EFFECTIVE BOREHOLE DRILLING TECHNIQUES TO COMBAT WATER SCACITY

IN OFAAKOR
A CENG 291 Report
Presented to the
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering
College of Engineering
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi
by

DANIEL STEPHANO DENU

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the course
Engineering In Society

INDEX NUMBER: 1787122

DECEMBER 2023
ABSTRACT
This research project addresses water scarcity in the community of Ofaakor, employing a

multi-phase approach for problem identification, methodology, and solution implementation.

Through community engagement, surveys, and interviews, key challenges, especially in

water supply and sanitation, were identified. The methodology included qualitative open-

ended interviews and a quantitative prioritization survey, ensuring a comprehensive

understanding of the community's needs.

The study population, randomly sampled from Ofaakor residents, prioritized primary data

sources for reliability. Results and discussion highlighted the geographical description of

Ofaakor and detailed the nature and characteristics of water scarcity, emphasizing its impact

on health, social dynamics, education, and economics.

The proposed solution focuses on constructing water boreholes, detailing the drilling process,

grouting, development, testing, and pump installation. A water storage system with a well-

constructed service reservoir was recommended to ensure a consistent water supply,

considering factors like material, construction, and pressure regulation.

In conclusion, water boreholes emerge as a reliable solution to Ofaakor's water scarcity, with

both mechanical and manual drilling methods proving effective. Field trials demonstrated

improved water yield and sustainable groundwater management practices.

Recommendations include drilling boreholes at multiple locations and seeking oversight and

financing from the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area Sanitation and Water Project. This

research provides a community-driven and sustainable strategy for alleviating water scarcity

in Ofaakor, aligning with the genuine needs of the residents.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................... ii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ iv

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE COURSE ...........................................................................1

1.1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE ................................................1

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE REPORT ............................................................................1

1.2.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE ................................................2

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................2

1.3.1 DEFINITION OF A WATER BOREHOLE......................................................3

1.3.2 METHODS OF WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING .........................................3

1.3.2.1 MECHANICAL BOREHOLE DRILLING ............................................4

1.3.2.1.1 ROTARY DRILLING ........................................................4

1.3.2.1.2 AUGER DRILLING ...........................................................6

1.3.2.2 MANUAL WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING ......................................9

1.3.2.2.1 AUGERING AND BAILING .............................................9

1.3.2.2.2 PERCUSSION AND BAILING .......................................10

1.3.2.2.3 SLUDGING ......................................................................11

2.1 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................14

2.1.1 OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEWS .......................................................................14

2.1.2 PRIORITIZATION SURVEY .........................................................................14

2.1.3 FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEWS ON THE PROBLEM ......................................15

3.1 THE STUDY POPULATION .....................................................................................16

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 3.2 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................16
3.2.1 PRIMARY DATA SOURCES ........................................................................16

3.2.2 SECONDARY DATA SOURCES ..................................................................16

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS .....................................................................................................17

3.3.1 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS ...........................................................17

3.3.2 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS ..............................................................17

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF MAP ...........................................................................................17

4.2 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM ...................................19
4.2.1 WATER SCARCITY .......................................................................................19

4.2.2 FORMATION ..................................................................................................19

4.2.3 THE EFFECTS OF WATER SCARCITY ON THE RESIDENTS OF

OFAAKOR ...........................................................................................................................20

4.4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING .................................................................................20

4.4.1 SUBDISCIPLINES .........................................................................................22

5.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A WATER BOREHOLE .......................................................23

5.1.1 WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING .................................................................23

5.2 WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING PROCESS ..........................................................23

5.2.1 SITE ASSESSMENT .......................................................................................23

5.2.2 DRILLING AND CASE INSTALLATION ....................................................24

5.2.3 GROUTING .....................................................................................................24

5.2.4 SITE DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................24

5.2.5 TESTING .........................................................................................................25

5.3 WATER BOREHOLE PUMP INSTALLATION.......................................................25

5.4 WATER STORAGE SYSTEM ...................................................................................27

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 5.4.1 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SERVICE RESERVOIR

...............................................................................................................................................28

5.4.1.2 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION.........................................................29

.............................30

6.1 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................30

......................................................................................................................31

..........................................................................................................................31

Figure 1. Rotatory drill rig ................................................................................ Page. 5

Figure 2. Rotatory three-cone drill bit .............................................................. Page. 5

Figure 3. Auger drill rig in operation ................................................................ Page. 6

Figure 4. Diagram of an auger drill bit ............................................................. page. 7

Figure 5. Manual drilling methods .................................................................... Page. 9

Figure 6. Hand augering in operation ............................................................. Page. 10

Figure 7. Diagram of a percussion drill rig ..................................................... Page. 11

Figure 8. Challenges facing residents ............................................................. Page. 14

Figure 9. Top challenges faced by residents ................................................... Page. 15

Figure 10. Map of Awutu Senya East Constituency ....................................... Page. 18

Figure 11. Map of Ghana ................................................................................ Page. 18

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 Figure 12. Petroleum engineering ................................................................... Page. 20

Figure 13. Diagram of a complete borehole ................................................... Page. 27

Figure 14. Service reservoir ............................................................................ Page. 28

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE COURSE

CENG 291, Engineering in Society, is a program offered within the College of Engineering

at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. Its primary objective is to

empower engineering students with the skills to address societal challenges using the

knowledge gained from their academic disciplines.

6.2.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE:

▪ Foster in students a recognition that the essence of engineering lies in addressing

societal challenges.

▪ Inspire students at the outset of their academic journeys to establish a connection

between their chosen engineering discipline and its practical applications in

addressing the daily challenges faced by individuals.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE REPORT

The municipality of Awutu-Senya East, with Kasoa serving as its capital, distinguishes itself

as one of Ghana's sizable municipalities. This is largely attributed to its strategic location in

close proximity to Accra, Ghana’s capital. Formerly dormant, the municipality has evolved

into a vibrant hub, attracting a diverse population. The rise in population, driven by high land

costs in Accra, has led to an increased influx of residents settling in the municipality.

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However, this surge has not been met with a proportional improvement in water supply and

sanitation services (Awutu-Senya East Municipal Assembly [ASEMA], 2013).

The Awutu-Senya East Municipality, encompassing vibrant settlements like Adam Nana,

Opeikuma, Kpormetey, Walantu, Akweley, Ofaakor, and Zongo, exhibits a distinctive

pattern of development. Notably, settlements situated closer to the vital Accra-Cape Coast

highway, including Kasoa, Opeikuma, Akweley, and Opeikuma, have experienced

considerable development characterized by amenities like pipe-borne water and well-

maintained roads. In stark contrast, settlements further inland from the highway, such as

Ofaakor, face disparities in infrastructure development. This discrepancy in development

raises critical questions about equitable resource allocation and urban planning within the

municipality.

These discrepancies in development not only prompt an urgent need for equitable urban

planning but also resonate profoundly with the core objectives of the United Nations

Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 11, advocating for inclusive, safe, resilient, and

sustainable cities and communities, and Goal 6, highlighting the importance of ensuring

universal access to clean water and sanitation underscores the necessity of addressing the

existing disparities at the local level within the Awutu-Senya East Municipality.

1.2.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE REPORT:

This project aims to examine the issues related to water supply, explore their impacts on the

residents of Ofaakor, and propose practical solutions to address these challenges.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

Water scarcity poses a significant challenge in many communities worldwide, and Ofarkor

is no exception. To address this pressing issue, the focus has shifted towards the utilization

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of borehole drilling techniques as an effective means to secure sustainable and accessible

water sources. This literature review aims to explore existing studies and insights related to

borehole drilling practices, their efficacy in alleviating water scarcity, and their relevance to

the unique context of Ofarkor.

1.3.1 DEFINITION OF A WATER BOREHOLE

A water borehole is more than just a hole in the ground; it requires meticulous design,

professional construction, and careful drilling. Boreholes designed for water extraction

typically involve a vertically drilled hole with a robust lining to prevent wall collapse. This

lining incorporates a mechanism for allowing clean water to enter the borehole, along with

surface protection and a system for water extraction.

1.3.2 METHODS OF WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING

Water borehole drilling can be broadly categorized into two main forms: manual and

mechanical methods. Manual drilling, often considered a traditional approach, relies on

human labour and simple tools such as augers, hand percussion tools, and sludging

equipment. While manual drilling can be cost-effective and suitable for shallow boreholes in

certain geological conditions, it is labour-intensive and may have limitations in terms of

depth and efficiency. On the other hand, mechanical drilling involves the use of specialized

equipment, such as drilling rigs, rotary systems, and percussion tools powered by engines.

This method is more efficient and versatile, allowing for drilling in a wider range of

geological formations and reaching greater depths. Mechanical drilling is essential for large-

scale projects where increased productivity and the ability to handle challenging subsurface

conditions are paramount. The choice between manual and mechanical methods depends on

factors such as project scale, geological characteristics, and available resources, highlighting

the importance of a tailored approach to meet specific water extraction needs.

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1.3.2.1 MECHANICAL BOREHOLE DRILLING

Mechanical water borehole drilling is a process used to access groundwater for diverse

purposes, including the provision of drinking water, irrigation, industrial use, or geothermal

heating. Boreholes are narrow, deep holes drilled into the ground to reach aquifers or water-

bearing formations. Mechanical drilling methods involve the use of specialized equipment

and machinery to create these boreholes. These methods vary in terms of the equipment used,

drilling techniques, and the geological conditions they are suitable for.

1.3.2.1.1 ROTARY DRILLING

The most common method for drilling wells is rotary drilling, in which a bit is fixed on the

lower end of the drill pipe and rotated against the hole's bottom. Through the annulus that

forms between the drill pipe and the borehole wall, drilling mud is typically circulated

down the hole and back up to the surface. The drilling mud has multiple uses. It cools the

bit, provides a fluid medium for moving cuttings from the hole to the surface, and, in

certain cases, creates a low-permeability filter cake on the borehole wall to stop the flow of

subsurface fluids into the borehole during the drilling operation. Frequently extreme

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pressure lubricating additives are incorporated in the drilling mud, and in such instances the

drilling mud lubricates the bearings of the drill bit.

Figure 1. Rotatory drill rig

When it comes to rotary drilling, the most popular bits are three-cone drill bits that have

numerous teeth or buttons covering them. These bits rotate freely, much like a planetary gear,

Figure 2. Rotatory three-cone drill bit

crushing rock as they rotate (fig. 2). The drill rig's weight provides the downward thrust, and

the drill pipe's end is where rotation is applied. Electric or hydraulic motors can provide

rotation, and their typical rotational speeds range from 50 to 120 rpm. Cuttings are frequently

released from the bottom of the hole using compressed air. Drill cutting flushing is correlated

with the size of the space between the drill pipe and the hole wall. A bit too wide or too

narrow Rotary drilling is also extensively employed in water borehole projects owing to its

versatility. Its capability to handle diverse geological conditions, from soft soils to hard rocks,

5
makes it effective in accessing groundwater for various purposes. The efficiency of rotary

drilling ensures timely access to water sources, and the method allows for the installation of

casing during the drilling process to maintain borehole stability and prevent contamination.

1.3.2.1.2 AUGER DRILLING

Auger drilling is a drilling technique widely utilized in water borehole projects, especially in

scenarios where shallow depths and unconsolidated soil or sedimentary formations are

predominant. At the core of auger drilling is the auger itself, a spiral or helical screw-like

device that is affixed to the end of the drill string (fig. 4). As the auger rotates, it functions

Figure 3. Auger drill rig in operation

by excavating and lifting cuttings to the surface, creating a borehole in the process. This

method is particularly well-suited for softer soil types, such as sands, silts, and clays, where

the cutting action of the auger is effective in facilitating the drilling process.

Central to the functioning of auger drilling is the auger bit, a component that plays a pivotal

role in the excavation process. The auger bit is the cutting end of the auger, often featuring a

6
Figure 4. Diagram of an auger drill bit

spiral or helical design to efficiently dig into the subsurface materials. Its configuration

varies based on the specific geological conditions encountered during drilling. In some cases,

the auger bit may have blades or teeth to enhance its cutting ability in harder or more

compacted soils.

Unlike some other drilling methods, auger drilling typically does not use drilling mud in the

drilling process. Drilling mud, a mixture of water and additives, is commonly employed in

methods like rotary drilling to cool the drill bit, carry away cuttings, and stabilize the borehole

walls. However, in auger drilling, the auger bit itself is responsible for lifting the cuttings to

the surface. The absence of drilling mud in auger drilling simplifies the process and makes it

well-suited for scenarios where a more straightforward approach is preferred. Additionally,

the lack of drilling mud allows for a quicker and less complex operation, contributing to the

cost-effectiveness of auger drilling, particularly in softer or unconsolidated formations.

The drilling speed in auger drilling is generally influenced by factors such as the type of

auger bit used, the power of the drilling equipment, and the geological characteristics of the

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subsurface materials. Auger drilling tends to have a moderate drilling speed, making it

suitable for projects that do not require rapid penetration of the borehole.

The size of the borehole created by auger drilling is determined by the diameter of the auger

bit. Auger bits come in various sizes to accommodate different project requirements. For

water boreholes, the diameter of the borehole is a crucial consideration as it directly impacts

the well’s yield and the volume of water that can be extracted.

In auger drilling, the drilling force is typically produced by the rotation of the auger itself.

The power source, which is often an engine attached to the drilling rig, imparts the rotational

force to the auger through the drill string. This rotation allows the auger bit to cut into the

soil, and the upward movement of the auger lifts the cuttings to the surface. The simplicity

of this mechanism contributes to the overall efficiency and ease of operation in auger drilling.

These mechanical methods are characterized by their versatility, efficiency, and adaptability

to various geological conditions, making them widely employed for accessing groundwater

in diverse settings. The use of specialized equipment, such as drilling rigs and augers, allows

for increased drilling speed and the creation of boreholes of varying sizes to meet specific

project requirements. However, the complexity and cost associated with mechanical drilling

may pose challenges, particularly in smaller-scale projects or regions with limited resources.

It is essential to recognize that alongside these mechanical methods, several other drilling

techniques exist, each with its own set of advantages and constraints.

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1.3.2.2 MANUAL WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING

Figure 5. Manual drilling methods

1.3.2.2.1 AUGERING AND BAILING

The process of augmentation involves turning a handle at the surface to drive a drilling bit

into the ground. A series of extendable rods, usually composed of steel, connects the handle

and bit (fig. 6). A shaft on the bit is designed to gather material from the hole's bottom. The

auger is removed and emptied as the bit fills. Until the required depth is reached, the

procedure is repeated. When working below the water table, in particular, a temporary casing

may prevent the hole from collapsing.

Shallow wells can be rapidly drilled through soft formations using this technique. It is simple

to understand and easy to learn. In addition, the apparatus is inexpensive and easy to

9
construct. However, there are certain drawbacks to divination. Its potential in feasibly

favourable terrains like alluvial plains is restricted by its limited usefulness in highly

permeable sediments like coarse gravels. In addition, drilling gets harder and slower at deeper

depths, and maintaining straight boreholes can be challenging. Thus, it is ideal to use

augering in conjunction with other drilling methods.

Rarely do augmented boreholes go deeper than 20 to 25 meters. Although a drilling crew

usually consists of four to six individuals, a borehole can occasionally be drilled by just one

or two people. It is possible to drill a full borehole in less than a week.

Figure 6. Hand augering in operation

1.3.2.2.2 PERCUSSION AND BAILING

Drilling with percussion may be the oldest known method. A heavy bit is fastened to a cable,

which passes through a pulley above the hole that is fastened to a tripod. In order to break

the rock, the cable is pulled to raise the bit and then released to allow it to fall (fig. 7). A

bailer fitted with a no-return valve is used to remove loose material that has fallen to the

bottom of the borehole. As a result, it can be filled with water and moved up and down to

release the rock. Every few strokes, the bit is extracted from the hole as part of the bailer

procedure. Percussion is helpful in materials that have hardened, like boulders or gravel, by

10
nature. With a modest initial outlay of funds and a fair amount of technical know-how, it is

frequently possible to reach depths exceeding 30 meters. However, percussion is more

leisurely than the other techniques. Furthermore, as the borehole gets deeper, bailing gets

more difficult. This is the primary rationale behind the occasional combination of percussion

and water circulation. Removing bottom debris could be accelerated by imitating the actions

of a mechanical rig.

Figure 7. Diagram of a percussion drill rig

1.3.2.2.3 SLUDGING

Because sludging eliminates the need to halt drilling in order to remove debris from the

bottom of the hole, it is an improvement over auguring and percussion. In order to sludge,

the borehole must always be full of water. Water circulation is used to raise the loosened

material to the surface.

By using a better drilling tool, sludging and percussion can be combined. This consists of an

outlet, a sequence of hollow tubes, a hand- or foot-valve, and a heavy drilling bit. By pulling

and releasing the rope, the drilling tool is raised and repeatedly allowed to fall into the hole.

When the valve opens on the downward stroke, water and silt from the hole's bottom can

11
enter the tool's interior hollow. On the other hand, it closes on the upstroke, which forces the

mixture to ascend. The liquid is discharged into a mud pit at the outlet. Water is redirected

back into the hole through the pit's function as a decanter. In order to keep the hole from

collapsing and to help drilling cuts rise to the surface, thickening agents like polymers or

bentonite may be utilized. On a local level, these are occasionally swapped out for clay or

even cow dung.

Usually consisting of six to ten individuals, a drilling crew alternates between pulling the

rope, using the tool, and resting. Combining sludging and percussion drilling typically

produces wells that are between 25 and 50 meters deep, though in certain favourable regions

of Bolivia, deeper wells have been reached than 100 meters. Generally speaking, drilling

times range from a few days to a few weeks, mostly based on the geological setting. In a

broad range of geological formations, from soft materials like alluvial sediments or

weathering products to consolidated rocks like sandstone or laterite, the combination of

percussion and sludging is helpful. There is little use for it in newly crystallized rocks.

In groundwater investigations for well sites that have already been dug, these manual shallow

drilling techniques could be employed as low-cost alternatives, especially if geophysical

surveys turn out to be unreliable, unfeasible, or impractical due to ground conditions. Only

tiny holes are drilled quickly in these situations when prospecting is the only reason for

drilling.

The majority of field applications for boreholes will need rotary drilling. Much deeper

boreholes can be created with true rotary drilling techniques, which also employ circulating

fluids to cool and lubricate the cutting tools and clear debris out of the hole. Typically,

circulating fluids are pumped water with additives like foams or commercial drilling muds,

or they are compressed air.

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Selecting a location for a borehole is essential to ensuring a dependable and secure

groundwater supply. The locations that allow for the greatest natural water input are the best.

Because both surface water and groundwater gravitationally move toward "bottomlands,"

such as river valleys and lake basins, these regions typically have the greatest catchment. The

possibility of contamination from surrounding pit latrines and other waste disposal sites, as

well as cattle, is an additional important factor to take into account when placing boreholes

in populated areas. This is especially important if the borehole is located upslope of possible

pollution sources, like sewage pipes or latrines, or close to surface water.

It has to be acknowledged that, despite the fact that water shortages are becoming more

commonplace globally, a steady supply of water is still taken for granted without much

consideration for its sustainability or quality. The UNICEF groundwater mapping project,

which has directly increased 1.2 million people's access to clean water in arid regions of

Ethiopia and Madagascar, does not share this view.

In the initial phases of this project, the identification of the prevailing issue within the

community was meticulously undertaken. This process involved a comprehensive

examination of various aspects, including but not limited to demographic shifts, economic

activities, and infrastructural development within the community. Through extensive

community engagement, surveys, and consultations, key patterns and disparities were

identified. The residents’ perspectives and experiences were crucial in unveiling the pressing

challenges faced, particularly in the realms of water supply. This inclusive approach ensured

a nuanced understanding of the problem, laying a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis

and proposed remedies in the project.

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2.1 DATA COLLECTION

2.1.1 OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEWS

An unbiased, unsystematic interview was conducted to gain a more profound insight into

the challenges faced by the community. Respondents were tasked with enumerating a

minimum of five issues experienced in the community. This qualitative investigation

fostered a nuanced comprehension of varied concerns within the community. Presented are

findings obtained from 50 individuals who participated in the interviews.

Unavailability of Local Clinic

Prevailence of Rodents and Snakes in the

Neighbourhood

Hgh cost of Formal Education

CHALLENGES

Frequent Power Cuts

Security and Theft

Lack of Pipe borne Water

Poor and Dusty Roads

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS

Figure 8. Challenges facing residents

2.1.2 PRIORITIZATION SURVEY

Subsequently, a survey was designed to prioritize these issues, involving participants in a

quantitative decision-making process. The results identified a singular, paramount problem

that garnered the highest consensus. Below are the results collected from 30 participants who

took part in the survey.

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 Sales

5, 17%

Security and Theft

15, 50% Poor and Dusty Roads
Lack of Pipe borne Water
10, 33%

Figure 9. Top challenges faced by residents

2.1.3 FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEWS ON THE TOP PROBLEM

To delve deeper into this focal concern, a subsequent round of interviews honed in on the

intricacies of how this problem intricately intertwines with individuals’ daily experiences.

These interviews were conducted to adequately understand how the problem affected the

lives of the participants and how better to solve it.

This meticulous process of problem identification lays the groundwork for a targeted and

community-driven intervention strategy, ensuring that our endeavours align with the genuine

needs and perspectives of those we aim to serve.

The methodology centered on a two-phase process, commencing with open-ended interviews

designed to elicit a diverse range of perspectives. This initial qualitative exploration

facilitated the identification of a spectrum of concerns expressed by community members.

15
Subsequently, a quantitative dimension was introduced through the design and

implementation of a survey, allowing participants to prioritize the identified issues

collectively. This dual-phase methodology not only embraced the richness of qualitative

insights obtained through open-ended conversations but also harnessed the statistical power

of participant-driven prioritization.

3.1 THE STUDY POPULATION

Random sampling was used to determine the study's population. The biggest benefit of this

method is that there is no subjectivity or bias on the part of the field workers because every

member of the population is selected entirely at random within the study area. Because the

area was primarily residential, the population consisted primarily of Ofarkor residents. The

period covered by this data collection was November 25, 2023–December 5, 2023.

3.2 DATA COLLECTION

3.2.1 PRIMARY DATA SOURCES

This report mainly focused on data collected from primary sources as the primary data were

more reliable, confident, representative, and up to date. The community's surroundings (via

observation, images, and photographs) and people (via surveys and interviews) were the main

sources of data.

3.2.2 SECONDARY DATA SOURCES

These consist of research-related reports and project documents from different organizations.

The literature on borehole drilling provided secondary data sources that were primarily used

to construct the literature review. Data obtained from UNICEF groundwater mapping project

16
and AWUTU SENYA EAST MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY (ASEMA) reports were also

considered.

3.3DATA ANALYSIS

3.3.1 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

The quantitative component of the data collection introduces a structured and numerical

dimension, allowing for statistical analysis and the identification of common themes across

the community. Word and Excel were used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics and

graphical analysis were used to explore the data under the data analysis. Graphs were used

in this process.

3.3.2 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

This qualitative component of the data collection aims to capture the richness and diversity

of individual perspectives. This was achieved by the open-ended interviews which involved

participants from various demographic levels in the community. The data was taken through

constant comparison and the problem thereby identified.

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF MAP

Ofaakor, at coordinates 5°35'19" N 0°26'58" W, is situated approximately 6 km north of

Kasoa. Its northern boundary is formed by bawjwasi. The Jei River forms the western border

of Ofaakor, while Lamptey Mills forms its eastern boundary.

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Among the many towns under the jurisdiction of the Awutu-senya east municipal assembly

is Ofarkor. Ofarkor is a part of Ghana's Central region, specifically the Awutu-senya east

constituency.

Honourable Mavis Hawa Koomson is the current member of parliament for the Awutu-senya

east constituency. Figures 11 and 10 above depict the Awutu-senya east constituency map

with Ofaakor's location indicated.

Figure 11. Map of Ghana Figure 10. Map of Awutu Senya East

Source: Ghana Statistical Service Constituency

Source: Wikipedia

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4.2 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM

4.2.1 WATER SCARCITY

When there is not enough water available in a particular area or community to meet the needs

of the populace and different sectors, including households, businesses, and agriculture, the

situation is referred to as water scarcity. Natural phenomena like droughts, climate change,

and geographic location can all contribute to water scarcity, as can human activities like

pollution, over-extraction, and poor water management.

4.2.2 FORMATION

The formation of water scarcity often results from the interplay of rapid population growth

and the absence of critical social amenities, particularly the unavailability of a reliable pipe-

borne water system. Rapid population growth strains existing water resources, as a larger

populace requires more water for daily needs, agriculture, and industrial activities. In areas

lacking essential infrastructure, such as a well-developed pipe-borne water system, the

demand for water often surpasses the available supply. According to The Ghana Water

Company, water supply does not cover the entire region of Accra West. This is because the

existing water distribution network is not enough to match-up with the rapid expansion of

the new communities, especially in the Kasoa, Anyaa and Ablekuma areas. The supply

coverage for the Region is about 60%, and the current total customer strength for the Region

is 117,312 (as at April 2020).

Unplanned urbanization exacerbates this issue, as the expansion of communities outpaces the

development of necessary social amenities. In regions where a reliable water distribution

network is absent, residents may resort to alternative, less sustainable water sources. This can

lead to challenges in ensuring consistent access to clean and sufficient water.

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4.2.3 THE EFFECT OF WATER SCACITY ON THE RESIDENTS OF OFAAKOR

The effects of water scarcity on the residents of Ofaakor are wide-ranging and can

significantly impact various aspects of daily life. Here are some key effects:

• Health Implications: poor hygiene practices and spread of waterborne diseases

• Social Disruptions: conflict over resources and migration

• Educational Challenges

• Economic Consequences: loss of livelihoods and Increased Costs of water

4.3.1 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Petroleum engineering is a

multidisciplinary field that

encompasses the exploration,

extraction, and production of

hydrocarbons, primarily oil and

natural gas. Petroleum engineers play

a pivotal role in the entire life cycle of

oil and gas reservoirs, from

Figure 12. Petroleum engineering
discovering potential deposits to

devising efficient and sustainable methods for extraction. Their responsibilities include

assessing geological formations, designing drilling techniques, and optimizing production

processes. Petroleum engineers also focus on maximizing resource recovery while

minimizing environmental impact, employing cutting-edge technologies such as reservoir

simulation, enhanced oil recovery methods, and advanced drilling techniques. This field

20
requires a deep understanding of geology, fluid mechanics, and various engineering

principles to address the complex challenges associated with the extraction and processing

of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs.

The upstream sector in petroleum engineering focuses on exploring and extracting crude

oil and natural gas from underground reservoirs. It includes activities such as geological

surveys, drilling, and production optimization to recover hydrocarbons. This sector is vital

for the initial stages of the petroleum industry, setting the groundwork for refining and

distribution.

The midstream sector in the petroleum industry involves the transportation, storage, and

wholesale marketing of crude oil and natural gas. Midstream activities include pipelines,

storage facilities, and transportation infrastructure that connect the upstream (extraction) and

downstream (refining and distribution) sectors. This sector ensures the efficient and safe

movement of raw hydrocarbons from production sites to refineries and distribution points.

Midstream operations play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and reliability of the

overall energy supply chain.

The downstream sector in the petroleum industry encompasses the refining, processing,

distribution, and marketing of petroleum products. It involves converting crude oil into

refined products such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and various petrochemicals. Downstream

operations also include storage, transportation, and retail sales of these products to end-users.

This sector focuses on delivering a wide range of refined products to meet consumer and

industrial demands, ensuring the quality and efficiency of the final goods. The downstream

sector plays a key role in delivering refined petroleum products to the end market and meeting

diverse energy needs.

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4.3.2 SUB-DISCIPLINES

▪ A drilling engineer plans and oversees the drilling of wells in the oil and gas industry,

optimizing extraction methods for hydrocarbons. They collaborate with diverse specialists to

ensure safe and efficient drilling operations, contributing to the overall success of the

exploration and production process.

▪ A fluid engineer specializes in managing and optimizing the flow of fluids, such as oil,

gas, or water, within various engineering applications. They play a key role in designing

systems, implementing efficient fluid-handling processes, and ensuring the proper

functioning of pipelines or equipment to meet project objectives.

▪ A subsurface engineer focuses on the evaluation and management of underground

reservoirs to optimize the extraction of oil and gas. They utilize geological and reservoir data

to design strategies for efficient resource recovery, collaborating with multidisciplinary

teams to ensure effective exploration and production in the petroleum industry.

▪ A production engineer is responsible for optimizing and overseeing the processes involved

in extracting and delivering oil and gas. They work to enhance production efficiency,

troubleshoot operational issues, and implement strategies to maximize hydrocarbon recovery

from reservoirs, contributing to the overall success of upstream operations.

▪ A Petro physicist specializes in interpreting and analysing subsurface rock and fluid

properties to assess reservoir characteristics in the oil and gas industry. Using well logs and

other data, they provide valuable insights into reservoir behaviour, aiding in reservoir

evaluation and production optimization efforts.

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5.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A WATER BOREHOLE

5.1.1 WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING

Water borehole drilling involves creating a hole in the ground to access groundwater for

various purposes, such as drinking water supply, irrigation, or industrial use. There are two

main types: shallow wells, completed within the topmost saturated aquifer, and deep wells,

which penetrate through impermeable layers to reach a lower aquifer for water extraction.

5.2 WATER BOREHOLE DRILLING PROCESS

The process typically involves several key steps:

5.2.1 SITE ASSESSMENT

The site assessment for water borehole drilling involves a meticulous evaluation of

geological, hydrogeological, and environmental factors to determine the suitability of a

location. Geologists analyse rock formations and soil types, while hydrogeologists study

groundwater movement and aquifer characteristics. Topographical surveys provide insight

into surface features, aiding in optimal borehole placement. Environmental Impact

Assessments (EIAs) address potential ecological impacts, ensuring compliance with

regulations. Consideration of land ownership, community engagement, and cultural aspects

is crucial, along with assessing climatic conditions, infrastructure, and budget constraints.

This holistic approach ensures that drilling operations align with environmental

sustainability, community needs, and regulatory requirements, minimizing risks and

promoting the responsible use of groundwater resources.

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5.2.2 DRILLING AND CASE INSTALLATION

During the drilling rig setup, a drilling rig is transported to the site and assembled. The

selection of the rig type is determined by factors such as the anticipated borehole depth,

geological conditions, and the intended purpose of the well. Subsequently, the drilling

process commences as the drill bit is lowered into the ground. Various drilling methods, such

as rotary drilling, percussion drilling, or auger drilling, are employed based on the specific

geological features encountered at the site. The drilling phase is critical for advancing into

the subsurface layers, allowing for the exploration of potential water reservoirs and the

creation of the borehole for extracting groundwater.

5.2.3 GROUTING

After the drilling is complete, the annular space between the casing and the borehole wall is

often filled with grout to seal the well and prevent the migration of contaminants between

different geological layers. This sealing process is crucial in minimizing the risk of

groundwater contamination and ensuring the efficiency and longevity of the well. Common

grouting materials include cement-based mixtures or bentonite clay, which solidify to create

a barrier that reinforces the borehole walls and seals off potential pathways for the movement

of water and contaminants. Proper grouting helps maintain the integrity of the well, ensuring

the reliability and safety of the water supply over time.

5.2.4 SITE DEVELOPMENT

The well is developed to improve its performance by removing fine particles and debris

generated during drilling. During drilling, fine particles, drilling fluids, and other debris may

accumulate in the borehole, reducing its ability to yield water effectively. Well development

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involves the use of various techniques to remove these obstructions and improve the

connectivity between the borehole and the surrounding aquifer. Common development

methods include surging, jetting, and pumping. Surging involves rapidly raising and lowering

the water level in the well to dislodge fine particles, while jetting uses high-pressure water to

clean the well screen and surrounding formation. Pumping, on the other hand, involves

extracting water from the borehole to draw in surrounding materials and improve overall well

performance. Successful development ensures that the well can deliver water efficiently and

sustainably over its operational life.

5.2.5 TESTING

Testing in the water borehole drilling process involves essential assessments to evaluate the

well’s performance and water quality. Pump tests measure yield and drawdown, water quality

tests check for contaminants, and flow rate measurement assesses capacity. Efficiency testing

and yield assessments ensure the well functions optimally and meets water demand.

Continuous monitoring of water levels helps gauge aquifer stability. Overall, testing provides

crucial data for effective well management, maintenance, and compliance with quality and

quantity standards.

5.3 WATER BOREHOLE PUMP INSTALLATION

Following the successful drilling of a water borehole, the focus shifts to the installation of

the water borehole pump, a pivotal step in making the groundwater accessible for various

purposes.

The pump installation process begins with the careful selection of an appropriate pump based

on factors such as well depth, water yield, and quality. Planning for installation involves

25
determining the optimal placement of the pump within the borehole and assembling the

necessary components, including pipes, electrical connections, and control mechanisms.

Once the pump is prepared, it is meticulously lowered into the borehole, ensuring proper

alignment for effective water extraction. The connections are sealed to prevent leaks or

contamination, and the electrical setup is established to connect the pump to a power source.

Rigorous testing and calibration follow to confirm the pump’s functionality, with adjustments

made as necessary to ensure optimal water extraction. Additionally, the establishment of

surface infrastructure, such as a pump house or protective structure, is undertaken to house

the pump and control equipment, ensuring durability and accessibility for maintenance. The

successful completion of the water borehole pump installation not only marks a critical

milestone in the project but also ensures the reliable and efficient utilization of the

groundwater resource for the intended applications. The figure below (fig. 13) shows diagram

26
of what a section of a complete borehole fitted with a pump should look like.

Figure 13. Diagram of a complete borehole

5.4 WATER STORAGE SYSTEM

Implementing an efficient storage system is essential to ensure a consistent water supply even

when the pump is not actively extracting water. A storage system typically involves the

installation of a water tank or cistern to store water pumped from the borehole during periods

of high yield. This stored water can then be used during times of low demand or when the

pump is not in operation, providing a reliable source for household needs.

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The storage system serves as a buffer, helping to manage variations in water demand and

ensuring a continuous water supply for domestic use. It also contributes to the overall

efficiency of the borehole system, reducing the reliance on the pump to meet immediate water

needs. A service reservoir is recommended and careful consideration is given to the size of

the storage tank, which depends on factors such as household water consumption patterns,

daily demand, and any potential interruptions in the water supply.

5.4.1 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SERVICE RESERVOIR

Figure 14. Service reservoir

One kind of reservoir designed primarily to hold water for later use is a service reservoir.

They frequently take the shape of elevated structures, such as water towers. The most

common construction methods used to build service reservoirs are bricklaying and cast

concrete. They may have a roof structure to protect the water from contamination and

evaporation. The tank is connected to the local water distribution network and is filled with

water from various sources such as boreholes, wells, or rainwater harvesting (fig. 14).

28
5.4.1.2 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION

Reinforced Concrete Construction: Utilize reinforced concrete for the reservoir’s

construction, ensuring structural integrity. Reinforcement bars should be corrosion-resistant

to withstand the chemical composition of borehole water.

Inlet and Outlet Design: Stainless Steel or HDPE Pipes: Use corrosion-resistant materials

like stainless steel or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) for both inlet and outlet pipes, given

that borehole water may contain minerals that could accelerate corrosion.

Overflow and Emergency Drainage: Concrete Overflow Structures: Construct overflow

outlets with reinforced concrete structures to efficiently manage excess water during heavy

rainfall.

Geomembrane Lining: Apply a geomembrane lining made of materials like high-density

polyethylene (HDPE) to prevent seepage and contamination, specifically tailored for

borehole water quality.

Stainless Steel Valves and HDPE Piping: Install stainless steel valves and use HDPE pipes

for the distribution system connected to the reservoir to resist corrosion from borehole water.

Erosion Control Measures: Integrate erosion control measures such as vegetation or

concrete revetments to minimize environmental impact, considering the specific

characteristics of borehole water.

Structural Analysis: Conduct a thorough structural analysis to determine the appropriate

size and capacity of the reservoir based on borehole water yield and potential environmental

loads.

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Pressure Regulation: Stainless Steel Pressure-Reducing Valves: Incorporate stainless steel

pressure-reducing valves to regulate water pressure within the distribution network,

considering the specific characteristics of borehole water.

6 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSION

This research report intended to discover effective borehole drilling techniques to combat

water scarcity in Ofaakor.

Water boreholes are a reliable source of water and implementing these drilling methods can

contribute significantly to water availability. Mechanical method of water borehole drilling

though expensive is and efficient and precise approach, enabling the extraction of

groundwater for various purposes, domestic and industrial uses. Mechanical borehole drilling

techniques are preferred for their speed, accuracy, and ability to access deeper aquifers,

providing a reliable source of water for communities and industries. Manual method of water

borehole drilling on the other hand is a cost-effective method for accessing groundwater.

Manual borehole drilling techniques make use of human operated tools and equipment to dig

boreholes usually shallow wells for domestic use, small-scale agriculture, and local needs.

Field trials have demonstrated the efficacy of these techniques, showcasing improved water

yield and sustainable groundwater management practices.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Water boreholes should be drilled at multiple locations across the community and water

supplied to service reservoirs mounted at vantage points in the community to ensure equitable

distribution to all members of the community.

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The Greater Accra Metropolitan Area Sanitation and Water Project should overlook this

project and provide financing as Ofaakor and its neighbouring communities fall under the Ga

West Water supply of the Ghana Water Company.

REFERNCES

1. Report: Awutu-Senya East Municipal Assembly. (2013). Draft District Medium

Term Development Plan, DMTDP (2010-2013), Kasoa

2. VELOX BOREHOLES. Groundwater Extraction: The Pros and Cons!. Retrieved

from: https://veloxboreholes.com/groundwater-extraction-the-pros-and-cons/.

Accessed 3 January 2024

APPENDIX

SAMPLE QUESTIONS USED IN OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEWS

1. Can you describe some of the significant challenges affecting the overall

well-being of the community?

2. What aspects of daily life do you find most challenging within the

community?

3. Are there specific issues or concerns that you feel are not adequately

addressed in the community?

4. In your opinion, what are the most pressing problems that residents

commonly encounter?

5. How do you perceive the state of infrastructure and development within the

community?

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 6. Can you share any observations or experiences related to demographic shifts

or changes in the community?

7. What, in your view, are the key factors contributing to the challenges faced

by residents in this community?

8. Are there any disparities or inequalities within the community that you

believe need attention?

9. How has the lack of certain amenities or resources impacted the lives of

residents?

10. Are there specific areas where you think community efforts or interventions

could make a significant positive difference?

COMMUNITY PRIORITIZATION SURVEY

Dear Resident,

Thank you for participating in this survey. Your input is valuable in identifying

and addressing key issues within our community. This survey is conducted by

Daniel Stephano Denu, a second-year Petroleum Engineering student of

KNUST, as part of the required course "Engineering in Society." Please take a

moment to prioritize the challenges you believe require immediate attention.

Instructions: Please rank the following community challenges based on their

urgency and impact. Use the scale below to assign a priority level to each

problem (1 = Highest Priority, 7 = Lowest Priority).

1. Unavailability of Local Clinic

• Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

2. Prevalence of Rodents and Snakes in the Neighbourhood

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 • Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

3. High Cost of Formal Education

• Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

4. Frequent Power Cuts

• Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

5. Security and Theft

• Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

6. Lack of Pipe-Borne Water

• Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

7. Poor and Dusty Roads

• Select Priority Level: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7

Instructions: Considering the challenges mentioned above, which one do you

personally find most pressing or impactful on your daily life? Please select only

one.

1. Most Pressing Issue:

• Select One Option from the List Above

Your feedback is crucial for shaping community initiatives. Thank you for your

time and contribution.

Best Regards,

Daniel Stephano Denu

Second-Year Petroleum Engineering Student, KNUST

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SAMPLE QUESTIONS USED IN THE FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEWS

1. Can you elaborate on the daily challenges you face due to the lack of

pipe-borne water in the community? How does this affect your

household, health, and overall well-being?

2. In what ways has the absence of pipe-borne water influenced your access

to clean and safe drinking water? What alternative water sources do you

rely on, and what challenges do you encounter with these alternatives?

3. How do you think the lack of pipe-borne water impacts other aspects of

community life, such as hygiene, sanitation, and general living

conditions?

4. Have there been any community-led initiatives or personal strategies to

cope with the water scarcity issue? What successes or challenges have

these efforts encountered?

5. From your perspective, what specific improvements or interventions

would make the most significant impact in ensuring a reliable and

sustainable supply of pipe-borne water in the community?

6. What role do you see local authorities or external organizations playing

in addressing the issue of water scarcity? Are there any existing

programs or solutions that you think could be implemented in our

community?

7. Can you share any experiences or stories related to the consequences of

the water scarcity issue, either positive or negative? How has it affected

the lives of community members in the long term?

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8. How can community members actively contribute to resolving the lack

of pipe-borne water issue? Are there collective actions or awareness-

building activities that you believe would make a difference?

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