Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

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Statistical modeling of mechanical and transport

properties of concrete incorporating glass powder

Aly Hussein Abdalla , Ammar Yahia & Arezki Tagnit-Hamou

To cite this article: Aly Hussein Abdalla , Ammar Yahia & Arezki Tagnit-Hamou (2020): Statistical
modeling of mechanical and transport properties of concrete incorporating glass powder, Journal of
Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, DOI: 10.1080/21650373.2020.1793820

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2020.1793820

Published online: 21 Jul 2020.

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Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 2020
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2020.1793820

Statistical modeling of mechanical and transport properties

of concrete incorporating glass powder
Aly Hussein Abdalla
, Ammar Yahia and Arezki Tagnit-Hamou

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Canada

The objective of this study is to model the effect of the partial replacement of
cement by glass powder (GP), w/cm, and supplementary cementitious materials
(SCM) content, as well as their coupled effects on key engineering properties of
concrete using a statistical design of experiments. The modeled experimental domain
includes concrete mixtures with w/cm ranging between 0.27 and 0.69, GP
percentages of 0–50%, and SCM content of 310 to 440 kg/m3. The modeled
responses include the compressive strength and rapid chloride ions permeability
(CIP) at various ages. The comparison between predicted and measured responses
determined on eight selected mixtures included in the experimental domain indicates
good accuracy of the established models to describe the effect of the independent
variables on the targeted properties. The derived statistical models indicate that the
CIP is dominated by substitution percentage of GP, while the compressive strength
is dominated by w/cm, regardless of the age of concrete. The increase in GP content
to 30% resulted in a significant reduction in CIP. However, it reduces the
compressive strength at early age, which may necessitate a decrease in w/cm to
compensate for strength reduction. Trade-off between mixture parameters to achieve
targeted compressive strength and CIP properties were established.
Keywords: glass powder; supplementary cementitious materials; chloride ions
permeability; durability; compressive strength; design of experiments

1. Introduction aims to reduce the clinker factor in concrete

Global cement production has increased
more than 30-fold since 1950 and almost 4-
fold since 1990 [1]. The world’s production
of Portland cement is expected to be around
4,000 Mt/year in 2020 [1]. Portland cement
production is an energy intensive process,
accounting for approximately 10–15% of
total worldwide industrial energy use.
Producing one ton of portland cement gen-
erates approximately one ton of carbon
dioxide (CO2) [1–4]. The partial replace-
ment of Portland cement by supplementary
cementitious materials (SCM), including
silica fume, fly ash, and blast furnace slag
and reduce its CO2 foot print. This can also
provide a sustainable alternative to portland
cement. Furthermore, the use of SCM in
concrete enhances the rheological proper-
ties, reduces temperature rise and risk of
thermal cracking, and improves both mech-
anical and durability properties [2,3,5,6].
The use of SCM is becoming an advantage
not only from the environmental and eco-
nomical point of view, but also to produce
durable concrete mixtures [2–6]. Proper
replacement of cement by SCM can indeed
lead to greater packing density of the solid
skeleton and denser microstructure, hence

Corresponding author. Email: cairo1983_143@hotmail.com

ß 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 A. H. Abdalla et al.
leading to lower permeability and bet-
ter durability.
Despite of all these benefits, the pro-
duction of hydraulic cements incorporating
SCM is limited to only 2% of the total
cement production in Canada [6]. This is
probably due to the lack of knowledge and
guidelines to tailor proper substitutions of
SCM and achieve adequate properties of
concrete. The effectiveness of incorporat-
ing SCM to enhance workability, mechan-
ical, and transport properties of concrete is
affected by the type and substitution per-
centages of SCM, as well as water-to-
cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) [6].
The current research trend indicates
that waste glass may be considered as a
suitable construction material because of
its chemical composition and widespread
availability compared to other SCMs. On
the other hand, hundreds of thousands
tones of glass are being stockpiled and
landfilled globally every year, which is a
serious threat to the environment. Since
glass is a non-biodegradable material, it
takes one million years to break down nat-
urally [7]. Nowadays, recycling of waste
glass in cement-based materials has there-
fore become a major concern to the scien-
tific community. Glass was used in mortar
and concrete in six possible ways, includ-
ing (i) raw material for cement production
[8], (ii) partial replacement of cement
[7–22], (iii) partial or total replacement of
fine aggregate [23], (iv) combined partial
replacements of cement and fine aggregate
[24], (v) partial or total replacement of
coarse aggregate [7,24], and (vi) combined
partial or total replacements of coarse and
fine aggregates [7,23,24].
The optimum partial replacement of
cement by glass powder (GP) can lead to
greater packing density of the solid skeleton
and denser microstructure, better mechan-
ical properties, and transport performance
of concrete [13]. The effect of GP on the
properties of concrete depends on the mix-
ture parameters, including GP replacement
percentages, water-to-cementitious materi-
als ratio (w/cm), and cementitious materials
content (SCM). For example, the partial
replacement of cement by 20% of GP can
improve the freezing-thawing resistance
and reduce the chloride ingress as well as
the alkalis-silica expansion of 0.40 and
0.55 w/cm concrete mixtures [17,18].
Furthermore, this can improve the 28-d
compressive strength of concrete [15–18]
and reduce its 56-d chloride ions
permeability [19–22], hence improve
service life of concrete structures exposed
to adverse conditions.
The partial substitution of cement by
20% of GP seems to be an optimum value
to achieve proper mechanical properties and
low chloride ions permeability of concrete
[7–14]. This percentage was mainly deter-
mined on selected mixture parameters using
trial and error approach until the specified
properties are achieved rather than a com-
prehensive approach. Further studies are
needed to investigate the effects of incorpo-
rating higher substitution percentages of GP
on hardened properties of concrete propor-
tioned with different w/cm ratios and SCM
contents. The use of higher replacement
contents of GP in concrete aims to maxi-
mize its potential use and reduce the envir-
onmental impact of concrete.
The objective of this study is to evalu-
ate the coupled effect of partial substitution
of cement by GP, w/cm, and SCM contents
on compressive strength and chloride ions
permeability (CIP) of concrete using a stat-
istical design of experiments. The effect of
w/cm, replacement percentage of GP, and
SCM content on compressive strength
development and CIP of concrete at
different ages is modeled. The modeled
region includes mixture with w/cm ranging
between 0.27 and 0.69, partial replacement
of cement by GP between 0 and 50%, and
SCM content between 310 and 440 kg/m3.
This is useful to establish the trade-off
between significant factors and achieve tar-
geted properties for given set of constraints,
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
while reducing the number of trials
[25–31]. Furthermore, using this approach,
a mathematical model describing the main
influence and the second-order interactions
between various significant factors on a
given property can be established.
2. Research significance
Partial substitution of cement by 20% of
glass powder (GP) can enhance mechanical
and chloride ions permeability of concrete.
However, the potential benefit of using
higher substitution percentages in concrete
proportioned with different w/cm ratios
and binder contents is still not well docu-
mented. Results presented in this paper
provide accurate statistical models that can
be used to optimize the use of GP in con-
crete, and achieve adequate mechanical
and transport properties.
3. Statistical design approach
First, a full factorial was first carried out
to model the influence of three key mix-
ture parameters (w/cm, GP, SCM) on
compressive strength and chloride ions
permeability (CIP) of concrete. The mod-
eled responses are assumed to be linearly
dependent on the level of each independ-
ent variable. Central points are prepared
to evaluate the accuracy of linear models.
This can indicate whether it is necessary
or not to run quadratic models. A central
composite experimental design (CCED)
was then carried out to enhance the
accuracy of the models by considering
the quadratic effects between the inde-
pendent variables. Consequently, the
effect of each factor is evaluated at five
different levels corresponding to –a, 1,
0, þ 1, þ a (codified values). The value
of a is fixed such as the variance of the
predicted values depends only on the dis-
tance from the origin of the experimental
domain [28,29]. This corresponds to an
orthogonal design in which the deviance
attributed to a given modeled factor is
3
constant. It is worthy to mention that in
this case, the variance of a given
response (compressive strength at differ-
ent ages or the chloride permeability)
does not depend upon the order in which
the insignificant factor is removed from
the model. Such a statistical design is
the height of parsimony and has the
advantage to know the conditions varied
over the experimental process. The
experimental results used to establish the
statistical models are interpreted under
well-defined conditions. On the other
hand, the design is optimally cost effect-
ive in terms of materials, human resour-
ces, and testing duration.
In the case of three independent varia-
bles (k ¼ 3), a CCED plan consists of eight
(Nf¼2k¼8) factorial points (linear effect),
and six (6 ¼ 2k) axial points (quadratic
effect) at a distance a from the origin of the
experimental domain. The CCED plan con-
sidered in this study correspond to an
orthogonal plan, where the value of a is
calculated as a function of number of fac-
torial, axial, and central points. The calcu-
lated value of a is 1.68 [28,29], which is
calculated as a5(Nf) =4, where Nf is the
1
number of factorial points (Nf¼8). The
modeled responses are the compressive
strength at 172,891,180 days, and 1 year, as
well as CIP at 285,691,180 days, and
1 year. The coded and absolute values of
the modeled factors are summarized in
Table 1.
The coded values are expressed as
follows:
Coded value ¼
absolute value-central value
1
range between maximum and minimum values
2
For example, the coded value for w/cm can
be calculated as follows:
Coded w=cm ¼ ðActual value – 0:475Þ=0:125
The quadratic model associated with a
CCED is expressed as follow:
4 A. H. Abdalla et al.

Table 1. Absolute and coded values of the investigated variables.

Coded and absolute values
Factors –1.68 (–a) –1 0 þ1 þ1.68 (þa)
w/cm 0.270 0.350 0.475 0.600 0.690
GP (%) 0 10 25 40 50
SCM kg/m3 310 335 375 415 440

X
k X
k X
k1 X
k
that the independent variable does not have
Y ¼ a0 þ ai xi þ aii x2i þ aij xi xj þ E
i¼1 i¼1 i¼1 j¼2 a significant effect on a given response (i.e.
modeled property) [28,29,32]. On the other
The associated quadratic model for a hand, the accuracy of the established mod-
CCED (three-independent variables, w/cm, els is evaluated by comparing predicted-to-
GP, and SCM) is expressed as follows: measured modeled responses using further
R ¼ a0 þ a1 w=cm þ a2 GP þ a3 SCM mixtures in the modeled domain [25–27].

þ a11 w=cm2 þ a22 GP2 þ a33 SCM2

4. Experimental program
þ a12 w=cm:GP þ a13 w=cm: SCM
4.1. Material properties
þ a23 GP:SCM þ E
All concrete mixtures investigated in this
The model’s coefficients (ai) represent the study were proportioned using a GU CSA
contribution of independent variables on cement type having a finesse of 395 kg/m2
the response, and E is the random error of and a mean diameter of 12 um. Also, a
the model. These coefficients are deter- ground-glass pozzolan GS type (GP) com-
mined by multi-linear regression analysis, plying with the CSA A3001-18 and
and are assumed to be normally distributed. ASTMC1866-20 standards with finesse of
Further mixtures were prepared at the cen- 440 kg/m2 and mean diameter of 13 mm was
ter of the experimental domain to estimate used at different partial replacements of
the degree of experimental error of the cement. The chemical properties of cement
modeled responses [25–31]. The calculated and GP determined using X-ray fluores-
standard deviation can be used to state on cence (XRF) are presented in Table 2. On
the significance of various variables on the the other hand, the SEM images of the
established models using the F-tests. The investigated GU and GP powders are shown
non-significant variables and second-order in Figure 1.
interactions are then identified and elimi- The investigated mixtures were propor-
nated from the model. In other words, the tioned using a combination of two different
significance of each parameter is deter- types of coarse aggregate with nominal
mined according to two different hypothe- sizes of 14 and 20 mm. Their specific grav-
ses, which are as follows: the null ities are 2.71 and 2.73, respectively. A
hypothesis H0: ß0¼0 and the alternative well-graded quartzite sand with 5 mm nom-
hypothesis Ha: ßa6¼0, when the null inal size and finesse modulus of 2.5 was
hypothesis is rejected, it means that the employed. Its relative density and water
independent variable has a significant absorption are 2.65 and 0.97%, respect-
effect on the final response (Y) and the ively. As can be observed in Figure 2, the
alternative hypothesis is accepted. The grain-size distribution curves of the
Fisher probability test according to a confi- aggregate are within the CSA A23.1
dence level (1–a) of 90% is used. This recommendations. On the other hand, a
means that there is less than 10% of risk polycarboxylate-based high-range water-
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 5

reducer (HRWR) was incorporated in mix- concrete of 22 ± 2  C at the end of mixing.

tures proportioned with a w/cm less than
0.55. The HRWR has solid content and
specific gravity of 31% and 1.07, respect-
ively. An air entraining agent (AEA) con-
forming to ASTM C 260 standard was
used to secure air content between 5 and
8%. The AEA has a specific gravity of
1.007 and a solid content of 5%.
4.2. Test procedures
Concrete mixtures were prepared in 80-liter
batches using a rotating drum mixer. The
temperature of the mixing water was set at
14 ± 1  C to secure a temperature of
Table 2. Physicochemical properties of GU
and GP.
Cement GP
The batching sequence consisted of
homogenizing the sand and coarse aggre-
gate for 40 s, then adding half of the mixing
water along with AEA. Following 30 s of
mixing, the cement, SCM and the remain-
ing mixing water along with HRWR were
added, and the mixing was resumed for
3 min. After 2 min of rest, the concrete was
remixed for an additional 3 min. Following
the mixing operation, the unit weight, tem-
perature, air content, and slump were deter-
mined. Also, several 100  200 mm
cylinders were sampled and moist-cured to
determine the compressive strength
(ASTM C 39) and CIP of concrete at dif-
ferent ages. Chloride ions permeability was
determined on 95-mm diameter disks and
50 mm length according to the ASTM C
1202 specifications.

SiO2 20.43 74.47

Al2O3 4.70 1.97 5. Test results and discussions
Fe203 2.92 0.39
CaO 62.39 13.15 5.1. Fresh and hardened
MgO 1.81 1.28 concrete properties
SO3 3.53 0.16 The mixture proportioning used to model
K2O 0.95 0.64
Na2O 0.18 7.26 the effect of independent w/cm, GP, and
Na2Oeq. 0.80 7.69 SCM variables on engineering properties
LOI 2.51 0.38 of concrete are summarized in Table 3. On
Specific gravity 3.15 2.54 the other hand, the fresh and hardened
C3 S 52.9 –
properties of the investigated mixtures are
C2 S 18.7 –
C3 A 7.5 – summarized in Table 4. The compressive
C4AF 8.9 – strength and CIP values for the investigated
mixtures are summarized in Figure 3.

Figure 1. SEM images of the particles of a) GU at 100 mm and b) GP at 20 mm.

6 A. H. Abdalla et al.
Figure 2. Particle-size distributions of sand
and coarse aggregate.
As can be observed in Figure 3, for a
given w/cm ratio and SCM content, the
increase in GP content from 10 to 40%
resulted in lower compressive strength,
regardless of the age of concrete. It is wor-
thy to mention that due to the pozzolanic
nature of GP, this difference is higher at
early age. For example, after 24 h of age,
the increase in GP content from 10 to 40%
decreased the 24-hours compressive
strength from 26.3 to 14.7 MPa (44%
reduction) of 0.35 w/cm and 335 kg/m3
SCM mixtures. After 91 days of age, the
reduction is limited to only 19.8% after
91 days of age. It is worthy to mention that
the lean mixture proportioned with 335 kg/
m3 SCM showed greater reduction than
those proportioned with 415 kg/m3 SCM.
On the other hand, all the investigated
mixtures showed a consistent strength gain
with time, regardless of the GP content.
The gain is important up to an age of 180d,
beyond which it becomes not significant
(up to 1 year). The obtained results suggest
that the strength development is function of
w/cm, GP replacement percentage, SCM
content, and age of concrete. In the case of
CIP, the use of GP decreased the CIP val-
ues, regardless of the age of concrete. This
is consistent with previous results reported
in literature [13,16]. This is attributed to
the filling and pozzolanic effects of GP,
thus decreasing the permeability of the
matrix. This significant reduction of CIP
observed with concrete containing GP is
probably due to the filling effect and poz-
zolanic reaction of GP. This results in pro-
ducing dense CSH gel which contributes in
blocking the transport of chloride ions in
the concrete mass [19,20]. This pozzolanic
reaction in presence of GP can cause also
segmentation of capillary pores, which
reduces concrete porosity and blocks chlor-
ide ions penetration into concrete [21,22].
Although the variables w/cm ratio and
GP percentage are dominant factors on the
modeled properties, the age of concrete
(i.e. time after the first contact between
cement and water) is also an important fac-
tor on the strength development and CIP
evolution. This is valid up to an age of
91 days, beyond which the evolution (i.e.
strength gain or CIP reduction) is limited.
Although the statistical plan is conceived to
establish models at different ages, an
attempt can be carried out to establish a
predictive model that considers all the sig-
nificant factors, including the age.
5.2. Development of statistical models
The derived statistical models for compres-
sive strength and CIP responses at different
ages are summarized in Table 5. These
models are established considering factors
with coded values. The full factorial, where
each variable is fixed at two different levels
(–1 and þ1) within the modeled region, was
first used to establish linear models. The
modeled responses are assumed linearly
dependent on the level of each independent
variable. Because of the poor accuracy of
the established models to predict the
Table 3. Proportioning of the mixtures used to establish the statistical models.
Mixture proportioning
Modeled factors Mixture parameters
Values between () correspond to coded values kg/m3
Mix
(w/cm-GP-SCM) w/cm GP (%) SCM, kg/m3 Water Cement GP Sand 14 mm CA 20 mm CA HRWA AEA (ml/m3)
0.35-10-335 0.35 (–1) 10 (–1) 335 (–1) 116 298 33 835 847 212 3.8 1180
0.35-10-415 0.35 (–1) 10 (–1) 415 (þ1) 143 367 41 687 840 210 2.55 489
0.35-40-335 0.35 (–1) 40 (þ1) 335 (–1) 116 199 133 815 848 212 3.5 1486
0.35-40-415 0.35 (–1) 40 (þ1) 415 (þ1) 146 250 167 678 859 215 2.26 1313
0.60-10-335 0.60 (þ1) 10 (–1) 335 (–1) 202 303 34 624 859 215 0 144
0.60-10-415 0.60 (þ1) 10 (–1) 415 (þ1) 248 372 41 423 852 213 0 144
0.60-40-335 0.60 (þ1) 40 (þ1) 335 (-1) 203 203 135 608 865 216 0 145
0.60-40-415 0.60 (þ1) 40 (þ1) 415 (þ1) 243 243 162 391 836 209 0 143
0.27-25-375 0.27 (–1.68) 25 (0) 375 (0) 99 281 94 873 1069 0 18 4492
0.69-25-375 0.69 (þ1.68) 25 (0) 375 (0) 263 288 96 438 877 219 0 123
0.475-0-375 0.475 (0) 0 (–1.68) 375 (0) 174 367 0 643 837 209 1.2 68
0.475-50-375 0.475 (0) 50 (þ1.68) 375 (0) 173 182 182 602 831 208 0.5 252
0.475-25-310 0.475 (0) 25 (0) 310 (–1.68) 144 228 76 773 845 211 1.5 79
0.475-25-440 0.475 (0) 25 (0) 440 (þ1.68 213 337 112 503 870 218 0.5 61
Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

0.475-25-375 0.475 (0) 25 (0) 375 (0) 177 280 93 637 853 213 0.9 30
0.475-25-375 0.475 (0) 25 (0) 375 (0) 177 279 93 631 848 212 0.9 30
0.475-25-375 0.475 (0) 25 (0) 375 (0) 177 280 93 632 850 213 0.9 30
7
 8

Table 4. Fresh and hardened properties of concrete mixtures of the composite factorial design.
Fresh concrete properties Compressive strength (MPa) Chloride ions permeability (Coulomb)
3
Mix (w/cm-GP-SCM) Slump (mm) Air (%) Density (kg/m ) 1d 7d 28d 91d 180d 1 year 28d 56d 91d 180d 1 year
0.35-10-335 190 7.50 2345 26.3 44.0 58.1 71.6 74.5 75.9 1941 1629 897 500 513
0.35-10-415 200 7.40 2290 28.2 42.6 52.1 61.4 62.2 76.3 2937 1715 1220 690 430
0.35-40-335 250 5.50 2325 14.7 29.8 41.1 57.4 59.9 66.6 1746 800 595 408 347
0.35-40-415 220 6.90 2320 13.8 31.0 39.3 51.4 57.4 61.3 1374 500 458 332 337
0.60-10-335 180 7.00 2240 8.5 18.8 24.3 31.3 35.5 37.8 5323 3286 2059 1168 952
0.60-10-415 240 6.60 2150 4.8 12.9 17.8 23.0 28.3 29.2 7476 5609 2107 1706 1212
0.60-40-335 200 7.60 2230 3.5 9.9 15.3 23.7 30.2 30.6 2785 1133 792 644 509
0.60-40-415 240 7.20 2080 2.4 6.75 12.9 19.2 24.2 25.7 2532 1095 949 756 696
0.27-25-375 230 4.90 2430 29.8 42.0 55.4 59.2 67.3 75.4 1272 447 341 186 146
0.69-25-375 220 7.60 2180 4.3 12.6 19.5 25.0 30.6 33.4 6406 1275 1058 636 609
A. H. Abdalla et al.

0.475-0-375 215 8.50 2230 14.8 24.6 38.6 39.9 46.0 46.8 4064 3533 3362 2565 2133
0.475-50-375 185 8.20 2180 4.6 11.8 21.0 33.3 35.6 35.9 1895 784 523 531 401
0.475-25-310 190 7.20 2280 11.9 22.8 35.6 38.0 46.8 46.6 2672 1134 695 443 356
0.475-25-440 210 6.00 2250 10.0 20.7 30.2 40.8 47.6 50.8 3483 1276 779 550 393
0.475-25-375 200 6.80 2250 9.5 23.2 31.2 44.7 48.6 49.6 3217 1183 891 532 391
0.475-25-375 210 7.40 2240 9.7 19.1 29.8 38.6 42.8 46.2 3258 1222 879 642 371
0.475-25-375 210 7.40 2245 8.3 19.8 29.1 39.2 40.8 55.4 3114 1189 761 498 363
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 9

Figure 3. Variation of compressive strength and CIP properties with age of mixtures made with
different GP–SCM combinations and a) w/cm ¼ 0.60 and b) w/cm ¼ 0.35.

modeled properties, the experimental strength, regardless of the age of concrete

domain was expanded to establish quadratic
models. The quadratic models are valid for
a wider modeled region, in which each vari-
able is varying from (–1.68) to (þ1.68). In
the case of actual values, the modeled
domain corresponds to w/cm varying from
0.27 to 0.69, GP from 0 to 50%, and SCM
from 310 to 440 kg/m3.
The correlation coefficients (R2) for the
proposed models are greater than 0.90,
which demonstrates that the variation of the
established models is mostly explained by
the variation of the independent variables
[32]. Probabilities for a given parameter of
0.10 and less signify that it has a significant
effect on the predicted response. A negative
effect value of an independent variable indi-
cates that an increase in the parameter
results in a reduction of the predicted
response. The most influent parameter on
the compressive strength models is the w/
cm with a negative effect. An increase in w/
cm causes a reduction of the compressive
[7,9]. On the other hand, the most important
parameter affecting the CIP models at 56,
91, and 180 days is GP replacement percent-
age with a negative effect. This indicates
that an increase of the partial substitution of
cement by GP causes a significant reduction
of CIP, regardless of the age of concrete
[21,22]. Furthermore, the presence of varia-
bles with a coupled effect, such as (GP)2,
(w/cm)2, and (SCM)2 indicates that the
established model is quadratic.
The mean value, standard deviation,
standard error, and the estimated error for a
confidence interval of 90% as well as the
relative error determined on central points for
all the modeled responses are summarized in
Table 6. The experimental error for the mod-
eled responses is calculated as follow:
 ta=2, n1
standard error  mean
 þta=2, n1
standard error
Where a is equal to 0.10 and (n ¼ 3) is
the number of repeated central points. The
 10

Table 5. Parameter estimates for all derived models.

Compressive strength (MPa) Chloride ions permeability (Coulomb)
Model 1d 1/冑7d 28d 91d 180d 1 year 28d 1/冑56d 冑91d Ln 180d Ln 1 year
R2 0.99 0.984 0.971 0.987 0.968 0.969 0.995 0.983 0.942 0.925 0.904
Parameter Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate
Intercept 9.34 0.23 30.6 41.95 45.85 50.09 3245.91 0.028 27.63 6.3 5.93
w/cm –7.76 0.068 –13.24 –18.07 –16.98 –19.41 1264.75 –0.0048 4.63 0.37 0.38
GP –3.76 0.032 –5.37 –4.44 –3.6 –4.57 –1154.8 0.0075 –8 –0.37 –0.34
SCM –0.57 0.014 –1.89 –3.63 –3.5 –2.49 315.5 NS NS NS NS
w/cm
GP 2.43 0.017 1.98 1.59 NS NS –715.25 NS –1.65 NS NS
w/cm
SCM –0.64 0.015 NS NS NS NS 159.5 –0.0015 NS NS NS
A. H. Abdalla et al.

GP
SCM NS NS NS NS NS NS –472 0.0018 NS NS NS

(w/cm)2 2.72 NS 2.27 NS NS NS NS NS NS –0.13 NS
(GP)2 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 4.75 0.3 0.36
(SCM)2 0.56 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
NS: non-significant parameter.
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 11

relative error for a 90% confidence limit for

1 year

14.42
8.08
375

6.4
24
both compressive strength development
between 1 day and 1 year and CIP response
between 28 days and 1-year ranges between
Chloride ions permeability (Coulomb)

3 and 23%.
75.27
43.46
180d

22.8
557

127
5.3. Accuracy of the
established models
71.84
41.47

The accuracy of established models is eval-

14.3
91d
844

121

uated using eight further mixtures within

the experimental domain. The mixture pro-
portions for the validation mixtures are
21.00
12.12
1198

summarized in Table 7. For each response,

56d

3.0
35

it consists to compare the predicted-to-

measured values using two different classes
of concrete. The mixtures of the first class
74.19
42.83
3196

were proportioned with w/cm of 0.40 and

28d

125
3.9

binder content of 400 kg/m3, while those of

the second class were made with w/cm of
0.55 and binder content of 350 kg/m3. For
1 year
50.4
4.69
2.71
7.91
15.7

both classes, various replacement percen-

tages of GP of 10, 20, 30, and 40% were
evaluated to cover wide range in the
experimental domain.
44.07
180d

4.07
2.35
6.86
15.6
Compressive strength (MPa)

The predicted-to-measured values for

the compressive strength (f’c) models at
172,891,180 days, and 1 year of age are
40.82

1.946
3.37

5.68
13.9
91d

shown in Figure 4. On the other hand, the

CIP models determined at 285,691,180 days,
and 1 year are presented in Figure 5. The
Repeatability of modeled response measurements.

30.03

0.617
1.07

1.81
28d

6.0

dotted lines represent the estimated errors

corresponding to 90% confidence limit. The
estimated errors for compressive strength
20.7
2.19
1.26
3.68
17.8

measurements at 172,891,180 days, and

7d

1 year are ±1.23, ±3.68, ±1.81, ±5.68, ±6.86,

and ±7.91 MPa, respectively. On the other
9.13
0.73
0.42
1.23
13.5

hand, the estimated errors for CIP responses

1d

at 285,691,180 days, and 1 year are ±125,

±35, ±121, ±127, and ±24 Coulombs,
Relative error at 90% CI (%)

respectively.
Estimated error at 90% CI

The ratio between the predicted-to-

measured values determined on the valid-
ation mixtures vary between 0.83 and 1.15,
Standard deviation

indicating good accuracy of the established

Standard error
Mean (N ¼ 3)

models to predict the investigated concrete

properties. For example, in the case of
Table 6.

compressive strength at 1,7,28,91,180 days,

and 1 year, these ratios are 0.93, 0.94, 1.09,
 12

Table 7. Mixture proportions used to validate the established models.

Mixture proportioning
Modeled factors Mixture parameters
(kg/m3)
Water
Mix w/cm GP (%) SCM (kg/m3) (kg/m3) Cement GP Sand 14-mm CA 20-mm CA SP (kg/m3) AEA (ml/m3)
V1 0.40 (-0.60) 10 (–1) 400 (þ0.625) 161 362 40 678 862 215 1.87 121
V2 0.40 (–0.60) 20 (–0.333) 400 (þ0.625) 160 321 80 667 858 214 1.75 120
V3 0.40 (–0.60) 30 (þ0.333) 400 (þ0.625) 159 279 119 655 852 213 1.66 119
A. H. Abdalla et al.

V4 0.40 (–0.60) 40 (þ1) 400 (þ0.625) 157 236 157 640 843 211 1.62 164
V5 0.55 (þ0.60) 10 (–1) 350 (–0.625) 190 311 35 624 846 211 0 165
V6 0.55 (þ0.60) 20 (–0.333) 350 (–0.625) 192 279 70 623 854 214 0 167
V7 0.55 (þ0.60) 30 (þ0.333) 350 (–0.625) 194 246 106 621 861 215 0 168
V8 0.55 (þ0.60) 40 (þ1) 350 (–0.625) 191 208 139 605 849 212 0 166
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
Figure 4. Accuracy of the compressive strength models.
1.15, 1.04, and 1.08, respectively. On the
other hand, for CIP models corresponding
to ages of 28,56,91,180 days, and 1 year,
these values are 1.13, 0.83, 0.95, 1.07, and
0.98, respectively.
As shown in Figure 4, the estimated
error of CIP model at 56 days is too small
(35 Coulombs). This can be explained by
the small difference between the mean val-
ues of measured CIP values at 56 days
obtained using the repeated mixtures pre-
pared at the center of the experimen-
tal domain.
5.4. Use of established
statistical models
In addition to identify the most signifi-
cant factors affecting key properties of
concrete, the statistical models can be
useful for establishing the trade-off
between the independent modeled varia-
bles to achieve targeted properties. As
shown in Table 5, the compressive
strength at 28 days is influenced, in order
of significance, by w/c, GP, w/cm
w/cm,
w/cm
GP, and SCM. Indeed, the effect
of w/cm on 28 days compressive strength
is nearly 2.50 times that of GP. For a
13
given age, an increase in w/cm causes a
significant reduction of compressive
strength. On the other hand, for a fixed
w/cm, an increase in GP replacement
percentage causes a reduction in com-
pressive strength, regardless of the age
of concrete. Although the three investi-
gated variables have a significant effect
on CIP model at 28 days, w/cm is the
most influent parameter with a positive
effect, followed by the GP replace-
ment percentage.
The iso-response curves for compres-
sive strength and CIP models at 28 days
for mixtures proportioned with binder
contents of 350 and 400 kg/m3 are shown
in Figure 6. As it can be observed, con-
crete mixture proportioned with w/cm of
0.46, SCM of 350 kg/m3, and GP of 20%
can achieve 35 MPa compressive
strength and 3200 Coulombs CIP at
28 days. These values can also be
achieved with w/cm of 0.44, SCM con-
tent of 400 kg/m3, and GP of 22%. These
results are comparable to those of 0.45
w/cm mixtures containing different per-
centages of GP ranging between 0 and
40% [19,20].
14 A. H. Abdalla et al.
Figure 5. Accuracy of the chloride ions permeability (CIP) model.
As shown in Table 5, CIP model at
56 days is influenced, in order of signifi-
cance, by GP, w/cm, and second-order
interactions. However, SCM content did
not showed significant effect on CIP
response at this age. On the other hand, the
iso-response curves for 56-d CIP and 28-d
compressive strength models for mixtures
proportioned with 375 kg/m3 SCM are
shown in Figure 7. For example, a CIP
value of 1500 Coulombs, which corre-
sponds to CIP required for structures
exposed to extreme weather conditions in
Quebec, can be achieved with mixture
made with 0.46 w/cm and 20% GP. This
value can also be achieved with 0.53 w/cm
and 25% GP. Furthermore, concrete mix-
tures incorporating 30% GP can achieve a
CIP of 1500 Coulombs or less at 56 days,
regardless of the w/cm ratio. This confirms
the significant effect of GP in reducing the
CIP at 56 days observed in previous stud-
ies [7–13].
The compressive strength (f’c) at 91 days
is influenced, in order of significance, by w/
cm, GP, SCM, and their second-order interac-
tions. On the other hand, the influent parame-
ters on CIP model at 91 days are, in order of
significance, GP, w/cm, GP
GP, and the
interaction w/cm
GP. Indeed, the effect of
GP on compressive strength at 91 days is
nearly 1.75 times that of w/cm. This effect
signifies that, for a given w/cm; an increase
of GP causes a significant decrease of CIP
value at 91 days. The SCM content did not,
however, showed a significant effect on CIP
at 91 days. The iso-response curves for both
compressive strength and CIP at 91 days for
concrete proportioned with SCM contents of
350 and 400 kg/m3 are shown in Figure 8.
As, it can be observed, concrete mixture pro-
portioned with w/cm of 0.43, SCM of
350 kg/m3, and GP of 25% can achieve
50 MPa compressive strength and 700
Coulombs CIP at 91 days. On the other hand,
concrete mixture proportioned with similar
w/cm and GP percentage, but containing
400 kg/m3 of SCM, can achieve comparable
properties at 91 days (46 MPa compressive
strength and 700 Coulombs CIP). The 91-day
compressive strength is similar to that
obtained on concrete mixtures proportioned
with w/cm of 0.40 and 10% GP [15,16]. The
significant effect of GP on reducing CIP val-
ues of concrete proportioned with Portland
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
Figure 6. Iso-response curves for compressive
strength and CIP models at 28 days using dif-
ferent SCM contents.
cement, especially after 56 days of age, is
also reported in literature [17,18].
As it can be observed, the three investi-
gated independent variables showed a sig-
nificant effect on compressive strength at
1 year of age. On the other hand, the sig-
nificant parameters on CIP at 1 year, in
order of significance, are w/cm, GP
GP,
and GP. The SCM did not show a signifi-
cant effect on the CIP at 1 year. The iso-
response curves for both CIP and compres-
sive strength models after 1 year of age for
mixtures proportioned with 375 kg/m3
SCM are shown in Figure 9. As it can be
observed, the mixture proportioned with
15
Figure 7. Iso-response curves for compressive
strength at 28 days and CIP at 56 days.
0.42 w/cm and 20% GP can achieve
60 MPa compressive strength and 400
Coulombs CIP after 1 year. For the same
value of w/cm, the increase in GP percent-
age from 20 to 30% reduces both compres-
sive strength and CIP values.
This significant reduction of CIP
observed with concrete containing GP is
probably due to the filling effect and poz-
zolanic reaction of GP, hence producing
dense CSH gel [16].
6. Conclusions
A central composite factorial design was
successfully used to model the effect of w/
cm ratio, partial substitution of Portland
cement by glass powder, and supplemen-
tary cementitious materials (SCM) content
on compressive strength development and
chloride ions permeability of concrete.
Based on the established models, the fol-
lowing conclusions may be pointed out:
1. Statistical models to evaluate the
effect of w/cm, glass powder dos-
age, and SCM content, as well as
their second-order interaction on
compressive strength development
and CIP at different ages are devel-
oped and validated.
16 A. H. Abdalla et al.
Figure 8. Iso-response curves for the com-
pressive strength and CIP at 91 days in the
case of SCM contents of 350 and 400 kg/m3.
2. Comparison between predicted and
experimental values determined on
eight further mixtures within the
experimental domain demonstrates
good accuracy of the established
models to predict the modeled prop-
erties of concrete.
3. The established models indicate that
the CIP is dominated by substitution
percentage of GP, while the compres-
sive strength is dominated by w/cm,
regardless of the age of concrete.
Figure 9. Contour diagrams for chloride ions
permeability (CIP) and compressive strength
(f’c) after 1 year.
4. The use of GP is very effective in
reducing the CIP of concrete.
However, it reduces the compressive
strength at early age, which may
necessitate a decrease in w/cm to
compensate for strength reduction.
5. The established models are
successfully used to establish trade-
off between mixture parameters to
achieve targeted compressive
strength and CIP properties of con-
crete. The partial replacement of
cement by 20% GP can ensure
chloride ions permeability of 1500
Coulombs at 56 days using a w/cm
of 0.45.
6. The increase of GP replacement
content to 30% can ensure a CIP
permeability lower than 1500 cou-
lombs at 56 days, regardless of the
value of w/cm within the experi-
mental domain. However, the w/cm
must be optimized to achieve the
targeted compressive strength. For
example, a lower w/cm of 0.42 is
required to ensure a 28-d compres-
sive strength of 35 MPa in the case
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
of 30% GP compared to 0.45 w/cm
and 20% GP for mixtures propor-
tioned with SCM of 375 kg/m3.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was
reported by the authors.
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