with a camera mounted underneath it. The photographs are
then imported into a computer and georeferenced. Satellite
imagery is created when satellites orbiting the earth point
special digital cameras towards the earth and then take an
image of the area on earth they are passing over. Once the
image has been taken it is sent back to earth using radio
signals to special receiving stations, in the process of capturing
raster data from an aeroplane or satellite is called remote
sensing (Sutton et al., 2009).

One important difference between raster and vector data is

that if you zoomin toomuch on a raster image, it will start to
appear ‟blocky‟, these blocks are the individual cells of the
data grid that makes up the raster image. The raster data can
be converted to vector data and vice-versa.

3.2 Practical usage of 3.2.1 Spatial Data Download

QGIS In order to use QGIS software to carru put a practical work
data needs to be obtained before they can be use in the
A quick user guide of software. Some spatial data are available online free of charge.
QGIS is available on its Example of such website is http://www.diva-gis.org/gdata or
website it can be obtain from personally collected data and exported to
(https://docs.qgis.org). flash drive and compact disc. The data downloaded from
http://www.diva-gis.org/gdata is used in all the explanations
given below.
Please note that the data is downloaded as a zip file which
needs to bue unzipped before it can be used in the QGIS
software.

14/10AS053 Page 26 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
3.2.2 Spatial data file extensions
- .shp file containing the feature geometries
- .dbf file containing the attributes in dBase format
- .shx index file
- .prj suffix, which contains the projection information. It
is a very useful file but not mandatory.
- .qix extension is the spatial indexes used by QGIS to
improve the performance of drawing a shapefile and it
will improve the speed of both zooming and panning.
- .osm XML is to connect and load OpenStreetMap
vector data.
- .csv file is a tabular data that is very common and
widely used format because of its simplicity and
readability – data can be viewed and edited even in a
plain text editor, it is also called a delimited text file.
(https://docs.qgis.org/2.2/en/docs/user_manual/).
3.2.3 Drawing a Map on QGIS
Basic map drawing is the first function a beginner of the
software can do. It is explained in the steps below.

Plate 5 - A QGIS interface

1. Open your QGIS,
2. Go to layer (from the tool bars), then add layer,then add
vector layer. A dialogue box appears. Browse for the

14/10AS053 Page 27 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
saved data from your saved file and add all „shp‟
extension files then click on open.
NOTE: NGA adm 0shp have Nigeria map without any
demarcation as to the states or local government areas, while
the adm 1shp have Nigeria map with the states and adm 2shp
was further divided into states with local government areas.
On layer panel, the 3 NGA adm will be shown.

3.2.3.1 To work on state level

3. Use NGA_adm_1.shp, right click on it, click on
properties, go to styles under single symbol, click on
categorised under column then click name1, classify,
apply then Ok, it will display each state with different
colours.
4. To label each state, right clicked on the
NGA_adm_1.shp again, Go to properties, labels then
show labels for this layer under no labels, go to label
with and click on name_1, apply, Ok, your map will be
displayed with each state being labelled.

3.2.3.2 To work on Local Governemnt Level

5. Use NGA_adm_2.shp, right click on it on the label
panel, then properties, styles.
6. Under single-symbol, click on categorise under column
then click Name2, classify apply and Ok. It will display
state and their local government area (LGAs) with
different colours.
7. Right click on the NGA_adm_2.shp again to label your
LGAs, go to properties, labels. Under no labels, click on
show label for this layer and go to label with, click
on Name_2 apply and press Ok. The map will display
with each LGAs being labelled.

14/10AS053 Page 28 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
3.3.3.3 Adding or editing information on a map
TO add or edit information on the map the following steps are
carried out after drawing the map using the steps listed above.
8. Right click on “adm1” and select attribute table.
9. To add column or new field, click on the attribute table,
Click on toggle editing. To add new field, click on the
new column and text and possible length of the test
then save edits.
10. To delete field on the attribute table, click on delete field
to erase any column of choice.

3.3.3.4 Extracting a smaller map from a larger one

Using QGIS, maps can be axtracted from a larger one. For
example, Nigeria can be extracted from map of Africa and so
on and forth. The process is refereed to as filtering in the
software.
An example of extracting a state‟s map from a country (e.g. to
extract Kwara State from Nigeria‟s map is given below.
11. Draw the map of Nigeria following the procedures
listed above, go to layer then click on filter, a query
builder is opened.
12. Double click on Name_1 and add an equal to sign,
choose all at values and scroll to the name of the state
whose map you want to construct ( e.g. go to Kwara)
then right click on NGA_adm2, then apply or OK.
The map of the state is filtered out from the country‟s map.

3.3.3.5 Exporting a map from QGIS

When a map has been designed using QGIS, it needs to be
exported to a portable and shareable formats such as Image
(JPEG), PDF file etc. The map must contain the following
element to qualify for a complete and accurate map. They are
listed and explained below.

14/10AS053 Page 29 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
I. Title: A sentence telling the content of the map e.g.
ecology distribution of Ibadan Malibe in Nigeria.
II. North Arrow Line: It is used to help show the direction
of the map, viewed and analysed.
III. Scale: It refers to the relationship (or ratio) between
distance on a map and the corresponding distance on
the ground. For example, on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm
on the map equals 1km on the ground.
IV. Co-ordinates: It shows the latititude and longtitude in
which the map is wrapped i.e. georeferencing of the
map.
V. Legend: It is used to explain the representation made on
the map. It gives the map meaning and interpretation.

To include all this elements on the map, the following steps are
carried out.
13. After drawing the map, go to project and choose new
print composer; input a temporary name on the map. A
new page is displayed.
14. To bring the map constructed to this page, go to layout
and click add map. Drag the mouse from the top left
corner and release at the bottom right corner.
15. Change the scale of the map to a suitable scale of
choice.
16. To add the title, go to layout on tool bars and click on
add label to give your map a title; a sign will appear on
the map for to draw a box for title. Input the title of
choice at the right-hand side. After this, the font and
colour can also be increased depending on choice.
17. To add the North arrow line, go to layout and click on
add Image to draw a box for the north arrow line, on
the right hand side of the page, Go to search directories
to choose your north arrow line.

14/10AS053 Page 30 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
18. To add the scale bar, Go to layout, click on add Scale-
bar to draw your scale bar.
19. To add the co-ordinate, Go to the right hand side under
item properties, click on Grid and change both y and x
axis to a suitable figure. The precision for the co-
ordinate can also be changed to any decimal places. To
reduce or increase the line transparency, change line
style under grid.
20. To add the legend, go to layout and click on add legend
to draw your legend but this is not needed in some
cases.
21. To save the map, go to composer and click export as
image or pdf before saving.

Plate 6 - Map of Nigeria showing various states and their capital.

14/10AS053 Page 31 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Department of GIS and

Remote Sensing
This section outlines the report of the visit to a GIS and Remote Sensing Laboratory, th
work done there and some of the equipments used in the laboratoty.

4.1 Background This department is established for the purpose of providing

training and research in remote sensing and GIS technology
application in another faculty within FUTA but outside SAAT.
The department of remote sensing and geo-science information
system offers various specializations within the application
domain of remote sensing and GIS technology, useful for
individual and corporate organisation to meet the millennium
challenges in the field of special technology.

14/10AS053 Page 32 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
4.2 Some This section explains the function of some of the equipment met in
equipment used in the laboratory.
the laboratory 4.2.1 AO printer

Plate 7 - A0 Printer
A0 printer is a printer that prints large format images of A0 paper
size and other paper sizes. It is also known as a plotter. The plotter
can be used to draw continuous point-to-point lines directly from
vector graphics files or commands. It is used in printing out maps.
4.2.2 Digitizer

Plate 8 - Digitizer
This is a device connected to a computer. It consists of a tablet and
14/10AS053 Page 33 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
a handheld puck, that converts positions on the tablet surface as
they are traced by an operator to digital X,Y coordinates, yielding
vector data consisting of points, lines, and polygons. It is used for
converting manual map to digital map. It helps to translates an
analog image into an array of digital pixel valuesit is used in
converting raster data to vector data.

4.2.3 Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS is a device that is capable of
receiving information from GPS
satellites and then to accurately
calculate the device's geographical
location. The Global Positioning
System (GPS) uses a global
navigation satellite system.

Plate 9 - Garmin GPS Unit

4.2.4 Light Table

Plate 10 - Light Table

It is a viewing device used to view maps or other documents placed
on it. It is used to display and enhance features of aerial
photographs. It provides even illumination of the subject from

14/10AS053 Page 34 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
below through a translucent cover and fluorescent lights that emit
little heat.
4.2.5 Map cabinet

Plate 11 - Map Cabinet

It is a piece of furniture where maps are kept. The cabinets keep
maps for a very long time. Humidity, water, termites etc. can be
prevented in the cabinets. References can also be made to this map
in future.

4.2.6 Map Scanner

Plate 12 - Map Scanner

This instrument is used to scan the image or photograph of
unknown map. It is also for Converting photographic materials into
high-resolution image files, for example, old maps or B&W maps.
Hand drawn map can also be converted into an electronic format.

14/10AS053 Page 35 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
4.2.7 Mirror Stereoscope
This instrument helps to see an aerial photograph in a 3

Plate 13 - Mirror stereoscopes

dimensional view. Mirror stereoscopes use mirrors to bring the two
images to the two eyes of the photo interpreter. The main
advantage of using this type, is that the stereo pair can be
completely separated, thus permitting the analyst to see more of the
image at once.
4.2.8 Set of Computers

Plate 14 - Computer Sets

14/10AS053 Page 36 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
To perform various functions on GIS. Almost all the equipment
listed above work with the computers. GIS operations cannot be
carried out without computers. GIS softwares such as ArcGIS,
QGIS are used on the computers.

4.2.9 Sets of Inverters

It is used as a stand-by to
supply electricity in case
of power failure, making
the work of the
laboratory sustainable
and effective, this would
ensure 24/7 power
supply to the
equipments.

Plate 15 - Inverters

4.2.10 Spectrum Radiometer

Plate 16 - Spectrum Radiometer

Spectroradiometer typically take measurements of spectral
irradiance and spectral radiance. it measures the amount of
14/10AS053 Page 37 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
incident rays or energy radiated from a satellite by using sensor to
see what is invisible to the naked eyes, it also detects signals in the
electromagnetic spectrum i.e. it gives special signs.

4.3 Safety As in other laboratory, precautions must be taken in a GIS

precautions taken in laboratory to ensure the safety of the user and equipments used.
the lab The followings are suggested.
1. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory to avoid spillage on
maps.
2. Care must be taken when using equipment with infared
technology to ensure skin and body is not unnecessarily
exposed to skin damages.
3. Ensure all equipments taken to the field are inspected and
cleaned with a soft cloth, put in their boxes before storage.
4. Ensure that all electric devices are switched after a days job.
5. Manufactures manual should be followed when using an
equipment and they should be used for their purpose of
design.
6. Routine maintenance and cleaniness should be maintained at
all time.

14/10AS053 Page 38 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Concluding Chapter
5.1 Personal lessons learnt on the course
I have learnt a lot of deal about aerial survey and photogrammetry and now see myself as a
potential user of GIS solutions in solving forestry and wildlife problems. I can now draw map
digitally and use it to represent pieces of information using open source software known as QGIS.
Knowing fully well that aerial survey and photogrammetry are not just done for fun, but is
a scientific process that need to be adhered to i.e. all processes must be done following a well
defined guideline; safety precaution of individuals in the forest collecting data and ensure proper
use and return of the equipment used. The integrity of the data collected is also a paramount step
that must be ensure.
I cannot forget to mention that self-development couple with training of forest officials
needs to be done on the various suite of GIS application that can be adapted to local use when
carrying out an inventory work. Thousands of US dollars are used to design this open source
software‟s but uptake and effective utilisation in my country is currently very low, though this may
be attributed to factors such as poor funding of the forestry sector, inadequate awareness of this tool
and trainers of ICT solutions available.
The power of GIS technology makes it adaptable to all form of work in the field of forestry
such as resources mapping, biomass quantification, forest degredation and loss assessment. In
short, GIS technology and software can help us learn from our past actions, understand the present
and reliable predict the future.
Finally, my exposure and personal involvement in this course on aerial survey and
photogrammetry as added a lot of knowledge and new skills to me and I would be forever grateful
for having them at an early stage of my career in forestry and wildlife management. I would be
taking some open source online education for better understanding of GIS softwares and their
various and numerous functions.

14/10AS053 Page 39 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
5.2 Recommendation After successfully undergone the practical year training
programme in Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry. I have
the following suggestions to make.
1. Days of practical learning both in labs and on the
field would help them grab a good deal of
knowledge on the course.
2. If possible, practical year students should be housed
in the school hostels for easy access.
3. Students are to prepare ahead by reading books,
taking online lectures and other literature on the
subject before embarking on field trip/practical
training.
4. Students should make every conscious effort to learn
as much as possible and maximize the practical year
training programme.

14/10AS053 Page 40 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)

Reference
Akingbogun, A. A., Kosoko, O., & Aborisade, D. (2012). Remote Sensing and GIS
Application for Forest Reserve Degradation Prediction and Monitoring. In First FIG
Young Surveyors Conference: Knowing to create the Future (pp. 1–27). Retrieved from
https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2012/papers/ss03b
/SS03B_akingbogun_kosoko_et_al_6208.pdf
Chae, G. J., Yoon, G. W., & Park, J. H. (n.d.). Introduction for System for Satelite Imagery
Information Management.
Dudley, N., Baldock, D., Nasi, R., & Stolton, S. (2005). Measuring biodiversity and
sustainable management in forests and agricultural landscapes, (February), 457–470.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1593
ESRI. (2013). Essays in Geography and GIS (J No. J10239) (Vol. 6). ESRI. Retrieved from
http://www.esri.com/~/media/Files/Pdfs/library/bestpractices/essays-on-
geography-gis-vol6.pdf
FAO. (2012). National Forest Monitoring and Assessment: Manual for integrated field data
collection (NFMA). (A. Branthomme, D. Altrell, K. Kamelarczyk, & M. Saket, Eds.).
Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO. (2014). The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources. Rome, Italy: Commission on
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations.
FAO, JRC, S. and U. (2009). The FRA 2010 Remote Sensing SURVEY: The Global Forest
Resources Assessment Programme (Forest Resources Assessment No. 155) (Vol. 155). FAO
with FRA RSS partners. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-k7023e.pdf
Fazakas, Z., Nilsson, M., & Olsson, H. (1999). Regional forest biomass and wood volume
estimation using satellite data and ancillary data. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,
98–99, 417–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1923(99)00112-4
Gibbs, H. K., Brown, S., Niles, J. O., & Foley, J. A. (2007). Monitoring and estimating tropical
forest carbon stocks: making REDD a reality. Environmental Research Letters, 2(2007),
45023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/045023
Gitas, I. Z., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Chuvieco, E., & Camia, A. (2014). Advances in remote
sensing and GIS applications in support of forest fire management. International Journal
of Wildland Fire, 23(5), 603. https://doi.org/10.1071/WF14117
Infrared: radiated energy of objects. (n.d.). Retrieved from
14/10AS053 Page 41 of 42
 Student Report on FRM 403 (2016/17 Academic Session)
http://web.missouri.edu/~marketp/ATMS4710/SynopticI-Mod08-Sat-GPS.pdf
Pillay, S. (2015). Aerial Photogrammetry. Surveying and Land Information Department,
Ethekwini Municipality,. Retrieved from
http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/engineering
unit/Surveying_Land_Information/Documents/AerialPhotogrammetry.pdf
Prasad, R., Kotwal, P. C., Rathore, C. S., & Jadhav, Y. D. (2001). Workshop Report Information
and Analysis of Trees Outside Forests in India (Vol. Workshop R). Nehru Nagar, India.
Principles of Photogrammetry. (1993). In EM 1110-1-1000. Retrieved from
https://www.lpl.arizona.edu/hamilton/sites/lpl.arizona.edu.hamilton/files/courses
/ptys551/Principles_of_Photogrammetry.pdf
Ridder, R. M. (2007). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010: Options and Recommendations
for a Global Remote Sensing Survey of Forests (No. 141). Forest Resources Assessment
Programme. European Space Agency. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-
ai074e.pdf
Running, S. N. W., Nemani, R. R., Heinsch, F. A. N. N., Zhao, M., Reeves, M., & Hashimoto,
H. (2004). A Continuous Satellite-Derived Measure of Global Terrestrial Primary
Production, 54(6).
Sajjad, A., Hussain, A., Wahab, U., Adnan, S., Ali, S., Ahmad, Z., & Ali, A. (2000).
Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Forest Cover Change in Tehsil Barawal,
District Dir, Pakistan. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 6(6), 1501–1508.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2015.69149
Schenk, T. (2005). Introduction to Photogrammetry. Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science; The Ohio State University.
Retrieved from http://www.mat.uc.pt/~gil/downloads/IntroPhoto.pdf
Sonti, S. H. (2015). Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) in Forest
Management. Journal of Geography & Natural Disasters, 5(3).
https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-0587.1000145
Sutton, T., Dassau, O., & Sutton, M. (2009). A Gentle Introduction to GIS. Retrieved from
http://www.ruralgis.com/uploads/2/6/2/9/2629845/qgis-1.0.0_a-gentle-gis-
introduction_en.pdf
Tang, L., & Shao, G. (2015). Drone remote sensing for forestry research and practices.
Journal of Forestry Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-015-0088-y

14/10AS053 Page 42 of 42

View publication stats