A TECHNICAL REPORT ON

STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

UNDERTAKEN AT
DANVIC PETROLEUM INTERNATIONAL
29A ADETORO ADELAJA ST, MAGODO LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA

BY
ASALU DAVID OLATUNBOSUN
19/56EA027

SUBMITTED TO:
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND MINERAL SCIENCE
FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) IN GEOLOGY AND MINERAL SCIENCE.

DECEMBER 2023

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 REPORT OVERVIEW

This technical report aims to give a detailed summary of the experiences gained during the SIWES

programme. Chapter one gives an introduction to the SIWES programme as well as its background,

objectives and its importance in the career of students. Chapter two gives a description of the

organization where the programme was undertaken as well as its missions, visions and objectives.

Chapter three expatiates on the major principles learnt during the training, principles upon which the

organization’s operations are carried out. The technology integrated from these concepts were then

used to work on a project that involved the petrophysical analysis of five wells in a field onshore Niger

Delta which is discussed in Chapter four. Chapter five which is the final chapter talks about the

summary of the training as well as the experiences gained. It also dives into the challenges faced

during the programme and recommendations on how these can be curbed and averted to facilitate a

better SIWES experience for participants of future SIWES participants.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................................................................ i

REPORT OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................ ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................ iii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................................................ viii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES .......................................................................................... 1

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF SIWES ............................................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER TWO ORGANIZATION OVERVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATION .................................................................................... 3

2.2 ORGANIZATION’S DEPARTMENTS AND THEIR SERVICES .............................................. 3

2.3 ORGANIZATION’S MISSION: .................................................................................................... 5

2.4 ORGANIZATION’S MISSION:. ................................................................................................... 5

2.5 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ............................................................................................ 5

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CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF WORK DONE IN
ORGANIZATION

3.1 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 6

3.1.1 PETROLEUM AND ITS ORIGIN ............................................................................................. 6

3.1.2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM ............................................................................................................ 7

3.1.2.1 Source Rocks ........................................................................................................................ 8

3.1.2.2 Migration of petroleum ........................................................................................................ 11

3.1.2.3 Reservoir rock ...................................................................................................................... 13

3.1.2.4 Traps .................................................................................................................................. 114

3.1.2.5 Seals ................................................................................................................................... 136

3.2 WORKFLOW OF THE EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION SECTOR OIL AND GAS
INDUSTRY. .......................................................................................................................................... 17

3.3 PETROPHYSICS ANALYSIS AND FORMATION EVALUATION. ......................................... 20

3.3.1 PETROPHYSICAL PARAMETERS ....................................................................................... 20

3.3.2 WELL LOGS AND WELL LOGGING ....................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER FOUR: FORMATION EVALUATION PROJECT

4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 41

4.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 41

4.3 GEOLOGY OF STUDY AREA. ..................................................................................................... 41

4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 45

4.3.1 MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................ 45

4.3.1.1 LOG DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................. 45

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 4.3.1.2 Software used .......................................................................................................................... 46

4.3.2 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 46

4.3.2.1 Qualitative Petrophysical Analysis .......................................................................................... 47

4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................... 55

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 59

5.2 SIWES CHALLENGES.......................................................................................................... 59

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS TO ITF ........................................................................................... 60

5.4 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 61

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Danvic petroleum international’s organogram. ....................................................................... 5

Figure 3.1: A Van Krevelen plot. ......................................................................................................... 10

Figure 3.2: Migration of petroleum ...................................................................................................... 12

Figure 3.3: Fault traps ........................................................................................................................... 14

Figure 3.4: Salt dome traps. .................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 3.5: Stratigraphic traps ............................................................................................................. 16

Figure 3.6: Effective and non-effective pores within a matrix. ............................................................ 21

Figure 3.7: Relationship between permeability and effective porosity. ............................................... 25

Figure 3.9: A model of a logging while drilling operation. ................................................................. 27

Figure 3.9: Open hole logging vs cased hole logging ......................................................................... 28

Figure 3.10: Gamma ray log ................................................................................................................ 30

Figure 3.11: A Schematic for measurement of SP ............................................................................... 31

Figure 3.12: Principle of neutron log. ................................................................................................... 35

Figure 3.13: A neutron-density cross plot with observable gas effect ................................................. 37

Figure 3.14: Petrel's interface ............................................................................................................... 40

Figure 4.1: Paleography showing the opening of the South Atlantic, and development of the region

around Niger delta. ................................................................................................................................ 42

Figure 4.2: Stratigraphy of the Niger Delta basin. ................................................................................ 44

Figure 4.3: Lithostratigraphic correlation ............................................................................................ 48

Figure 4.4: Plot of shale volume of linear and non-linear functions against gamma ray index. .......... 51

Figure 4.5: Volume of shale plot ......................................................................................................... 52

Figure 4.6: Reserve 1 ............................................................................................................................ 56

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Figure 4.7: Reserve 2 ........................................................................................................................... 57

Figure 4.8: Pay report summary ........................................................................................................... 58

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Training session at Danvic petroleum international. Magodo, Lagos. ...................................... 4

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table showing the density range of different rock types ....................................................... 34
Table 2: Table of available well logs ................................................................................................... 45

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 CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established in Nigeria in 1973 by the
Industrial Training Fund (ITF), a government agency under the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and
Investment. The program was designed to address the persistent gap between theoretical learning and
practical application among students in tertiary institutions.

SIWES was created as a collaborative effort between academic institutions and industries to provide
students with the opportunity to gain hands-on experience and develop practical skills relevant to their
fields of study. It was specifically targeted at students pursuing courses in engineering, technology,
sciences, environmental studies, agriculture, and related disciplines.

The program typically involves a period of industrial training during which students are placed in
various organizations, companies, and institutions, where they can apply classroom knowledge in real-
world settings under the guidance of experienced professionals. This experience is meant to prepare
students for the demands of the labour market and to equip them with the necessary skills and
competencies to thrive in their chosen professions after graduation.

Since its inception, SIWES has played a crucial role in enhancing the quality of education and
bridging the gap between academic learning and industry requirements. It continues to serve as a key
component of the curriculum for students in tertiary institutions across Nigeria, facilitating the holistic
development of students and contributing to the overall growth and development of the nation's
workforce.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

The SIWES program was established in order to:

• To provide students with industrial skills and needed experience during the course of study.

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 • To create conditions and circumstances which can be as close as possible to the actual
workflow.
• To teach students the techniques and methods of working with facilities and equipment that
may not be available within the walls of an educational institution.
• To give students the ability to try and apply the given knowledge.
• Enlist and strengthen employer participation throughout the entire educational process of
preparing students for industrial jobs.
• Prepare students for a business career by combining analytical ability with self-reliance.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF SIWES

The Industrial Training Funds Policy Document No. 1 of 1973 which established SIWES outlined the
objectives of the scheme. The objectives are to:
• Prepare students for the industrial work settings they are likely to face after graduation.
• Expose students to operational processes and equipment handling procedures that may not be
available within their academic institutions.
• Facilitate a smoother transition from school to the workplace, enhancing students' networking
opportunities for potential future employment.
• Provide students with opportunities to apply their classroom knowledge in real-world work
environments, bridging the gap between theoretical learning and practical application.

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 CHAPTER TWO
ORGANIZATIONAL OVERVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO DANVIC PETROLEUM INTERNATIONAL

LOCATION
Danvic petroleum international is located at 29A Adetoro Adelaja St., Magodo Lagos state, Nigeria.

HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION OF DANVIC PETROLEUM INTERNATIONAL

Danvic is a licensed Nigerian oil & gas Service Company with esteemed technical partners from the
United Kingdom, United States, China, and the Netherlands and an established reputation for
providing world-class geoscience solutions to overcome exploration & production challenges for
clients worldwide. Its operations are strategically focused on specific oil & gas consulting
opportunities for integrated subsurface studies (geological, geophysical and petroleum engineering
services), recruitment/manpower supply services, oil & gas training services, university support, and
young professional training services.
Founded in 2008 by Dr. Mayowa Afe FNAPE, a seasoned professional with a background at
Halliburton and a distinguished past presidency at the Nigerian Association of Petroleum
Explorationists (NAPE) and Oil and Gas Trainers Association of Nigeria (OGTAN), Danvic
Petroleum International operates as a knowledge Company. This entails providing an extensive array
of goal-oriented support solutions in technical services and training, positioning Danvic petroleum
international as a leader in the industry.
Danvic petroleum international is currently engaged in strategic partnerships with key entities such as
PanTerra Geoconsultants, Spectrum Geo services, dGB and earth sciences.

2.2 ORGANIZATION’S DEPARTMENTS AND THEIR SERVICES

SUBSURFACE STUDIES DEPARTMENT

This department deals the provision of extensive studies which include the review of the geophysical
interpretation, geological model, and the building of both a simulation reservoir model and a surface
model. Some of the processes of this department include the following:

• Asset Evaluation and Field development studies.

• Seismic interpretation.
• Sedimentological and Sequence Stratigraphic analysis

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• Core description and Interpretation.
• Petrophysical analysis.
• Three-dimensional Static, and Dynamic Modeling/Reservoir Stimulation.
• Volume Estimation (Volumetrics), and Petroleum Economics.

OIL AND GAS SERVICES TRAINING DEPARTMENT

Danvic also provides trainings on the following:

• Basic and advanced seismic interpretation

• Basic Well Log Analysis (Petrophysics).
• Reservoir Modeling and Stimulation
• Basic Drilling Technology
• Software-based trainings.

Plate 1: Training session at Danvic petroleum International.

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2.3 ORGANIZATION’S MISSION:

To provide a service that is evidently excellent and well received by its clients.

2.4 ORGANIZATION’S VISION:

To be a preferred global leader in Oil & Gas Training services, Geological, Geophysical & Petroleum
Engineering consultancy.

2.5 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

DANVIC PETROLEUM AND SAFETY INTERNATIONAL

Figure 1: Danvic petroleum International’s organogram.

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 CHAPTER THREE

This section aims to dive into the necessary concepts and studies that I was exposed to in the duration
of my SIWES which form the theoretical and practical building blocks of the operations carried out at
Danvic petroleum international. These concepts form the basis upon which the petrophysics analysis
project discussed in the next chapter operates.

These concepts include:

• Basic petroleum geology

• The workflow of the exploration and production sector of the oil and gas industry
• Petrophysical analysis and formation evaluation from well log interpretation.

3.1 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Petroleum geology is a subfield of geology that focuses on the exploration, discovery, and production
of oil and natural gas resources within the Earth's crust. It involves the study of the origin, occurrence,
and migration of hydrocarbons, as well as the geological processes that influence their accumulation in
reservoirs.

3.1.1 PETROLEUM AND ITS ORIGIN

Petroleum also known as crude oil is a naturally occurring flammable fluid that’s found in geologic
formations and is made of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which are organic molecules that
contain carbon and hydrogen. These hydrocarbons can range from small molecules such as methane to
heavy molecules such as crude oil. Naturally, petroleum occurs with other molecules such as sulfur,
oxygen, nitrogen, and some metals in minute quantities.

The origin of petroleum can be traced back to organic matter that accumulated in ancient marine
environments millions of years ago. The formation of petroleum involves a complex process that
begins with the deposition of organic material, such as plankton, algae, and other microorganisms, in
sedimentary basins.

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Over time, these organic materials underwent a series of biochemical and geological processes,
including:

• Deposition and Burial: The organic matter settles and accumulates in sedimentary basins, such
as ocean floors, lakes, and swamps, where it is subsequently buried by layers of sediment.
• Transformation into Kerogen: Through the process of diagenesis, the organic matter undergoes
biochemical changes, leading to the formation of a waxy, insoluble organic material known as
kerogen.
• Temperature and Pressure Effects: As the sediment layers continue to accumulate over millions
of years, the temperature and pressure in the Earth's crust increase, leading to the thermal
maturation of the kerogen. This process, known as catagenesis, results in the conversion of
kerogen into hydrocarbons, including liquid petroleum and natural gas.
• Migration and Trapping: Once formed, petroleum migrates through porous rock layers, driven
by buoyancy and the pressure gradients in the subsurface. It eventually gets trapped in
geological formations, such as porous reservoir rocks, where impermeable layers, known as
cap rocks, prevent its further migration.
• Reservoir Formation: The accumulation of petroleum in porous and permeable reservoir rocks,
such as sandstone or limestone, forms oil and gas reservoirs that can be exploited through
drilling and extraction operations.

Understanding the geological processes involved in the formation of petroleum has been crucial in the
exploration and production of oil and gas resources worldwide. This knowledge has guided the
development of various techniques and technologies used in the petroleum industry to locate and
extract these valuable energy resources from the Earth's subsurface.

3.1.2 PETROLEUM SYSTEM

The petroleum system refers to a conceptual framework used in the field of petroleum geology to
understand the essential elements and processes involved in the formation, accumulation, and
preservation of oil and gas deposits within the Earth's crust. It helps geologists and engineers to assess
the potential for hydrocarbon exploration and production in a given geological region. A petroleum
system typically consists of the following key elements:

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3.1.2.1 Source Rocks

A source rock is an organic-rich sedimentary rock that serves as the origin of petroleum. It contains
the organic matter that undergoes thermal maturation during burial and generates hydrocarbons, such
as oil and gas, through the process of catagenesis. For a source rock to be a potential petroleum-
producing rock, it must have a Total organic carbon of about 1%.

The primary types of rocks that can serve as source rocks include:

• Shale: Shale is one of the most common types of source rocks. It is a fine-grained sedimentary
rock composed of clay minerals and organic matter. Shale has the ability to preserve organic
material and undergo thermal maturation, leading to the generation of significant amounts of
hydrocarbons.
• Coal: Although primarily known for its use as a solid fuel, coal can also act as a source rock.
Coal is formed from the accumulation and compaction of plant material over millions of years.
Under the right conditions, the organic material in coal can undergo transformation into
hydrocarbons.
• Organic-rich Limestone: Certain types of organic-rich limestone can also serve as source rocks.
These limestones contain significant amounts of organic material, such as algal debris or other
organic remains, which can generate hydrocarbons during thermal maturation processes.

Organic matter preservation

Organic matter preservation is a critical process in the formation of potential source rocks and the
generation of hydrocarbons. It involves the protection and conservation of organic material from
decomposition and degradation, allowing it to accumulate and contribute to the formation of
significant hydrocarbon reserves. Several key factors contribute to the preservation of organic matter
in sedimentary environments:

• Anoxic Conditions: The absence of oxygen in certain depositional environments, such as

oxygen-depleted marine basins or waterlogged swampy areas, is essential for preventing the
complete decay of organic matter. Anoxic conditions hinder the activities of aerobic
microorganisms responsible for organic material decomposition, facilitating its long-term
preservation.

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 • Rapid Burial: Rapid burial of organic material under successive layers of sediment is crucial
for its protection from surface weathering and microbial degradation. Continuous
sedimentation and deposition contribute to the formation of thick layers of sedimentary rocks,
effectively isolating and preserving organic matter within the sedimentary basin.
• Sediment Composition: The composition of the surrounding sediment can influence organic
matter preservation. Fine-grained sediments, such as clay and shale, have low permeability,
which can restrict the diffusion of oxygen and other decomposing agents, contributing to the
preservation of organic material.
• Biological and Chemical Processes: Certain bacterial and chemical processes within the
sedimentary layers can aid in the preservation of organic matter. These processes can alter the
composition of organic material, making it more resistant to degradation, and contribute to the
formation of complex organic compounds that are less susceptible to decay.
• Early Diagenesis: Early diagenetic processes, which occur shortly after sediment burial, can
play a role in organic matter preservation. Mineral precipitation, organic-mineral interactions,
and the formation of authigenic minerals can create microenvironments that protect organic
material from degradation and enhance its preservation within the sedimentary matrix.

Components of organic matter

Organic matter is classified majorly into two namely kerogen and bitumen. Bitumen is a heavy, highly
viscous, and semi-solid form of petroleum that’s soluble in organic solvents. It is composed of a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons, including high-molecular-weight compounds, and is commonly
found in natural asphalt deposits or as a residue of petroleum distillation processes. Kerogen, on the
other hand, is a solid, waxy, and insoluble organic material found in sedimentary rocks, such as oil
shale and certain types of source rocks. It is the precursor to hydrocarbon formation and undergoes
thermal maturation to generate oil and gas. Using the maceral composition and compounds as a basis,
the Van Krevelen plot (Fig 3.0) is utilized to characterize the four primary kerogen categories. These
categories encompass:

• Liptinites (commonly referred to as type I kerogen): they are rich in lipids and fats and they are
derived from the decomposition of algae in fresh water lakes and lagoons. They have a high
proportion of H:C ratio (1.6-1.8%) and low O:C ratio (0.06%) they yield up to 80% oil.

9
 • Exinites (commonly referred to as type II kerogen): They form the most prolific global source
rocks’ organic matter. They are rich in lipids and are formed from a mixture of marine and
terrestrial plant materials like spur. They dominate marine source rocks and have a high H:C
ratio and intermediate O:C ratio. They typically have higher sulfur content than other kerogen
types which influences the timing and rate of their maturation. They are oil and gas prone with
yields of 40-60%.
• Vitrinite (commonly referred to as type III kerogen): formed from terrestrial plants they have a
low H:C ratio and high O:C ratio and as result have a low yield, they are low in aliphatic
compounds but rich in aromatic compounds, they are gas prone. An example of a vitrinite
dominated source rock is the carboniferous coal measures of the northern sea basin.
• Inertinites (also known as type III kerogen): They are high in carbon and very low in hydrogen
they are often termed dead carbon because they have low to no effective potential to generate
hydrocarbon.

Figure 3.1: A Van Krevelen plot showing the different types of kerogens as well as their hydrocarbon
generation potential. The legend to the top right corner shows formations around the world that
contain these different types of kerogens.

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Petroleum generation.

The alteration of kerogen and consequent generation of petroleum involves three stages:
• Diagenesis: as fine-grained sediments and organic sediments get buried, temperature and
pressure begin to rise. The organic matter is attacked by anerobic bacteria causing it to develop
into kerogen with attendant liberation of biogenic gas (CH4, CH2 and water vapour) this
transformation occurs within the first few hundred metres of burial in rare cases it may reach
up to 2000m. During diagenesis source rock are said to be immature.
• Catagenesis: Catagenesis is a term used in petroleum geology to describe the cracking process
which results in the conversion of organic kerogens into hydrocarbons. As temperature further
increases with burial, bacteria die off. At about 600C kerogen matures, oil starts to form from
kerogen. With further increase in temperature and burial, the heavy molecule in the kerogen is
cracked and progressively lighter oil is produced. The carbon content of the resulting
hydrocarbon causes it to yield more oil in the presence of increase temperature and burial.
• Metagenesis: metagenesis is the process that follows catagenesis, it is a phase in the formation
of petroleum and natural gas during which the temperature rises above 150 °C and may exceed
200 °C due to increasing burial, causing destruction of kerogen and release of gas (mainly
methane). At the higher temperatures petroleum is destroyed, leaving only natural gas.

3.1.2.2 Migration of petroleum

This is a second element of petroleum system. When petroleum is generated, it forms discrete droplets
that are dispersed within the sediment. In order for the droplets to accumulate as pools, the droplet
must migrate from the environment of generation (source rock) into the environment that’s suitable for
accumulation and evaluation (reservoir rock). The oil is stored in pores within the reservoir rock.
Migration refers to the movement of petroleum from the source rock to the reservoir rock and within
the reservoir rock until it’s trapped. Migration of petroleum involves three phases.

1. Primary migration: This is the movement of petroleum from source rock into reservoir rock.
Usually limited to a few hundred meters. The main driving source of primary migration is the
compaction of source rocks which takes place under gravitational load of overlying sediments
and leads to loss of porosity.

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 2. Secondary migration: This is the movement of petroleum within the reservoir bed and could be
as a result of buoyancy due to the presence of water.
3. Tertiary migration: Tertiary migration occurs due to natural flow of fluid along a pressure
gradient It may be referred to as movement of petroleum form porous rocks to a point of
entrapment or leakage.

Figure 3.2: Migration of petroleum.

Importance of petroleum migration

When there is no migration pattern in a petroleum system, the hydrocarbons that are generated in the
source rock remain trapped and unable to move to a reservoir where they can be collected. This
situation ultimately results in the absence of any significant accumulation of petroleum in a particular
location, leading to what is known as an unsuccessful or non-existent petroleum accumulation.

In the absence of migration, the hydrocarbons generated in the source rock cannot reach suitable
reservoir rocks due to various factors such as the lack of permeable pathways, structural traps, or faults
that could have facilitated the movement of petroleum. Without the necessary geological conditions
for migration, the hydrocarbons may remain dispersed within the source rock or may even be lost due
to thermal cracking or other geological processes.

Understanding migration patterns is crucial in petroleum exploration and production, as it helps

geologists and petroleum engineers predict the presence of petroleum accumulations in specific areas

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and target exploration efforts more effectively. When there is no migration, it becomes challenging to
locate economically viable petroleum reservoirs, which can significantly impact the success of
exploration and production activities in the petroleum industry.

3.1.2.3 Reservoir rock

These are rocks that are usually porous and permeable enough to permit accumulation of hydrocarbon.
Hydrocarbons are formed in the pore space or within the grain that makes up the rock (intra-granular).
A good conventional reservoir must exhibit the following characteristics:

• Laterally continuous: A good reservoir should be laterally continuous to accommodate the

accumulation of migrating petroleum.
• Porous (effective): Porosity refers to the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume occupied
by the rock matrix which includes the pore spaces the bulk volume is equal to the addition of
the pore volume and grain volume. A good reservoir should have an effective porosity of at
least 15%. Effective porosity refers to the volume of connected pores. The higher the porosity
of a rock, the more it’s accommodating space for hydrocarbons.
• Permeable: The permeability of a rock is the measure of its ability to transmit fluid. The more
the effective porosity of a rock, the better its permeability.
• Saturated with fluid of interest: reservoirs are naturally saturated with both hydrocarbons and
water in different proportions in the oil and gas industry, for a reservoir to be economically
viable for production, it must have a high hydrocarbon saturation which is given as 1-Sw where
Sw stands for water saturation.

Types of reservoirs

1. Sandstones: about 60% of all discovered oil and gas is reserved in sandstones.
2. Carbonates: They make about over 35% of all oil and gas reserves
3. Fractured and weathered rocks.

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Unconventional reservoirs

The growing demand of petroleum and petroleum products for energy worldwide has led to call for the
exploration of other unconventional means of hydrocarbon production. For example, shale which was
once only considered to be a source rock is now being explored as an unconventional source of
hydrocarbon production. Examples of unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs are shale, bitumen and
tight oil. Because shale and tight oil lack the necessary characteristics such as porosity and
permeability needed for the production of hydrocarbon in conventional reservoirs, a different method
of production which involves the hydraulic fracturing of rocks is adopted.

3.1.2.4 Traps

Traps are geologic configurations that create conditions suitable for the accumulation of hydrocarbon a
trap can be structural or stratigraphic or a combination of both.

Structural traps: These are traps that are formed from the deformation of sediments as a result of
earth’s tectonic forces. Examples include anticline salt domes and fault traps.

Figure 3.3: Fault trap

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Figure 3.4: Salt dome traps.

Stratigraphic traps: Stratigraphic traps are traps that are formed as a result of changes in depositional
trends and stratigraphy which includes the physical characteristics of a rock. For example, a shale rock
can act as a trap due to its low porosity and permeability which prevents the migration of fluids from
the reservoir through the shale. Examples of stratigraphic traps are pinch outs

15
Figure 3.5: Stratigraphic traps

Combination traps: These are traps formed from the combination of structural traps and changes in
facies.

3.1.2.5 Seals

Seals are impermeable rock formations that prevent the upward migration of hydrocarbons, acting as a
barrier to the movement of oil and gas. These impermeable rocks can include shales, salt domes, or
any other rock type that can effectively impede the flow of hydrocarbons. The presence of seals is
essential to the formation of petroleum reservoirs, as they help to trap hydrocarbons in subsurface
formations by preventing their escape to earth’s surface. Without effective seals, hydrocarbons would
escape and dissipate, resulting in little to no accumulation of economically viable reserves.

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3.2 WORKFLOW OF THE EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION SECTOR OIL AND GAS
INDUSTRY.

The Oil and gas industry is divided into three main sectors.

1. Upstream: The term 'upstream oil sector' is frequently used to describe the activities involved
in locating, extracting, and producing crude oil and natural gas. It is also known as the
exploration and production (E&P) sector. Upstream operations encompass the search for
potential oil and gas reserves both underground and underwater, the drilling of exploratory
wells, and the ongoing management of wells to extract and bring crude oil and natural gas to
the surface.
2. Midstream: Generally classified as part of the downstream segment, midstream activities
primarily involve the transportation of crude oil obtained from upstream activities to
downstream processing facilities. This process enables the transformation of crude oil into the
diverse range of final products used in everyday life by consumers.
3. Downstream: The downstream oil and gas sector deals with the refining of crude oil, the
selling and distribution of natural gas and products derived from crude oil.

This section aims to dive into the workflow of the exploration and production sector of the oil and gas
industry as well as the roles experts of different fields play. The workflow of the exploration and
production sector is divided into five stages namely:

• Exploration stage.
• Appraisal stage.
• Development stage.
• Production stage.
• Abandonment and decommissioning.

Exploration stage: This stage aims to discover the hydrocarbon through necessary exploration
techniques. The exploration activity is carried out in sedimentary basins since source rocks are
sedimentary rocks and so is nearly 100% of all reservoirs. The exploratory phase of the oil and gas
industry is a crucial stage where companies conduct various activities to discover and evaluate
potential reserves of oil and natural gas. This phase is typically divided into several key stages or
divisions, each serving a specific purpose in the exploration process. These divisions can include:

17
 • Prospect Generation: In this stage, geologists and geophysicists utilize various data sources,
including geological surveys, seismic data, and other relevant information, to identify potential
areas where oil and gas reserves may be present. This involves the interpretation of geological
structures such as anticlines and faults and the identification of areas with the potential for
hydrocarbon accumulation.

• Seismic Surveys: Seismic surveys are conducted to provide a detailed image of the subsurface
geology. This process involves sending sound waves into the ground and recording the echoes
that bounce back, allowing geophysicists to create a 3D image of the rock layers beneath the
surface. Seismic surveys help in identifying potential traps where oil and gas might be trapped.
• Exploratory Drilling: Once potential locations have been identified through the prospect
generation and seismic surveys, exploratory drilling is conducted to confirm the presence of oil
or gas. Exploratory wells are drilled to test the geological formations and assess the presence,
quality, and quantity of hydrocarbons. If successful, this stage can lead to the discovery of new
oil and gas reserves.

By dividing the exploratory phase into these key divisions, oil and gas companies can effectively
manage the complex process of discovering, evaluating, and developing new oil and gas reserves.

Appraisal stage: After proving the existence of what is most likely a significant pool of hydrocarbon,
certain uncertainties may still linger such as the size and shape of the hydrocarbon reservoirs and the
recoverability factor of the hydrocarbon. The appraisal factor aims to determine the size and
boundaries of the reserves and to better quantify the present hydrocarbon. Some of the operations
carried out in this phase include.

• Additional seismic surveys.

• Drilling of appraisal wells.
• Logging (wireline and open hole logging) to be discussed later in this section.
• Reservoir simulation studies.

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Development stage:

The development stage takes place to exploit the hydrocarbons resources. some of the activities
include:

• Detailed Field Development Plan (FDP)

• Drilling of Development Wells
• Building infield infrastructure (infield production facilities, gas treatment, and pipelines)
• Community consultations and Environmental assessments

Production stage:

The production phase in the oil and gas industry refers to the operational stage during which the
extracted resources, such as crude oil and natural gas, are brought to the surface and processed for
commercial use. This phase involves the continuous extraction of oil and gas from the reservoir, as
well as the transportation, refining, and distribution of the products to the market. The production
phase is a crucial part of the industry's lifecycle, as it is where the actual extraction and monetization
of the resources occur.

Abandonment and decommissioning stage: The abandonment and decommissioning phase is the
final stage of a project's lifecycle, wherein the facilities, wells, and infrastructure used for exploration
and production are permanently shut down and removed. During the abandonment and
decommissioning phase in the oil and gas industry, several specific operations are typically carried
out. Some of these operations may include:

• Well plugging and abandonment: Properly sealing and isolating wells to prevent any potential
environmental contamination or leakage of fluids.
• Facility dismantling: Dismantling and removal of surface infrastructure such as platforms,
pipelines, and other equipment used in the production and transportation processes.
• Site remediation: Conducting environmental cleanup and restoration activities to restore the
site to its original state, including soil remediation, vegetation restoration, and habitat
rehabilitation.
• Waste management: Proper disposal or treatment of any hazardous or non-hazardous waste
generated during the decommissioning process.

19
 • Regulatory compliance: Ensuring that all activities are carried out in accordance with relevant
regulatory requirements, including obtaining necessary permits and approvals for
decommissioning activities.
• Stakeholder engagement: Communicating with relevant stakeholders, including local
communities, government agencies, and environmental organizations, to address any concerns
and ensure transparency throughout the decommissioning process.

Proper abandonment and decommissioning are essential to mitigate potential environmental impacts
and ensure the long-term sustainability of the area.

3.3 PETROPHYSICS ANALYSIS AND FORMATION EVALUATION.

Petrophysics analysis is the interpretation of well logs (to be discussed later in this section) in order to
determine, evaluate the physical properties of a rock and most importantly for hydrocarbon prospects.
It involves the integration of theoretical petrophysics knowledge to interpret well logs.

Petrophysics is simply the study of the physical properties of rocks such properties it is an important
discipline because it helps in reducing the risks and uncertainties associated with hydrocarbon
prospecting. Using well logs, which is data recorded using different measuring tools and technology in
a process known as well logging. Geologists can measure the petrophysical parameters of a geologic
formation to evaluate it, characterize its reservoir, make better informed decisions in hydrocarbon
prospects and ultimately produce hydrocarbon resources at an economically viable quantity.

3.3.1 PETROPHYSICAL PARAMETERS

These are the physical and chemical properties of a formation that are measured and studied for
formation evaluation. At Danvic petroleum, geoscientists interpret well logs in order to estimate the
petrophysical parameters of a formation for hydrocarbon discovery and reservoir characterization.
Examples of petrophysical parameters are:

Porosity: The porosity of a rock or formation is defined as the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk
volume occupied by the rock matrix which includes the pore spaces the bulk volume is equal to the

20
addition of the pore volume and grain volume. It is a dimensionless quantity and is generally denoted
as phi 𝜙.

Pore Volume
Porosity, 𝜙. = ∗ 100
Bulk Volume

Total porosity: Defined as the ratio of the volume of all the pores to the bulk volume of a material,
regardless of whether or not all of the pores are interconnected.

Effective porosity: The effective porosity of a rock is the volume of interconnected pore spaces in a
rock it’s denoted as 𝜙𝑒𝑓𝑓 . Porosity is one of the most important petrophysical parameters. The more
the volume of interconnected spaces in a rock, the higher its capacity to allow for the migration or
storage of fluids such as hydrocarbons.

Figure 3.6: Effective and non-effective pores within a matrix.

The variation in porosity within sands and sandstones primarily depends on factors like the
distribution of grain sizes, the shape of the grains, how they are packed together, the level of
cementation, and the presence of clay. These aspects dictate the overall shape of the pores and the
porosity levels. In sandstones that hold hydrocarbons, the porosity typically falls between 3 and 38
percent in gas reservoirs and 10 to 38 percent in oil reservoirs.

21
In contrast, the range of porosity in carbonate rocks can be considerably more diverse than that found
in sandstones. Certain carbonate formations, like reef build-ups and chalks, exhibit very high porosity,
occasionally exceeding 50 percent

Water saturation

The water saturation of is the ratio of the volume of water in a porous rock to the volume of water and
hydrocarbons in it naturally, pore spaces in rocks are filled with water but as kerogen matures and
petroleum begins to form and migrate into the pore spaces, water gets displaced before eventually
separating due to buoyancy.

The water saturation (Sw) is typically calculated using data from various well logging tools and
measurements, including porosity logs and resistivity logs well logging and well logs are discussed in
the next section of this chapter. Some common methods used for calculating water saturation include
the Archie equation, the Simandoux equation, and the Waxman-Smits equation, among others.

Several factors influence water saturation in a reservoir, including the type of rock, the presence of
different minerals, the porosity of the rock, and the fluid properties. Knowing the water saturation is
crucial for accurate reservoir characterization, and economic assessment.

Proper evaluation and monitoring of water saturation levels are critical for successful and efficient oil
and gas exploration and production, as they directly impact the overall productivity and profitability of
a reservoir.

Archie’s equation.

Archie's equation, named after the American petrophysicist G. Archie, is a fundamental relationship
used in petrophysics for estimating the electrical resistivity of a water-saturated rock. This relationship
helps in determining the water saturation (Sw) in a hydrocarbon reservoir based on the rock's electrical
properties. The equation is expressed as follows:

𝑎∗𝑅𝑤
𝑆𝑊 𝑛 =
𝛷𝑚 ∗𝑅𝑡

Where;

• 𝑆𝑊 = water saturation.

22
 • 𝑛 = saturation exponent, which varies from 1.8 to 4.0 but normally is 2.0.
• 𝑎 = formation or turtoisity factor.
• 𝛷 = porosity of rock formation.
• 𝑚 = cementation exponent, which varies from 1.7 to 3.0 but normally is 2.0.
• 𝑅𝑤 = resistivity of water in the formation.
• 𝑅𝑡 = true resistivity of the formation.

𝑅𝑤 , 𝑛, 𝑎, 𝑚 are usually gotten from special core analysis. For this project, 𝑛, 𝑎, 𝑚 were gotten from
another statistical approach which involved using the humbles formula and the resistivity of water in
the formation was calculated using the factor formula data was provided for this project.

Formation factor.

𝑅0
The ratio is known as the apparent formation factor where 𝑅0 = resistivity of formation filled with
𝑅𝜔

water and 𝑅𝜔 = resistivity of water in the formation and may vary with temperature, and the type of
ion in solution.

Humble’s formula

Humble’s formula is a Particular relation between the formation factor (F) and porosity (phi) proposed
0⋅62
by the Humble Oil Company. The original formula was expressed as 𝐹 = 𝜙2⋅15 . A nearly equivalent
0⋅81
form, with a simpler porosity exponent, is . These formulae are considered most suitable for
𝜙2

relatively high-porosity, sucrosic, or granular, rocks.

Archie's equation is widely used in the petroleum industry for evaluating water saturation in reservoir
rocks. It is important to note that the equation assumes that the rock formation is homogeneous and
that the pore spaces are filled with a conductive fluid, usually water.

23
Limitations of Archie’s equation.

While Archie's equation is a widely used and valuable tool for estimating water saturation in reservoir
rocks, it does have certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting its results. Some of
these limitations include:

1. Assumptions of Homogeneity: Archie's equation assumes that the formation is homogeneous,

which might not always be the case in real reservoirs. Heterogeneities in the rock properties can lead
to inaccurate estimations of water saturation.

2. Sensitivity to Cementation Exponent (m) and Saturation Exponent (n): The values of the
cementation exponent (m) and saturation exponent (n) are empirical and may vary for different types
of rocks and fluids. Small changes in these values can significantly impact the calculated water
saturation, making it necessary to calibrate these parameters for specific reservoir conditions.

3. Influence of Pore Geometry: The equation assumes that the pores are uniform and well-connected,
which might not accurately represent the complex pore structures present in some reservoirs.
Deviations from the idealized pore geometry can lead to deviations in the calculated water saturation
values.

Simandoux equation

In shaly rocks the Archie law over-estimates the water saturation. Many models consider the Shale
Volume (Vshale or Volume of Shale) in the matrix to account for the excess of conductivity. The
Simandoux equation (1963) is among the most used ones. It reduces mathematically to the Archie
equation when n=2 and Vsh=0. Below are the expressions for the general Simandoux equations:

𝒂 ∗ 𝑹𝒘 𝑽𝒔𝒉 𝟐 𝟒𝛷 𝒎 𝑽𝒔𝒉
𝑺𝒘 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑥 = [ √ ( ) + − ]
𝟐 ∗ 𝛷𝒎 𝑹𝒔𝒉 𝒂 ∗ 𝑹𝒘 ∗ 𝑹𝒕 𝑹𝒔𝒉

The simandoux equation accounts for the presence of shale in a reservoir unlike archie’s equation
which assumes a clean shale free reservoir.

24
Permeability

permeability is the measure of the ability of a porous material to transmit fluid. It is expressed as the
velocity with which a fluid of specified viscosity, under the influence of a given pressure, passes
through a sample having a certain cross section and thickness. The standard unit of permeability is the
darcy, one darcy is equivalent to the passage of one cubic centimeter of fluid with a viscosity of one
centipoise per second through a sample one square centimeter in cross-sectional area under a pressure
of one atmosphere per centimeter of thickness. The more the effective porosity of a rock the higher it’s
permeability.

Figure 3.7: Relationship between permeability and effective porosity.

Resistivity

Electrical resistivity is a measure of how much a material opposes the flow of electric current. In
petrophysics, it is used to determine the presence of fluids and their types within a reservoir rock,
helping in distinguishing between hydrocarbons, water, and other substances. Pure water (H20) is an
insulator, however water present in a reservoir generally has lower resistivity due to the presence of
dissolved ions that increase act as a conduit for the passage of electrons. Hydrocarbons however have
a lower resistivity.

25
Pore Pressure

Pore pressure is the pressure exerted by fluids within the pores of a rock. It is an essential parameter
for understanding the stability of wellbores during drilling operations and for predicting the potential
for fluid migration within a reservoir.

Rock and Fluid Density

Rock and fluid density measurements are crucial for calculating various parameters such as bulk
density and neutron porosity. These measurements are vital for understanding the composition of the
reservoir rock and the types of fluids present within the reservoir.

3.3.2 WELL LOGS AND WELL LOGGING

A well log is a continuous recording of a geophysical parameter along a borehole that is used to
determine the physical and chemical properties of a formation for hydrocarbon prospects.

Well logging Is a process used in the oil and gas industry to obtained detail information about
formations penetrated by a borehole. It involves the lowering of tools or devices that measure the
various properties of the rocks and fluids within and surrounding the wellbore such as the natural
gamma ray emitted from a rock, resistivity of a rock and/or its fluids or the response of the rock to a
magnetic field or sonic waves. The measurements taken are known as well logs.

Well logs can be obtained while drilling known as logging while drilling (LWD) in an open well in a
process known as open hole logging, or in a cased well from wirelines in a process known as cased
hole logging and based on.

Logging while drilling

Logging while drilling (LWD) involves integrating logging tools into the drill string or bottom hole
assembly (BHA) to collect real-time data while the well is being drilled. LWD allows for immediate
evaluation of the formation properties as the drilling progresses, enabling the drilling team to make
informed decisions about well trajectory, formation evaluation, and geo-steering without the need for
additional runs or interruptions. Figure 3.4 seen in the next page gives a view of the process of logging
while drilling as well as the arrangement of tools in the well.

26
Wireline logging

Wireline logging is a well logging method used in the oil and gas industry to obtain data about the
geological formations traversed by a borehole. In this technique, a set of measurement tools are
lowered into the wellbore on the end of a cable, or "wireline,". These tools, equipped with various
sensors, can measure properties such as formation porosity, lithology, resistivity, density, and acoustic
properties.

Wireline logging provides valuable information about the subsurface formations, including the
presence of hydrocarbons, rock and fluid properties, and potential reservoir characteristics. The data
obtained from wireline logging are crucial for making informed decisions regarding well completion,
production strategies, and reservoir management.

Open hole logging

This refers to all logging operations that are carried out in a borehole or well before it is cased with
concrete or any other materials.

Open hole logging involves lowering logging tools into an uncased borehole to measure various
formation properties, such as porosity, permeability, and lithology, among others. This method is
typically conducted before the well is cased, providing valuable information about Drill the
bit subsurface
bit
formations to assess reservoir characteristics and plan subsequent drilling and completion operations.

Figure 3.8: A model of a logging while drilling operation.

27
Figure 3.9: Open hole logging vs cased hole logging.

Open hole logs are recorded to measure different physical parameter of a well to ascertain the capacity
of the well to flow hydrocarbon. It is also called as the electronic eye of a well. There are many
physical parameters that can be recorded in Logs depending upon the need. However, there are a very
few basic parameters which are essential to be recorded in every well. They are broadly classified as:

1) Lithology logs (Gamma ray and spontaneous potential logs)

2) Resistivity Logs

3) Porosity logs.

5) Sampling and coring

6) Cement evaluation Logs

7) Production Logs.

GAMMA RAY LOG

The standard gamma ray tool contains no source and it responds only to gamma ray emission from
the downhole environment. Potassium (K40), Uranium (U238), Thorium (32) are the main
radioactive materials. The main types detectors are Geiger Muller detector or Scintillation

28
Counters. Gamma ray signatures are measured in APIs and are a standard set by the American
Petroleum Institute. The scale is usually 0 -150 API

Application of gamma ray logs

• The gamma ray is particularly useful for defining shale beds.

• It is used as a quantitative indicator of shale content.

• Detection and evaluation of radioactive minerals.

• Delineation of radioactive minerals including coal beds.

SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS

The spectral gamma ray log measures the natural gamma radiation emanating from a formation
split into contributions from each of the major radio-isotopic sources. Analysis of the sources of
the natural gamma radiation give us added information concerning the composition and likely
lithology of the formation. The spectral gamma ray log is commonly given the by symbol SGR.

29
Figure 3.10: Gamma ray log.

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

Principle
Spontaneous potential log is an example of lithology logs. Spontaneous potential arises due to
salinity contrast between formation water and mud filtrate against permeable beds. No current is
sent into the formation. The SP log is recorded by measuring the potential difference in milli-volts
between an electrode in the borehole and a grounded electrode at the surface. The change in
voltage through the well bore is caused by a buildup of charge on the well bore walls. Shales and
clays will generate one charge and permeable formations such as sandstone will generate an
opposite one. This buildup of charge in turn caused by differences in salt content and formation
water.

30
Figure 3.11: A Schematic for measurement of SP.
Spontaneous potential logs are used to delineate porous and permeable reservoir rocks, determine
bed boundaries and bed thickness, estimate the fraction of clay and for the correlation of
permeable beds

31
RESISTIVITY LOG

The resistivity of a substance is the measure of its ability to impede the flow of electric currents
through it. Formation resistivities usually fall within the range of 0.2 to 2000 ohmmeters and this is the
most common scale used for resistivity logs. In a formation containing oil or gas, both of which are
electrical insulators resistivity is a function of formation factor, brine resistivity and water saturation
which in term depends on true resistivity. Of all formation parameters, resistivity is of particular
importance because it helps detect the presence of hydrocarbons in the reservoir.

Applications of resistivity logs

The resistivity is useful for the following:
• Hydrocarbon detection.

• Correlation of different formations

• Water saturation measurement.

• Hydrocarbon saturation measurement

POROSITY LOGS

Porosity values can be obtained from sonic log, a formation density log or a neutron log. In addition to
porosity these logs are affected by other parameters, such as lithology, nature of the pore fluids, and
volume of shale. For more accurate calculations porosity is obtained from combination of logs.

Applications of porosity logs:

• Reservoir Evaluation: Porosity logs help in evaluating reservoir characteristics, such as the volume
of hydrocarbons that can be stored in the formation. This information is crucial for making
decisions about the economic viability of drilling and production.
• Formation Characterization: They aid in characterizing the properties of the subsurface formations,
including their lithology, fluid content, and overall quality. This understanding is vital for
determining the potential productivity of a well.
• Well Placement: Porosity logs assist in identifying zones with the highest porosity, which are
usually the most favorable for hydrocarbon accumulation. This helps in placing wells strategically
to maximize production and minimize costs.

32
• Fluid Identification: By analyzing the porosity data, it is possible to distinguish between different
types of fluids present in the formation, such as oil, gas, water. This information is crucial for
understanding the composition of the reservoir and planning appropriate production strategies.

DENSITY LOG

Principle

The density log is a measurement of a formation’s bulk density and photo electric absorption index
of the lithologic column penetrated. The bulk density depends on fluid density and matrix density
in porous formation, to measure the bulk gamma rays are directed to the formation. The detectors
measure the gamma ray flux resulting from scattering and absorption effect of the formation. The
higher the formation density, the lower the gamma ray intensity at the detectors. The scale of a
density log is in 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and ranges from 1.90 to 2.90 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.

Porosity calculation from density log

Porosity can be calculated from density logs using the formula:

𝑃𝑚𝑎 −𝑃𝑏
𝜙 (𝑃𝐻𝐼𝐷) =
𝑃𝑚𝑎 −𝑃𝑓

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

• 𝜙 = porosity from density log

• 𝑃𝑚𝑎 = density of formation matrix
• 𝑃𝑏 = formation bulk density (log value)
• 𝑃𝑓 = density of the fluid immediately saturating the rock immediately surrounding the borehole
which is usually mud filtrate a value of 1.0 is used for fresh water and 1.1 for saltwater mud.

33
 Table 1: Density range for different rock types

NEUTRON LOGS

Neutron logs are used to calculate the porosity of the formation surrounding a borehole. It works by
sending neutron particles into a formation from a source. When the neutrons collide with the hydrogen
atoms in a formation they are slowed down and eventually become thermal neutrons or in cases where
there is a larger transfer of energy, they are absorbed by the hydrogen atoms and then release gamma
radiation this type energy transfer between neutrons and hydrogen atoms is as a result of their almost
equal sizes. The thermal neutrons and gamma radiations are then measured by a detector to give a
measure of the hydrogen atom concentration. Hydrogen atom concentration signifies the presence of
water or hydrocarbons which indicates a porous formation. Neutron logs are denoted by NPHI which
stands for neutron porosity and values range from 45% to -15% or 0 to 60% the scale varies based on
lithology.

34
 Figure 3.12: Principle of neutron log

Porosity estimation from neutron logs

The neutron log is a direct measure of the porosity of a formation.

𝜙 = NPHI

Where NHPI = neutron porosity index which is measured by the logging tool.

Applications of neutron logs:

• Determination of Porosity.

• Water saturation.
• Gas detection.

• Location & Monitoring of gas / oil and water / oil contacts.

• Shale indicator.

The Hydrocarbon Effect: The presence of oil in a formation does not affect the tool response as it
has approximately the same hydrogen index as fresh water. Hydrocarbon gas, however, has a much
lower hydrocarbon index resulting from its low density, and its presence will give rise to
underestimations in porosity. The hydrocarbon effect can be detected from a neutron

Shale effect: Shales contain clay and clay minerals have a strong affinity to water and for this reason,
water molecules are usually bound to the surface of clay minerals. The presence of this bound water
gives erroneously high porosity values even in shales with low porosity.

35
Neutron-Density Cross Plot

A cross plot of the neutron and density log helps is an important technique used in making important
petrophysical deductions and observations such as the hydrocarbon effect, shale effect.

Hydrocarbon detection from neutron-density cross plot analysis.

A neutron density cross plot is a petrophysical technique that is widely used for the identification of
gas and sometimes oil in a formation and it can also be used for differentiating between sands and
shales. In gas zones, there is a cross over between the curve of the neutron log and density log and
both logs apparently switch origins. In zones or formations filled with oil, the crossover can still be
observed but is less pronounced than in gas zones this is as a result of the absurdly low porosity values
measured in gas zones by the neutron log and can be seen in figure 3.13 Gas formations have a lower
hydrogen concentration than oil or water zones due to the extremely low density of gas this gives an
erratic porosity reading of the true porosity of gas zones but can be easily corrected from estimation of
the porosity from the combination of the neutron and density log since the density log gives a more
accurate reading of the true porosity

36
 Gas
effect

Figure 3.13: A neutron-density cross plot with observable gas effect

SONIC LOGS

The sonic log measures the interval transit time, or the time in microseconds for an acoustic wave
to travel through an interval of one foot in a formation, along a path parallel to borehole, which is
the reciprocal of the velocity of the compressional sound wave. Wyllie proposed the following
empirical relation for determination of porosity from the sonic log:

∆𝑡 − ∆𝑡𝑚𝑎
𝜙 (𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑆) =
∆𝑡𝑓 − ∆𝑡𝑚𝑎

Where:

• 𝜙 = fractional porosity of the rock.

• ∆𝑡 = acoustic transit time measured by acoustic logs (μsec/ft).
• ∆𝑡𝑚𝑎 = acoustic transit time in the rock matrix (μsec/ft).

37
• ∆𝑡𝑓 = acoustic transit time in interstitial fluids (μsec/ft).

This time average relation is good for clean, compacted formations of intergranular porosity
containing liquids.

Applications of sonic logs

• Detection of hydrocarbon in high porosity sand.

• Lithology can be identified.

• Integrated travel time useful in seismic interpretation.

• Effects of cement coverage can be easily measured by comparing both open and cased hole
data. (The transmit time overlying each other for good cement).
• Generation of a synthetic seismogram
LIMITATIONS

Sonic logs, also known as acoustic well logs, are important tools used in the oil and gas industry to
assess the properties of subsurface formations. These logs provide information about the acoustic
properties of the rocks, including their porosity, lithology, and mechanical properties. However,
they do have some limitations. Some of the key limitations of sonic logs are:

1. Depth Limitations: Sonic logs are affected by the borehole diameter and rugosity. The quality
of the signal decreases with increasing depth due to attenuation and dispersion. This can make it
challenging to accurately measure properties at greater depths.

2. Invasion Effects: When drilling, the drilling fluid can invade the formation, leading to
alterations in the formation's acoustic properties. This invasion can affect the accuracy of the sonic
log data, especially in the near-wellbore region.

3. Formation Fluids: Sonic logs are sensitive to the type of fluid present in the pore spaces.
Variations in the fluid properties, such as fluid type, salinity, and viscosity, can affect the accuracy
of the log interpretation.

4. Environmental Factors: Environmental factors, such as temperature and pressure changes, can
affect the speed of sound in the formation, leading to potential inaccuracies in the interpretation of
sonic log data.

38
Despite these limitations, sonic logs remain valuable tools for providing crucial insights into the
properties of subsurface formations. They are often used in conjunction with other well logging
techniques to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the geological and reservoir characteristics
of a given formation.

Cased hole logging

Cased hole logs are run to assess well integrity, improve reservoir management and scan the well for
bypassed production before plugging and abandoning. It is extremely important in secondary &
tertiary recovery programs.

PETROPHYSICAL ANALYSIS USING PETREL SOFTWARE

Petrel is a software platform developed by Schlumberger, a prominent oilfield services company. It is

designed for the exploration and production of oil and gas reservoirs. Petrel is widely used in the oil
and gas industry for tasks such as seismic interpretation, well log interpretation, well correlation,
reservoir modeling, reservoir simulation, and well planning.

The software offers various tools and modules that allow geoscientists and engineers to interpret
subsurface data, build accurate 3D geological models, and simulate reservoir performance under
different production scenarios. Its advanced visualization capabilities and integrated workflows make
it a valuable tool for professionals in the field of petroleum exploration and production.

Petrel facilitates collaborative work among multidisciplinary teams by enabling data integration from
various sources and providing a comprehensive environment for analyzing and interpreting complex
geological and reservoir data. This software has played a crucial role in optimizing exploration and
production activities in the oil and gas industry, contributing to the efficient development of
hydrocarbon resources.

At Danvic petroleum International, petrel is the major software used for exploration services.

Using petrel’s data visualization tools as well as petrel’s calculator, petrophysical analysis from well
logs can be performed efficiently and quickly.

39
Figure 3.14: Petrel’s interface

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

FORMATION EVALUATION AND RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF FIELD ‘X’,

ONSHORE NIGER DELTA USING PETREL SOFTWARE.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This project involves the integration of petrophysics and geologic knowledge with cutting edge
software in order to evaluate the properties of a formation to discover its potential for hydrocarbon
production in economically viable quantities.

4.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this project is to:

• Perform a qualitative petrophysical analysis to identify the different lithologies and to identify
and to differentiate the different saturating fluids if any e.g oil, water.
• To perform a quantitative petrophysical analysis to estimate the petrophysical parameters of
the formation such as porosity, permeability, hydrocarbon saturation and to attempt a
quantification of the hydrocarbon resources if any.

4.3 GEOLOGY OF STUDY AREA.

The Niger Delta Basin, is an extensional rift basin situated in the Niger Delta and the Gulf of Guinea
along the passive continental margin near the western coast of Nigeria. It is proven to extend to
Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and São Tomé and Príncipe. This basin is notably complex and holds
significant economic value due to its highly productive petroleum system. Ranking among the largest
subaerial basins in Africa, the Niger Delta Basin encompasses a subaerial area of approximately
75,000 km2, a total area of 300,000 km2, and a sediment fill of 500,000 km3. The sediment fill has
been proven to reach depths ranging from 9 to 12 km.

41
 TECTONIC HISTORY

The Niger Delta Basin originated from a failed rift junction during the separation of the South
American and African plates as the South Atlantic opened and the benue trough formed. Rifting
occurred from the late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous, forming thrust faults and depositing syn-rift sands
and shales these events are depicted in fig 4.1. The basin experienced extension with high angle
normal faults and fault block rotation. In the Paleocene, a significant shoreline transgression occurred,
followed by the deposition of the Akata and Agbada Formations in the Paleocene and Eocene,
respectively. Loading in the Oligocene led to the deposition of the Benin Formation.

Figure 4.1: Paleography showing the opening of the South Atlantic, and development of the region around Niger
delta. A. Cretaceous paleography (130-69.4 Ma) B. Cenozoic paleography (50.3Ma to present) – Image after
Michele L. W. Tuttle, Michael E. Brownfield, and Ronald R. Charpentier.

42
STRATIGRAPHY

The sediment fill in the Niger Delta is characterized by three major formations. The variation in the
grain sizes of these formation shows that the basin has undergone regression through time as the
sediments go from deep sea mud sized grains to fluvial denser sand sized grains. These three
formations are:

Akata Formation

The Akata formation Is Paleocene in age. It’s made up of thick shales, turbidite sands and small
amounts of silt and clay. The Akata formation formed in a low stand system tract and anoxic
conditions. These anoxic conditions facilitated the catagenesis of the organic matter present within the
formation making it a good source rock. The Akata formation is estimated to be 7 kilometers meters
thick. The Akata formation is overlain by the Agbada formation.

Agbada Formation

The Agbada formation overlain by the Benin formation is Eocene in age it is made up of interbeds of
sand and shale and is estimated to be about 3.7 kilometers thick. The Agbada formation constitutes the
primary facies containing significant amounts of oil and natural gas within the basin. The
hydrocarbons in this stratum originated as the rock layer emerged above water and was subsequently
enveloped in a marsh-like setting abundant in organic material.

Benin Formation

The Benin formation is the topmost and youngest formation of the Niger delta basin. Dated to be
Oligocene in age. It is made up of continental flood plain sands and alluvial deposits. It is estimated to
be 2km thick.

43
Figure 4.2: Stratigraphy of the Niger Delta basin. (Image After Chibuzo Ahaneku and Kelvin Chima)

TECTONIC STRUCTURES

High angle normal faults

High-angle normal faults characterizes the extensional phase of rifting in this basin. Identified as a
growth fault, this feature is positioned nearer to the basin's periphery and shifts into toe detachment
faulting as one moves further down the basin.

44
Shale diapirs

The shale diapirs are structures of the Akata Formation. Formed as a result of the improper
dehydration of the formation and the pressure of overburden from the overlying denser Agbada
formation.

4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

4.3.1 MATERIALS

Data review: The data set provided for this evaluation consists of five wireline logs obtained from an
onshore field in Niger delta. The well logs provided for each well include the Gamma ray, Density,
Neutron, Sonic, Induction log ILD (deep) as seen in the table below

WELL GR ILD NPHI RHOB DT

W-2 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
W-3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
W-5 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
W-6 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
W-11 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X

Table 2: Available well logs for the wells.

4.3.1.1 LOG DESCRIPTION

1. The Gamma ray (GR) log is a lithology logs that helps to delineate the lithology of the
formations surrounding a well. It is particularly useful for defining shale beds. The gamma ray log
is a measurement the natural radioactivity of a formation. The gamma ray response is usually very
high for sand-free shale formations and low for clean sand or carbonate formations. This makes It
a great tool for lithology delineation in a clastic environment like Niger delta.
2. The resistivity (ILD) log is used to differentiate between the fluids in a formation that is to
differentiate between water and hydrocarbons. It’s a measurement of the resistance to current flow
and is measured in ohmmeters. Formation water has a low resistivity compared to hydrocarbons
which impede the flow of electric currents and have relatively higher resistivity.

45
3. The Neutron porosity (NPHI) logs are used to calculate the porosity of the formation
surrounding a borehole. It works by sending neutron particles into a formation from a source.
When the neutrons collide with the hydrogen atoms in a formation they are slowed down and
eventually become thermal neutrons or in cases where there is a larger transfer of energy, they are
absorbed by the hydrogen atoms and then release gamma radiation. The thermal radiations and
gamma radiations are then measured by a detector to give a measure of the hydrogen atom
concentration. Hydrogen atom concentration signifies the presence of water or hydrocarbons
which indicates a porous formation.
4. Bulk density (RHOB) logs are also porosity logs. They are measurements of the bulk density of a
formation. The bulk density of a formation is a product of its fluid density and the density of the
rock matrix it is measured in gram per cubic centimeter.
5. Sonic (DT) logs are measurements of the interval transit time, or the time in microseconds for an
acoustic wave to travel through an interval of one foot in a formation, along a path parallel to the
borehole, which is the eciprocal of the velocity of the compressional sound wave. It is used to
measure the porosity of a formation.

4.3.1.2 Software used

Schlumberger’s petrel software was used to carry out the petrophysics analysis.

4.3.2 METHODOLOGY

The main purpose of a petrophysical analysis project is to study the physical and chemical properties
of a rock and its fluids and to give a measure of these properties for hydrocarbon prospects. The major
properties include

• Lithology
• Fluid type.
• The net thickness of the reservoirs.
• The percentage of pore spaces (usually occupied by fluids) in the reservoir.
• The saturation of hydrocarbons in the pore spaces (hydrocarbon saturation)
• Permeability.

46
The methodology employed for this petrophysics project can divides into the qualitative petrophysical
analysis which involves the lithology delineation, fluid discrimination and reservoir identification and
quantitative petrophysical analysis which is the measurement of important petrophysical parameters
such as porosity and permeability.

4.3.2.1 Qualitative Petrophysical Analysis

Qualitative analysis involves descriptive and interpretative aspects, focusing on understanding the
nature of rocks and fluids in a formation. The qualitative analysis involves the following step:

1. Lithology delineation: The gamma ray log is particularly useful for defining shale beds, but can
also be used to identify other lithologic variations based on the level of radioactivity within a
formation. In general terms, based on the level of radioactivity or gamma ray response, the lithology of
a formation is classified as either sandstone or shale however, further analysis such as special core
analysis may lead to a more detailed lithologic classification. The general aim is the classification of
layers in the formation into sandstone or shale intervals based on their gamma counts as seen in the
logs. A baseline of 75 APIs and greater was set for shale layers and less than 75 APIs for sand layers.

2. Reservoir identification: The Induction log (ILD), as well as the neutron and density logs were
used to identify the reservoirs within the sandstone intervals. Spikes in the resistivity curve was used
to identify hydrocarbon bearing zones that is, high resistivity values significant of hydrocarbon filled
reservoirs. Furthermore, the gas effect also known as butterfly or hydrocarbon effect was used to
identify the potential hydrocarbon type in the reservoirs although a formation pressure- depth plot or
core log is needed for a more accurate determination two major reservoirs were identified namely
RES-1and RES-2. RES-1 is presumed to be gas bearing and RES-2 oil bearing with one of the wells
showing a log curve pattern indicative of both oil and gas.

3. Lithostratigraphic correlation: A lithostratigraphic correlation was done across the five wells to
determine how laterally extensive the reservoirs are, and also for accurate fault and seal analysis which
is important to study the potential migration patterns of the hydrocarbons during production as seen in
figure 4.2.

47
Figure 4.3: lithostratigraphic correlation of the reservoirs across the wells using the gamma ray and water saturation logs.

Quantitative petrophysical analysis

This involves the measurement of petrophysical parameters which include detailed and quantifiable
information that is crucial for understanding reservoir characteristics, estimating reserves, and

48
optimizing production strategies the quantitative analysis was done gamma ray log as well as the
porosity logs which includes the sonic DT, density RHOB as well as the neutron NPHI logs. These
petrophysical parameters include:

1. Shale volume. The volume of shale of the formation was estimated from the gamma ray log. The
estimation of the volume of shale in well log interpretation is crucial because it helps in
understanding the composition of the rock

To estimate the volume of shale, first the shale factor must be calculated. The shale factor is a
qualitative measure of the proportion of shale within a formation and is calculated using the following
formula:

𝑮𝑹𝑙𝑜𝑔 −𝑮𝑹𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑰𝐺𝑅 =
𝑮𝑹𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑮𝑹𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where:

• 𝑰𝐺𝑅 is the shale factor or gamma ray shale index.

• 𝑮𝑹𝑙𝑜𝑔 is the value of measured gamma ray.
• 𝑮𝑹𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum gamma ray value expected for clean sand or non-shale intervals.
• GRmax is the maximum gamma ray value expected pure shale intervals.

Using the shale factor, the shale volume can be calculated using a linear or non-linear method.

• Linear Method:
In the linear method, the gamma-ray log response is directly related to the lithology of the
formation. This method assumes a linear relationship between the gamma-ray reading and the
rock properties. It is often used for simple lithological interpretation, where certain types of
rocks, such as shales, sandstones, and carbonates, exhibit characteristic gamma-ray responses.
The linear method is relatively straightforward and is commonly used in quick qualitative
assessments of lithology based on the GR log. Estimating the Vsh from IGR using the linear
method is as follows:

VSH = IGR
49
 Estimating the rock's shale volume VSH linearly from the gamma ray log still remains the
first preferred approach to become with a preliminary shaliness indicator, however, quite
often the linear IGR shaliness indicator yields an over-estimation of rock's volume of shale
(especially for shallow, young reservoirs), producing an overall pessimistic scenario of the
reservoir quality. To overcome this, several empirical formulations have been developed to
correct and reduce the rock's shale volume Vshale as direct functions of IGR, trying to adjust
the clay minerals total radioactive response.

• Non-Linear Method: The non-linear method, on the other hand, involves a more complex
interpretation of the gamma-ray log data. This method takes into account the variations in rock
composition, mineralogy, and fluid content that can affect the gamma-ray response. It
incorporates advanced mathematical models and statistical analyses to derive more precise
information about the lithology, mineralogy, and fluid content of the formationsExamples of
non-linear methods are as follows:

I. Larionov model for tertiary rocks: The Larionov Tertiary Rocks Method developed by Dr.
G.D. Larionov in the 1950s, is specifically tailored for estimating shale volume in Tertiary
rocks, which are sedimentary rocks that formed during the Tertiary period, from approximately
66 million to 2.6 million years ago. This makes it suitable for volume of shale estimation in of
Niger delta wells The Tertiary period is characterized by significant geological changes and the
formation of various types of sedimentary rocks, including shales.
The formula for calculating the shale volume using Larionov’s model is as follows:

𝑉𝑆𝐻𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑂𝑙𝑑𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠 = 0.083 ∗ (2(3.7∗𝐺𝑅𝐼) ) − 1

II. Clavier’s method for older rocks: This modified version takes into account the challenges and
differences associated with older, more consolidated rocks that might have undergone
significant diagenesis and cementation over time.

𝑉𝑆𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 1.7 − √3.38 − (𝐼𝐺𝑅 + 0.7)2

50
Both the linear and non-linear methods have their own advantages and limitations. The choice of
method depends on the specific objectives of the well logging program and the complexity of the
geological formations being analyzed. While the linear method is suitable for quick and simple
lithological assessments, the non-linear method provides a more detailed and comprehensive
understanding of the subsurface formations, enabling more accurate reservoir characterization and
fluid identification.

Figure 4.4: A plot of shale volume of linear and non-linear functions against gamma ray index.

The Larionov model for tertiary rocks was adopted for the estimation of the volume of shale for this
project because, the formation was dated to be a tertiary rock from the Niger Delta basin. Using
petrel’s calculator, the volume of shale in every interval is calculated, the shale volume plot is
displayed.

51
 Light zone, low
shale volume.

Dark zone, high

shale volume.

Figure 4.5: The volume of shale plot displayed in a petrel window.

2. Porosity Estimation: The porosity was calculated from the bulk density (RHOB), and neutron logs.

A. Porosity from the density log: The density log also known as the bulk density log measures the
electron density it works on the principle of Compton scattering effect. Gamma radiation is shot
from a source into the rock and a detector measures the intensity of reflected gamma radiation
which depends on the density of the formation which is a product of both the matrix of the
formation its pore fluid.
The porosity is calculated from the following formula:

𝑃𝑚𝑎 −𝑃𝑏
𝜙 𝑅𝐻𝑂𝐵 =
𝑃𝑚𝑎 −𝑃𝑓

Where;

• 𝜙 = porosity from density log

• 𝑃𝑏 = formation bulk density (log value)

52
• 𝑃𝑓 = density of the fluid immediately saturating the rock immediately surrounding the borehole
which is usually mud filtrate a value of 1.0 is used for fresh water and 1.1 for saltwater mud.
• 𝑃𝑚𝑎 = density of formation matrix varies with lithology as seen in table 1.

C. Porosity from neutron logs: The neutron log gives a direct measure of the porosity of a formation
it works on the principle of the exchange of energy between neutrons and hydrogen atoms in the
formation.

𝜙 𝑵𝑷𝑯𝑰 = NPHI

D. Calculation of total porosity from the combination of neutron and density logs: In certain
conditions, the porosity values gotten from each logs differ, this is because of the different principles
upon which the different logs operate. For example, in gas zones the neutron logs give porosity value
that is too low because of the low hydrogen concentration while the bulk density log gives a porosity
value that is too high. In order to reduce this uncertainty, an average of the neutron and density log is
used to make a more accurate estimation of the total porosity. The total porosity can be calculated
from the formulas:

𝛷 2 𝑁+ 𝛷 2 𝐷
𝜙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = √ (For gas saturated zones)
2

𝜙 𝑁+𝜙 𝐷
𝜙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (For zones saturated with other fluids)
2

Effective porosity is gotten from the formula;

𝜙 𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (1 − 𝑉𝑠ℎ )

The effective porosity formula accounts for the presence of shale in a reservoir since the presence of
shale minerals lead to a reduction in the porosity.

53
3. Fluid saturation estimation: Naturally, reservoirs have both water and hydrocarbons in their pore
spaces this is due to the nature of the environment of basins during their formation since hydrocarbons
especially oil forms mostly in marine environments, water usually percolates through the pore spaces
before the catagenesis of organic matter which leads to the formation of hydrocarbons which displace
water molecules during migration.

A. Water saturation: The water saturation is a measure of the volume of pore spaces filled with water
it is an important parameter because it is used to calculate the hydrocarbon saturation. The water
saturation was calculated using the Simandoux equation which is an extension of archie’s equation
suitable for shaly sandstone reservoirs.

𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑤 𝑉𝑠ℎ 2 4𝛷 𝑚 𝑉𝑠ℎ
𝑆𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑥 = [ √ ( ) + − ]
2 ∗ 𝛷𝑚 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑤 ∗ 𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑠ℎ

B. Hydrocarbon saturation: from the water saturation, the hydrocarbon saturation is calculated.

𝒔𝑯 = 1 − 𝒔𝝎

4. Permeability: The permeability of a formation is the measure of its ability to transmit fluid. It is
expressed as the velocity with which a fluid of specified viscosity, under the influence of a given
pressure, passes through a sample having a certain cross section and thickness its measured in darcies.
Permeability is usually gotten from lab measurements during special core analysis, however for this
project, special core analysis (SCAL) data wasn’t provided.

5. Net to gross ratio: the net to gross ratio is the ratio of the thickness of clean, porous and permeable
intervals also known as clean sandstones in a reservoir to non-porous, impermeable shaly intervals.

6. Net pay: The net pay refers to the portion of a geologic formation that contains producible
hydrocarbons. It is determined by subtracting non-productive or poor-quality intervals with high water
saturaion known as cut-offs from the total thickness.

54
4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The well log data gathered from the logging process was carefully analyzed in order to make accurate
interpretations. Using the gamma ray and resistivity logs a qualitative analysis was performed to
delineate the lithology to narrow down a quantitative analysis to zones of interest these are zones that
showed signatures that are typical of conventional reservoirs that is low gamma ray counts indicating
potential sandstone sequences and high resistivity indicating the presence of hydrocarbons. Two major
viable reservoirs zones (Reserve_1 and Reserve_2) were delineated. After which a quantitative
analysis was performed across the reservoirs to calculate petrophysical parameters which are
important for the prospect of hydrocarbon production from these reservoirs and for the computation of
the net pay. This started off with the calculation of the shale volume using Larionov’s tertiary rock
model which was then used for the calculation of the effective porosity of the reservoirs. The water
saturation value was then calculated using the Simandoux’s equation the value of the water saturation
was used to calculate the hydrocarbon saturation. However due to the absence of the special core
analysis data (SCAL), the values a and m were assumed to be 0.81 and 2 respectively using the
Humble’s formula which is suitable for zones with high porosity and n was assumed to be 2. For the
estimation of the net pay, the following conditions were set for the cut-off. Zones with greater than
40% shale volume were cut off.

• Zones with effective porosities less than 10% or greater than 45% were cut-off since zones with
extremely low porosities reduce the rate of production of hydrocarbons and extremely high
porosities are significant of the absence a of seal which would cause the hydrocarbon to leak
upon production and extremely low porosities would impede.
• Zones with greater than 30% water saturation were also cut because extracting and managing
water during hydrocarbon production proves to be costly as this requires additional equipment and
energy to dispose of the excess water. Water also reduces the pressure or reservoirs making it
challenging to extract hydrocarbons.
• The lithology of each reservoir zone as well as their properties and the implications of these
properties is discussed below.

RES-1
Lithology: The evaluated log intervals in the different wells ranges from a depth of about 5216 meters
to 6071 meters for this reservoir. One major lithological unit was delineated based on interpretations
from the gamma ray log. Which is a sandstone unit (5216 – 6071 meters) with thin interbeds of shale
overlain by a thick shale layer that likely acts as a seal to the hydrocarbons accumulated within the
reservoir although, in one of the wells, the shale layer is relatively continuous.

55
Reservoir properties – zone averages:
The reservoir ranges from 5216 to 6099 meters across the wells with an average gross thickness of
68.4 meters across all wells. The net to gross ratio ranges from 86% to 94% which is good news as this
means the producibility of hydrocarbons from this reservoir is very viable. The average shale volume
of the reservoir is 12.6% this relatively low shale volume means increases the viability of hydrocarbon
production in the well as high shale volume impedes the flow of hydrocarbons within reservoirs. The
porosity and water saturation average are 24.6% and 14% respectively this good porosity and low
saturation value likely results in a good storage capacity of hydrocarbons and reduced production cost.

Figure 4.6: Reserve 1. The logs were flattened at the well top but the depth of each log track varies.

RES-2

Lithology: The assessed log intervals vary among the wells, spanning depths from approximately 5444
meters to 6377 meters within the reservoir. Similar to the first reservoir zone, the major lithological
unit identified through gamma ray log interpretations, was a sandstone unit with occasional
intercalations of shale, this sandstone layer is also topped by a substantial shale layer, assumed to
function as a seal for the hydrocarbons contained within the reservoir.

56
Reservoir properties – zone averages: The average net and gross thickness of the reservoir across the
wells is 39 and 48.5 meters respectively which is relatively lower than that of Reservoir 1 with an
average shale volume of 15%. The average porosity and water saturation value are approximately
21.6% and 24% respectively.

Figure 4.7: Reserve 2

The summary of the petrophysical properties of the reservoir in each well is seen in Fig 4.11.

57
 Well Zones Top Bottom Gross Net NTG VSH 𝞍 𝑆𝑤 Sh Remarks
RES 1 5215 5271 56 49.5 0.884 0.21 0.21 0.11 0.89 Gas
W-2
RES 2 5444 5481 47 34.5 0.932 0.3 0.19 0.21 0.79 Oil

RES 1 5877 5951 74 69.5 0.939 0.1 0.25 0.13 0.87 Gas
W-3
RES 2 6175 6213 38 32.5 0.855 0.11 0.23 0.25 0.75 Oil

RES 1 6070 6180 110 106.5 0.968 0.08 0.24 0.09 0.91 Gas
W-5
RES 2 6377 6450 73 62 0.849 0.12 0.16 0.22 0.78 Oil and gas

RES 1 5983 6005 22 20 0.909 0.17 0.27 0.18 0.82 Gas

W-6
RES 2 6288 6312 24 0 0 0.27 0.178 0.77 0.23 Water

RES 1 5510 5583 73 63 0.86 0.08 0.27 0.19 0.81 Gas

W-11
RES 2 5762 5801 46 27 0.586 0.1 0.22 0.27 0.73 Oil

Figure 4.8: The pay report summary of the wells.

4.5 CONCLUSION

The result of the formation evaluation shows that reservoir zones RES-1 and RES-2 contain significant
amount of hydrocarbon. The magnitude of the deflection of the neutron-density log cross plot shows
that RES-1 is gas filled and RES-2 is oil filled in most of the wells. However, a formation pressure-
depth plot is needed for more accurate delineations of the fluid type and for the identification of the
fluid contacts. The reservoir zones with their individual properties are summarized in figure 4.11.
RES-2 appears to be laterally continuous except in well 6 where a break or unconformity is observed
which is made of a thick shale interval. The average porosity of RES-1 and RES-2 are both 24.6% and
21.6% respectively. Using the Simandoux’s equation for water saturation estimation, the water
saturation of RES-1 and RES-2 were estimated to be 14% and 24% respectively which helps improve
the cost of hydrocarbon production from these zones.

58
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Working at Danvic petroleum as an undergraduate trainee has given me the opportunity to gain
firsthand exposure to the workflow of the exploration and production sector of the oil and gas industry.
I was introduced to the key phases involved. From the exploration of a field for hydrocarbon
prospects, to the production of hydrocarbons from a field after the discovery of economically viable
quantity of hydrocarbons and then finally the decommissioning of a field. Most importantly, I was
introduced to the principles of petroleum geology and got to understand the elements of a petroleum
system which includes the source rock, reservoir, migration of hydrocarbons generated from the
source to the reservoir, traps and seals, I learnt the dynamics and the roles these elements play in
making the production of petroleum possible such as the catagenesis of organic matter from source
rocks, the migration of hydrocarbons to a reservoir and then finally to a trap and seal.
Another key concept that I was introduced to was petrophysics which is the study of the physical and
to some extent chemical properties of a rock and its role in the evaluation of basin formations through
the interpretation of subsurface data such as well logs and special core analysis. Through formation
evaluation, geoscientists can study a rock for necessary elements required for a good petroleum
system. I had the opportunity to interpret well logs obtained from an onshore field in Niger delta using
petrel in order to evaluate the formation where the logs were obtained, calculate petrophysical
parameters and to attempt the quantification of hydrocarbons in the formation.
I also had the opportunity to improve my presentation and communication skills by giving a
presentation on seismic to well ties which is a process of seismic interpretation and petrophysics that
involves tying or linking a well log data in depth domain to the seismic data of the region which is
usually in time domain. Seismic-well ties are important for the accurate mapping of faults connected
to the reservoirs to determine potential migration patterns.
Overall, it was a very educative, exposing and career changing experience that I’d forever be grateful
for.

5.2 SIWES CHALLENGES

The SIWES programme served as an opportunity for me to gain a lot of knowledge and to build
connections with other students from other institutions. Overall, the experience was an amazing one
and career improving one. However, some major challenges were faced during the programme and
this to some extent had an effect on the overall experience. One major difficulty was getting a
placement in the industry as a result of the economic recession of the country as well as other factors.
This proved to be an issue for many, however.

59
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering the significance of the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), it is crucial for
the government to sustain it through the Industrial Training Fund (ITF). This program exposes students to
tools, facilities, and equipment not readily available in their respective institutions, aligning with their
courses of study. In order to ensure the effectiveness of SIWES, I propose the implementation of the
following recommendations:

• Encourage organizations to consistently accept students for SIWES and assign them to relevant
job roles.
• Ensure experienced staff are consistently assigned to train students during their attachment.
• Increase government funding for the scheme to enhance its overall effectiveness.
• Encourage companies to provide all necessary facilities essential for enhancing students'
knowledge during industrial attachment.
• Establish a platform within institutions to offer students pre-SIWES knowledge or excursion
programs, preparing them before undertaking the general 6-month industrial training program.
• Strengthen SIWES through collaboration with all relevant stakeholders to fully realize its
objectives.
• Ensure the prompt payment of regular monthly allowances for students on attachment.

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5.4 REFERENCES

• Mr D. G. Bowen Core Laboratories Jakarta Indonesia (2003) Formation evaluation and

Petrophysics.
• Dr. Paul W.J. Clover. Petrophysics.
• Michele L. W. Tuttle, Ronald R. Charpentier, and Michael E. Brownfield. The Niger Delta
Petroleum System: Niger Delta Province, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea, Africa

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