This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TEC.2017.2757012, IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion
1

State Space Modeling, Analysis and Distributed

Secondary Frequency Control of Isolated Microgrids
F. Doost Mohammadi1, Member, IEEE, H. Keshtkar2, Member, IEEE, A. Feliachi2, Senior Member, IEEE

 changing nominal frequency set-points in the state space

Abstract—A comprehensive modular state space model of a
microgrid is developed that handles basic components and loads,
as well as inverter-based generation, such as PQ and VSI
inverters. Specifically, the developed model is suitable for control
design utilizing the nominal set-point values of frequency and
voltage of the VSI inverters, and active and reactive power set-
points of the PQ inverters. The model is also useful for small-
signal stability assessment and enhancement. It is shown that
when a PQ inverter is added to the system, the low-frequency
modes of the power-sharing dynamics drift to new locations and
the relative stability is improved. Meanwhile, to preserve the
power-sharing stability, a decentralized droop controller of
paralleled VSI inverters is designed. Finally, the dynamic model
is used to design and implement distributed secondary frequency
controllers taking into consideration the characteristics of
storage devices. The proposed modeling and control
methodologies are demonstrated using an 11 bus microgrid with
and without PQ inverters.
Index Terms— Distributed Control, Microgrid, PQ inverter,
Secondary Frequency Control, State Space Model, VSI inverter.
I. INTRODUCTION
I NTEGRATION of Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) in
microgrids (MGs) makes the system more reliable and
flexible however it also adds complexity to the control
design and operation [1]-[3]. During the microgrid operation,
loads can change at any time, so it is crucial to have an
automated and robust balancing mechanism to adjust the
power generation specifically in islanded situation [4].
Microgrids usually have a variety of inverter-based DERs and
controlling them is the key point. Lopes, et.al, [5] described
the control strategies with two modes of PQ and VSI for
inverters in which their set-points are defined locally or
centrally based on the chosen methodology.
Different centralized solutions have been proposed that
require expensive communication systems [6], [7]. Others
present decentralized structures [8]-[10]; In which, either the
nature of the inverter’s primary source has not been
considered or it has been introduced for grid-connected mode.
Distributed control of microgrids is getting more attention as it
uses sparse communications and includes the positive features
of both centralized and decentralized controls [11]-[17].
However, to develop a control strategy for MG and investigate
its small-signal stability, first, an adequate state space model is
required. There are few papers that focus on inverter based
microgrid modeling [18]-[20]. In [18], Pogaku et.al, presents a
modeling approach which only includes VSIs and the effect of
1. The Department of Physics, Computer Science and Engineering (PCSE),
Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA 23606
2. Lane Department of Computer Science & Electrical Engineering, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6109
model are not considered which prevents implementing
secondary controls. In [21], a distributed control algorithm is
introduced for VSIs without considering the model of PQ
inverters. Also, the secondary control proposed in [21] and
[22] does not differentiate between generating unit and Energy
Storage System (ESS) which have distinct characteristics.
Specifically, in this paper, a comprehensive modular state
space model of microgrids is developed. First, state space
models of various microgrid elements are derived, which
allow for the inclusion of any possible elements, such as PQ
inverters, which are missing in the literature. Then a complete
state space model is obtained to complement the models that
are available in the literature and whose objectives are system
analysis only as compared to the aim of this paper which is
stability enhancement and control design:
1. Developing DQ-based dynamic model of multi-inverter
MGs that integrates both PQ and VSI-type inverters.
2. Small signal stability analysis of the system with primary
control with different loading conditions.
3. Stability enhancement by adding current controlled
inverters to the microgrid. The effect of these inverters’
participation factor is also investigated.
4. Design of distributed secondary frequency control to
coordinate generating units, storage and non-dispatchable
energy sources under challenging loading conditions
while managing their individual constraints.
In the modeling section, the effect of changing nominal set-
points of frequency and voltage for VSI inverters and active
and reactive power set-points for PQ inverters have been taken
into account all through the modeling which provides proper
input matrices to be used for further control actions. This
whole modeling approach presents a convenient tool for
further microgrid’s small signal analysis and control design.
This model is used in this paper for designing secondary
frequency controllers utilizing control strategies for different
kinds of inverters and storage devices.
The developed model is also used for small signal stability
assessment and enhancement. In the sense of the microgrid
dynamics, when the demanded power of each VSI changes,
the low-frequency modes of the power sharing dynamics drift
to new locations yielding different dynamic performance.
More specifically, at higher power demands, the damping
ratios to stabilize the frequency and voltage are limited i.e.
increasing the loading condition brings the low-frequency
modes to locations that decrease the stability margin. Here, by
adding the modeling of PQ inverters to the whole microgrid
(i.e. having contribution from PQs), those dominant modes are
pushed toward a more stable region in the same load
condition. In facts, PQ inverters make the system more
reliable by adding more stability margin to the system in case

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of large load demand. An 11 bus microgrid is used to illustrate cos( i )  sin( i ) 

 f DQ     
the proposed modeling and control design methodologies   sin( ) cos( )   f dq  (1)
 i i 
along with the small signal stability analysis. The paper is
organized as follows: section II describes the operation of A. Modeling of Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs)
islanded microgrid and presents its state space model. In VSI inverters are mostly used to connect distributed
section III, a secondary load frequency controller is proposed. generators to the network. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram of a
The case study and small signal analysis are presented in VSI inverter and its components. It has a power electronic
section IV and paper is concluded in section V. section including a three-leg inverter, output filter and
coupling inductor and a control section comprising three
II. OPERATION OF AN ISLANDED MICROGRID
major parts: (1) Power control loop which sets the voltage
The frequency control of islanded microgrids includes the magnitude and frequency for the fundamental component of
conventional primary and secondary controls. During the the inverter’s output voltage based on the defined droop; (2)
primary control, the fast response sources help the system Voltage and (3) Current controllers, which are sometimes
maintain the frequency stability. However, in order to ignored such as in [8]. The state space model of control loops,
recharge the storage devices, regulate the remained errors, and LC filter, and coupling inductor is presented in the following.
change the power sharing criteria, another control level called
Power Component Output connection
secondary control is necessary. Some of the control techniques LC filter

vi Rf Lf RC LC
are based on communication links, which two of them are Micro
Source
DC
AC
presented in [5]: Single master and Multi master operation. In il Cf
both approaches, VSI inverters act as masters by tracking the Vi* vb
demand and changing their output power based on a droop ilq
Abc/dq
vo io
Current Controller ild
characteristics. The secondary control is then obtained by n vn
Of VSI Inverter

changing the nominal set-point of VSI inverters. The Single Voq Vod
ild * ilq *
master operation is shown in Fig. 1. As the communication Abc/dq

links make the system more expensive and less reliable, in this Power Controller
Of VSI Inverter
Voltage Controller
Of VSI Inverter
Abc/dq
paper, DG’s communications are limited. In fact, the Voq Vod ioq iod ioq iod
secondary control for VSI inverters is decentralized without Control Section
any communication for VSI’s coordination. However, having Fig. 2. Block diagram of VSI inverter
PQ inverters in MG necessitates some links between VSIs and
1. Power Controller:
PQs to send them the P-Q set-point signal. These links can be
The underlying idea behind the droop control is to simulate
optimally chosen to have as little communication as possible.
P&Q setting
the governor of a rotating machine. In a conventional power
Droop setting
P&Q setting MGCC system, rotating machines share any increase in the demand by
Decide about the P&Q set point for
inverter based sources decreasing the frequency based on their governor droops. This
V,I
VSI Control
principle is implemented in inverters by decreasing the
Prime
reference frequency, ωi, when there is an increase in the load.
DC/AC
Mover
DC/AC
Prime Instantaneous active and reactive power components, p and
Electrical Mover
Micro Grid
q, can be calculated from the measured output voltage and
Prime
DC/AC
current, vod, voq, iod, ioq, using (2,3) where s is Laplace variable;
Mover
afterward, by passing them through low-pass filters (cut-off
frequency of ωco), the fundamental components, P and Q, are
Fig. 1. Control Scheme for Single Master Operation obtained. Finally, small power variation, ΔP and ΔQ, from the
This paper’s modeling approach decomposes the system operating point, P and Q, can be calculated as in (4,5).
into four modules; VSI inverters, PQ inverters, network, and Δvod, Δvoq, Δiod, and Δioq are small variations of output
loads. Each VSI is modeled on its own reference frame and its voltage and current with respect to the operating point (All
frequency is set by the local power sharing controller. The operating point values are provided in the simulation section).
VSI model includes the dynamics of current, voltage and The real power sharing between VSIs is attained by using
power controller, output filter and coupling inductor. While an artificial droop for frequency as in (6). In the following ωni
PQs only model the dynamics of current controller and RL and ωi are the nominal frequency set-point and the reference
filter. Network dynamics are usually neglected in conventional frequency of ith inverter, respectively; in which, ωi, is set
power systems due to their relatively small time constant; but, according to the droop gain mi. This will provide artificial
MGs have inverter-based DERs whose response times are inertia and subsequently a degree of negative feedback.
small so network dynamics can impact system stability [18]. p  vod iod  voqioq  P  (co / s  co ) p (2)
Here, state equations are presented on the reference frame
q  vod ioq  voqiod  Q  (co / s  co )q (3)
of one of the inverters, which is considered as the common
reference frame. All other inverters are translated to this frame P  co P  co vod iod  co voq ioq (4)
using transformation technique given by (1) in which, δi is the
Q  co Q  co vod ioq  co voq iod (5)
angle of ith inverter with respect to the common reference
frame. (D-Q) is the common reference frame rotating at ωcom, i  ni  mi Pi  i  ni  mi Pi (6,7)
whereas (d-q)i is reference frame of ith inverter rotating at ωi. To share the reactive power among the VSIs, a droop is
The modeling of all modules is discussed in detail. also introduced in the voltage magnitude as in (8). Here, v*odi

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and vni stand for the reference and the nominal set point of d- Voltage Controller Current Controller
axis output voltage and li defines the voltage droop gain of ith iod F ilq L

inverter. The control strategy is chosen such that the output Vod*
 PI Controller  
ild*
 PI Controller  Vid*
voltage magnitude is associated with the d-axis of VSI, and
the q-axis reference is set to zero. Voq C
Vod ioq
F
ild ild L

v*odi  vni  liQi , v*oqi 0 (8,9) Voq*

 PI Controller  
ilq*
 PI Controller
 Viq*

The variables of each VSI should be expressed in a common Vod C

reference frame by using an angle, δi, for each VSI, given by Voq ilq

(10). Note that δi is the angle between VSIi reference frame Fig. 3. Current and voltage controller of VSI inverters
and the common reference frame (here, reference frame of φdq and γdq are auxiliary variables which measure the
VSI1 is considered as the common reference frame, ωcom=ω1) variation of voltage and current (vodq , ildq) from the reference


 i  (i  com )   i  i  com (10,11) values (v*odq ––provided by power controller, i*ldq ––provided by voltage
controller). vi and il are the voltage and current of inverter, vo is
Now based on (11, 7), i can be calculated for all VSIs. the voltage measured after LC filter and io is the current of
Equations (12-14) show this variable for each VSI of a MG. In coupling inductance. These variables are depicted in Fig. 2.
this paper, the understudied microgrid has three VSIs and m1, 3. Output LC Filter and Coupling Inductance:
m2 and m3 are considered to be identical for them. The state space model for output filter and coupling
1  1  com  0 (12) inductance is given in (20). Details are given in the Appendix.
 2  2  com  (n 2  m2 P2 )  com (13)  ildq   ildq 
   
 vodq   Al  vodq   Bl1  vidq   Bl 2  vbdq  (20)
   
 i  i  com  (ni  mi Pi )  com (14)  iodq   iodq 
By changing nominal set-point of each VSI inverter, ωni,  Bl 3  com   Bl 3  ncom 
and considering its variations, Δωni, a proper tool for
ncom  n1 com  1 (21)
implementing secondary frequency control will be obtained.
For example, for the understudied microgrid, Δωn1, Δωn2 and 4. Complete Model of VSI Inverters:
Δωn3 are used for the secondary frequency control. The state In order to connect the VSI inverters to a microgrid, all
space model of the power controller is obtained by linearizing output currents and voltages need to be expressed in a
equations (4, 5, and 14) and it is given in (16,17). The power common reference frame. So here the Δiodq will be converted
controller outputs are the variations of output reference to the ΔioDQ by use of the transformation technique given in
voltage Δυ*odq and the frequency of ith inverter Δωi. Δildq, Δvodq, (1). Finally, after merging all previous state equations, the
Δiodq are the state variables of LC filter and coupling model of one VSI inverter is given by (23) in which ΔxVSIi is
inductance represented in a compact notation by Δxf,CI in (15). the state variable vector of the ith inverter and is shown in (22).
In the following equations, relation x=X+Δx exists between After obtaining the state space model for each inverter, they
x, X and Δx. In which, x is the instantaneous value of the can be combined to form a unit model for all the VSI
variable, Δx is a small change from the operating point, and X inverters. Since, the understudied microgrid of this paper has
represents the operating point. By knowing the operating point three VSIs, the final VSI state space model, shown in (24-26),
value, and calculating the small signal variation through the is obtained. ΔxVSI is the state variable vector of all the VSI
modeling, we can easily calculate the instantaneous values. inverters in the microgrid. In this model, Bl3-i is the Bl3 matrix
(e.g. vod=Vod+Δvod; All operating point values are provided in for the ith inverter formed above in section 3.
the simulation section.) T
 xVSIi     i Pi Qi dq  dq ildq vodq iodq  (22)
   T
x f ,CI   ildq vodq iodq  (15)
 xVSIi   AVSIi  xVSIi   BVSIi  vbDQ   Bicom com  (23)
  i    i 
 P   A  P   B  x   ni  ncom 
 i i  i  i1  com   Bi 2 ni  (16)
f ,CI  i  Bi 2   
 0 
 Qi   Qi 
 Bl 3i ncom 
   1 
 i  Ci   i    T
 *    Pi   0   ni  (17)  xVSI    xVSI 1T xVSI 2T xVSI 3T  (24)
 
 v odqi   iv   Qi  0 
C
      xVSI   AVSI  xINV   BVSI  vbDQ   Bcom  com   Bn  ni 
         
2. Voltage and Current Controllers: 
Voltage and current controllers of VSI inverters are   ioDQ   CVSI  xVSI  (25)

responsible for providing reference output current, i*ldq, and T
 ni    n1 n 2 n3  (26)
reference input voltage, v*idq, , respectively. In Fig. 3 the block
diagram of voltage and current controllers [21], are shown. B. Modeling of PQ or Current Source Inverters (CSIs)
The state equations for the voltage and current controllers are CSI (PQ) inverters are those inverters who receive a
given in (18) and (19) respectively. State space model matrix specific set-point about active and reactive power usually from
derivation is fully presented in the Appendix. a central controller, however here in this paper, these set-
dq  v*odq  vodq  dq  i*ldq  ildq (18,19) points are sent through one of the neighboring VSIs. In fact,
each PQ inverter is communicating to one of the VSIs, and the

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VSI will increase the set-points of PQ whenever it is reaching  xLoad   AL  xLoad   B1L  vbDQ  (37)
to its own maximum power production range. This strategy is  B2 Ld  com   B2 L  ncom 
used to design a distributed secondary frequency controller.
As it was discussed PQs are not directly responsible for the D. Microgrid Model
frequency regulation, so their state space model has only four The microgrid model is obtained by combining the models
state variables because of the only one current controller of above 4 modules given by equations (25), (35), (36) and
instead of three current, voltage, and power controllers. These (37). It is given in the below form:
four state variables are shown in (27). γd and γq are the  xVSI   xVSI 
auxiliary variables used for controlling the error of PQ    
 xPQ   A  xPQ   B  P 
currents (ild , ilq) from the reference values (i*ld , i*lq).  x  Micro   1Micro  n   B2 Micro   (38)
T  Net  grid   x Net  grid grid  Q 
xPQ    d  q ild ilq  (27)  xLoad   xLoad 
Fig. 4 shows the block diagram related to the current Amicrogrid, B1Microgrid and B2Microgrid matrices can completely
controller of a PQ inverter which adjusts the d-q terms of describe the microgrid. The obtained model has appropriate
output current, il. The term α in this figure is defined such that input term which allows working on the secondary frequency
the quadrature term of output voltage reaches zero. Two state control and power management of the microgrid. It can be
variables of PQ inverters are related to the dynamics of current seen that ΔVbDQ vector is needed for all four equations (25, 35,
controller block which is described in (28). 36, 37) because it is the input for the subsystems. This voltage
Power Component vector is defined by considering a virtual resistor between
vi Rf Lf vb each node and ground. The resistance is chosen sufficiently
Micro DC
Source AC large so it would have minimum influence on the dynamic
il stability of the system [18].
Vi*
 vbDQ   RN ( MVSI  ioDQ   M PQ  iPQoDQ  (39)
Control Section Abc/dq
     
 M N  iLineDQ   M L  iLoadDQ  )
Current Controller α
Of PQ Inverter
Abc/dq
MVSI, MPQ, MN and ML are defined based on the system
configuration. They are also called mapping matrices which
ild* ilq* α map the connection points on to the network nodes. Furthure
Fig. 4: Current controller of PQ inverters description on how to calculate the mapping matrices can be
 dq  i*ldq  ildq (28) found in [18]. Eventually, the MG matrices are as (40-42).
 BV RN MVSI Cc 
Equation (2, 3) calculates the active and reactive power. As  BV RN M PQC BV RN M N BV RN M L 
it was mentioned previously α is set such that vbq becomes   AVSI 
B R M C B11RN M PQC 
zero [22], so P and Q equations will be decoupled and  11 N VSI c B11RN M N B11RN M L 
simplified as (29, 30). The other two state variables of the PQ  B C A 
AMicro  3   (40)
inverter are related to the dynamics of RL filter. The change of grid  B1N RN M VSI Cc B1N RN M N 
 B C B1N RN M PQC
 AN
B1N RN M L 
output d-q current which is fed to the microgrid through the  2N  
RL filter forms these remaining state variables and can be  B1L RN MVSI Cc B1L RN M L 
 B1L RN M PQC B1L RN M N 
rewritten to shape the state space form (31-34). This procedure   B2 LC  AL 
of PQ state space model derivation is described in details in  Bn  0
Appendix. By transforming the variable to the reference   B 
B 0 0
frame, the final model is obtained as in (35). B1Micro  3  ,B
2 Micro 
 2 (41, 42)
grid  B2 N 0 0  grid 0
P  vbd ild  vbqilq   P  vbd ild    
   2 L
B 0 0  0
  As vbq  0  Q  v i (29,30)
Q  vbqild  vbd ilq 
 
 bd lq
III. SECONDARY LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
i*ld  P s / vbd 

 i*   P  V 1 0 
  *   A , A  
d bd  (31  34) In an islanded microgrid a coordinated active and reactive
  i q   Q   0 Vbd 1 
* s
i lq  Q / vbd   power regulation is essential for having power management.
  PIn  The focus of this paper is active power regulation and
  xPQ   A  xPQ   B11  vbDQ   B2   frequency control, however as it was shown previously the

  QIn 

voltage control has the same droop characteristics and can be
 B3 com   B3  ncom  (35)
 implemented in the same way as the frequency control [21],
  i   
 oDQ   C  xPQ 
[22]. In order to ensure robustness of microgrid in case of any

communication link’s failure, an autonomous power sharing
C. Modeling of Network and Load strategy is needed for the primary control. Droop control
Considering typical RL loads and lines modeled by their strategy seems to be an acceptable solution to this requisite.
series impedances, state equations for the network and loads However, an important point is that the coordinated active
are shown in (36, 37). In [18], more detail about the small power control strategy should consider the status of all
signal state-space models of loads and lines are discussed. microgrid’s elements, DG’s available power as well as the
 xNet   AN  xNet   B1N  vbDQ  (36) state of charge of storage devices. MGs have different kinds of
DGs with their own particular functionalities in frequency
 B2 N  com   B2 N  ncom 

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control. Based on their participation in primary control, they
are divided into two categories of VSI or PQ inverters. During
the primary control loop, The VSI inverters are those which
act like a rotating machine and control the voltage and
frequency while the PQ inverters are only producing a certain
amount of power. The PQ inverters will just act in secondary
control loop by changing their set-points and providing
additional power for the microgrid. The VSI inverters consist
of two different categories, i.e. generating units and storage
devices. Both of them are helpful in primary control but
storage devices do not have any role in the secondary control.
The reason behind that is the limited power they can produce
in long term. Table I shows how DG’s are categorized based
on their contribution in primary and secondary control:
TABLE I:
DG TYPES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION IN COORDINATED CONTROL
DG TYPE Primary Control
VSI Generating units × ×
inverters Energy Storage Devices × state space block model is used in Simulink. The calculated A
CSI (PQ) inverters
As it was discussed earlier, controlling the frequency of a
microgrid has two levels: primary and secondary control. In
the primary control, the nominal frequency set-point, ωni , is
fixed and any change in the load will cause a change in ωi of
the inverter, based on the defined droop for power controller.
Then in secondary control, if the inverter is connected to a
generating unit, ωni will be changed in a way that the
frequency error is brought back to zero and if it is connected
to a storage device, ωni will remain fixed as before. The reason
is that these elements only participate in primary frequency
control (because their inverters are working as VSI inverters)
and since they should not be considered as a long term power
producer, they cannot contribute to secondary control like
other VSI inverters. Fig. 5 shows how these two categories of
VSI inverters act during the two levels of frequency control.
Primary Frequency Control
Secondary Frequency Control
ωn2
ωn1 ω1= ωn1
ω1 ω2
ω2
P2
P1 P2 P1=0
Energy Storage Devices
Generating Units
Fig. 5. Frequency control of VSI - generating units and storage devices
From Fig. 5 it can be seen that ωni will be changed for all
VSI inverters except those who are connected to the storage
devices. These devices should come back to the nominal
frequency (60Hz) without a change in the ωni of their curves.
Usually, the droop defined in primary control is related to
the rating of each DG, but in secondary control, the droop can
be changed to consider other parameters in steady state. In
other words, each DG has a participating factor which can be a
function of any criteria such as the speed of response or cost
of producing power or it can remain as primary droop. MGs
also have PQ inverters which do not have droop curves. They
measure the frequency using Phase Locked Loop (PLL) and
the ω for the inverter is calculated based on the measured
frequency. These elements should receive PQ set-points which
are usually provided by one of the neighboring VSI inverters.
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Transactions on Energy Conversion
Secondary Control
× mentioned block. Three inputs are defined for the microgrid
Primary Frequency Control
Secondary Frequency Control
5
IV. SIMULATION RESULT
Using the procedure discussed in section II, the state space
matrices can be formed for any microgrid with different
number of VSI and PQ inverters along with the loads and the
network. However, to have the numerical values of the
matrices, the system parameters along with the steady state
values of the operating point is required. So, first of all, a load
flow analysis is performed, (using MATLAB software in this
study) to obtain the required values. Then, the obtained state
space model can be used for both stability analysis and small
signal transient analysis. The eigenvalues of A matrix are used
for investigating the stability issues. It should be noticed that
for different cases (with different operating points), the A
matrix differs and the eigenvalues will lie in different
locations which are going to be discussed in more detail in
stability analysis section. Fig. 6 shows the steps of these
investigation procedures in which MATLAB environment is
being used to conduct it. For small signal transient analysis, a
and B matrices along with C and D are provided for the
where the first one is related to the nominal set-points of
frequency, second one provides the P-Q set-points of PQ
inverters and finally the last one provides a proper input to
simulate the load change as a disturbance for the system. The
input related to VSI inverters (Δωni) is formed by receiving
the feedback from the outputs (ωi), comparing it with 60Hz
and giving the error to a PI controller at the end to set the Δωni
for all three VSIs. This procedure is also shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 6. Steps of simulation and analysis procedure along with the
implementation environments
ωi
60 Hz
PI Δωni Instantaneous
Values
Controller
Inputs ΔP, ΔQ dx/dt = Ax + Bu Output
y = Cx + Du Variables
Operation
Load Change (Disturbance)
State Space Model Points
Fig. 7. Secondary control implementation in MATLAB/Simulink
Here in this paper, an isolated MG with three VSIs and one
PQ inverter is used to demonstrate the validity of secondary
frequency control and the effect of different parameters such
as PQ inverter contribution on the stability margin of
microgrid. Fig. 8 depicts the single-line diagram of the case
study. The nominal voltage and frequency are 380 V and 60
Hz. The microgrid parameters are summarized in Table II. All
inverters are assumed to have the same rating, consequently
all of them have similar droop gain. The operating point
parameters in different cases are outlined in Tables III to VII.
Table III and IV show the load flow results when the PQ
inverter is not connected to the microgrid and the other three
tables show the operating point values when PQ is attached.
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Transactions on Energy Conversion
6

Main Grid communication link is assumed to be perfect without any loss

Substation
or delay. It is noted that during the higher demand, the low-
frequency modes drift toward locations that decrease the
L1 4 stability margin. This fact is described in Fig. 10 and 11. Here,
5
Load
by assigning a portion of the demand to the PQ inverter, the
L2
1 7
L3
dominant modes of the power sharing dynamics move toward
L4
Micro
Source
DC
AC 6 a more stable region. So, participation of the PQ inverter
L5 L6
9
L7
3 improves the stability margin.
Load Load
AC
DC
Micro
Source
As mentioned, adding active and reactive load to the
8
2
L10 11 L9
L8
Load
microgrid will affect the location of the eigenvalues. Even
Micro
Source
DC
AC
10 though, the trend of relocating the eigenvalues are different,
they both push the most dominant eigenvalues towards the
Load
right-hand side of real axis, which means the stability margin
Fig. 8. Microgrid case study
TABLE II: STUDY SYSTEM PARAMETERS [18] of the microgrid is being reduced when either active or
reactive load is increased. This fact is shown in Fig. 10 and 11
Inverters Parameters
for active and reactive load increase, respectively.
rf 0.1 Ω Lc 0.35 mH Kpc 10.5 m 9.4e-5
Lf 1.35 mH ωco 31.41 Kic 16e3 l 1.3e-3
Cf 50 𝜇F rc 0.03 Ω Kpv 0.05 Kiv 390
TABLE III
VSI inverters steady state load flow values (No PQ inverter is added)
[Iod, Ioq] [Ild, Ilq] [Vod, Voq] [Vbd, Vbq]
VSI#1 [7.559, -4.441] [7.559, 4.359] [381.41, 0] [372, -93.88]
VSI#2 [7.538, -4.056] [7.538, 4.714] [381.49, 0] [377.57, -93.69]
VSI#3 [7.553, -4.137] [7.553, 4.634] [381.49, 0] [376.55, -93.78]
TABLE IV
Line’s steady state load flow values (No PQ inverter is added)
Fig. 9. Eigenvalues of system with and without PQ inverter
[ILined, Ilineq] [ILined, Ilineq] [ILined, Ilineq]
Line1,2 [3.33, -2.86] Line 5 [5.26, -3.01] Line 8 [3.17, -1.47]
Line 3 [-1.93, 0.15] Line 6 [2.09, -1.54] Line 9 [3.17, -1.47]
Line 4 [4.16, -2.47] Line 7 [7.55, -4.14] Line 10 [7.54, -4.06]
TABLE V
VSI and PQ inverters steady state load flow values (PQ inverter is added)
[Iod, Ioq] [Ild, Ilq] [Vod, Voq] [Vbd, Vbq]
VSI#1 [6.281, -3.09] [6.281, 5.682] [381.49, 0] [377.5, -90.8]
VSI#2 [6.261, -3.045] [6.261, 5.727] [381.49, 0] [378.68, -90.52]
VSI#3 [6.277, -3.092] [6.277, 5.679] [381.49, 0] [377.49, -90.72]
PQ [5.09, -2.61] ---- ---- [377.5, -90.8]
TABLE VI
Line’s steady state load flow values (PQ inverter is added)
Fig. 10. Eigenvalue’s relocation trend by increasing the active load at bus 11
[ILined, Ilineq] [ILined, Ilineq] [ILined, Ilineq]
Line1,2 [3.56, -2.77] Line 5 [2.23, -1.30] Line 8 [1.67, -0.61]
Line 3 [1.33, -1.47] Line 6 [0.56, -0.69] Line 9 [1.67, -0.61]
Line 4 [7.73, -3.86] Line 7 [6.28, -3.09] Line 10 [6.26, -3.04]
TABLE VII
Loading Condition of the microgrid
Bus 1 Bus 4 Bus 7 Bus 9 Bus 11
Active load (kW) 2.8 3 5 4.5 3.5
Reactive load (kVAR) 0.8 1.5 0.8 0.9 1.1

A. Stability Analysis
The eigenvalues of the state space model are depicted in
Fig. 9 with and without PQ inverter’s involvement in
supplying the demand. The green crosses show the system’s
Fig. 11. Eigenvalue’s relocation trend by increasing the reactive load at bus 11
eigenvalues when the PQ inverter is not attached to bus 1 and
the blue crosses show the eigenvalues when it is connected to Finally, it is also important to notice the PQ inverters
the microgrid providing 25% of the total load. The loading condition as well. As it was discussed earlier, adding

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PQ inverters to the microgrid can improve the stability of the can be seen that the ∆ωni for third inverter (inverter connected
system. But it is also important to see how different to ESS) is equal to zero.
participation factors, defined for PQ inverter, can influence the Primary Frequency Control m1=m2=m3
Secondary Frequency Control
stability dynamics. Fig. 12 shows where the eigenvalues lie
ωn2 ωn2
when the participation factor is changing from 10% to 20% of ωn2
Δωn
Δωn Δωn
the total demand. As it could be expected, the figure is ωn1 ωn1 ωn1
ω1 ω1
denoting that having a higher participation factor will bring ω1

the dominant eigenvalues to a more stable region. ω2 ω2 ω2

P1 P1 P1 P2
P2 P2

Fig. 13. Case 1-Secondary control for VSI 1, 2 and 3 (There is no ESS)
Primary Frequency Control m1=m2=m3
Secondary Frequency Control

ωn2 ωn2 Δωn=0

Δωn Δωn
ωn1 ωn1 ωn2= ωn1
ω1 ω1 ω1

ω2 ω2 ω2

P1 P1 P1 P2
P2 P2

Fig. 14. Case 2- Secondary control for VSI 1,2 and 3 (VSI 3 is ESS)
TABLE VIII: DG TYPES AND THEIR PARTICIPATION
FACTOR DURING COORDINATED CONTROL IN SECOND CASE
Participation factor
DG Type
Fig. 12. Eigenvalue’s relocation trend by increasing the PQ inverter’s Primary Control Secondary Control
participation factor
DG 1 Generating Unit 0.33 0.5
B. Small Signal Transient Analysis DG 2 Generating Unit 0.33 0.5
DG 3 Energy Storage 0.33 0
The simulation results are presented for three different
scenarios. In the first and second cases, there is no PQ The results of simulation for cases 1 and 2 are depicted in
inverter. The PQ inverter will be added to the microgrid for Fig. 15-18. Fig. 15 compares the output power of inverters in
the third scenario. The only difference between first and cases 1 and 2. The dashed lines are the output power of
second cases is in the VSI inverter used inside the microgrid. inverters related to case 1 and the solid lines are associated
In the first case, all three inverters of the microgrid are with case 2. Note that inverter 3 (red curve) supports the
generating unit VSI which means they all participate in both system exclusively in primary control and not in secondary.
primary and secondary frequency control but in the second 1
Output Power of inverters

DG 1
case, one of the generating units is substituted by a storage 0.8 DG 2
device to see how the frequency control strategy would be DG 3
0.6
affected. In all cases, it has been assumed that there is a
sudden load change in bus 11. 0.4

1) Case 1 0.2

In the first case, all DG’s will act the same and they will 0
change their ωni similarly because the mi’s are equal for all 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Time (sec)
three DGs. In other words, they will act in primary and Fig. 15. Output power (Dashed lines: Case1, Solid lines: Case2)
secondary control with same participation factor which is 0.33 Fig. 16 shows the change in nominal frequency set-point
(one-third of load). Fig. 13 can completely show the way that for both cases. It clarifies that in second case, the generating
secondary control is traced on all three inverters. At first, units need to increase their nominal frequency set-point more
before the load changes, the microgrid frequency is ω1 which than in the first case, because more participation is required.
is considered as nominal frequency, and then it is reduced to
ω2 because of load increase. Finally, by changing ωni set-
points, frequency is brought back to ω1 and VSI output power
has changed from P1 to P2.
2) Case 2
In the second scenario, two VSIs are connected to Case 1
generating units and the third one is an ESS. This means that Case 2
the participation factor in primary control is 0.33 but in
secondary control, this value will change and it is shown in Fig. 16. Change in frequency set-point (Dashed line: Case1, Solid line: Case2)
table VIII. In fact, after primary control, the ESS will change 3) Case 3
its participation factor to zero and subsequently, the other In the third case, a PQ inverter is added to bus 1, producing
VSIs will increase their participation to compensate for the power based on the set-point it receives through the
ESS’s portion. The secondary control for two generating-unit communication link from VSI1. The participation factor for
VSI and one storage-device VSI are illustrated in Fig. 14. It PQ inverter is chosen to be 25% of the total load change. Fig.

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8

19 shows the frequency error of VSI inverter when the The stability results presented at the end indicate that the
participation factor is 0 and 25%. In fact, solid lines modeling method can be used to analyze the stability of the
demonstrate frequency error when the PQ does not participate microgrid primary control. In addition, the simulation results
in load change and the dashed lines show frequency error show the secondary controller successfully coordinates the
when PQ participation factor is equal to 25%. Finally, Fig. 20 multiple source types under challenging load conditions while
depicts the contribution of DGs in producing the demand managing their individual constraints.
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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TEC.2017.2757012, IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion
9

APPENDIX dild r f 1 1
 ild   ilq  vid  vod
 VSI inverter - Power Controller dt Lf Lf Lf
The state space matrices of the power controller model dilq r f 1 1
 ilq   ild  viq  voq
obtained in (16,17) are described here. dt Lf Lf Lf
v*  ild  vod  iod  dvod
v*odq  
od  1 1
     voq  ild 
 *  ldq  ilq  odq  voq  odq  ioq 
,i ,v ,i iod
      dt Cf Cf
 v oq 
dvoq 1 1
0 m 0   0   1   vod  ilq  ioq
  0 0 0 0 0
  dt Cf Cf
Ai  0 c 0  , Bi1  0 0 c Iod c Ioq cVod cVoq  , Bi 2   0 
   diod r
c    1 1
0 0 0 0 c I oq c Iod cVoq cVod  0  c iod   ioq  vod  vbd
  dt Lc Lc Lc

0 0 l  dioq rc 1 1
Ci  0 m 0  , Civ     ioq   iod  voq  vbq
0 0 0  dt Lc Lc Lc
 VSI inverter - Voltage Controllers The state space matrices of the output LC filter and coupling
State space equations of the VSI voltage controller: inductance model obtained in (20) are described here.
dq  v*odq  vodq  r f 1 
 0 0 0 0 
 Lf Lf 
Output equations of the VSI voltage controller: 
r f

 1   1   0 0 
i*ld  Fiod  nC f voq  K pv (v*od  vod )  Kivd  0 0 0 0   0   
 Lf Lf   Lf   0 0 
 1     0 
i*lq  Fioq  nC f vod  K pv (v*oq  voq )  Kivq  0 0 0 
1
0   0
1
 
0

C Cf   Lf   0 0 
Al   f 
 l1 
B  , Bl 2   
State space model of the VSI voltage controller:    0 0   1
1
0 
1 0 
  *   0 0 0   0 0   Lc 
    
  dq   [0]  dq   Bv1  v odq   Bv 2  x f ,CI   Cf Cf    
    0 0   0 1 
 1 rc  
  i*   C     D  v*   0 0 0 0   Lc 
odq   Dv 2  x f ,CI   Cf Lc   0 0  
 
 ldq  v  dq  v1 
    
 1 rc 
 d   0 0 0 0 
dq    ,  x f ,CI    ildq vodq iodq  T
  Lc Lc 

 q 
 11 0 0
1 0  0 0 1 0 0 0   
Bv1    , Bv 2     Ilq   
0 1  0 0 0 1 0 0    Bl 31 0 0
  Ild   
K 0   K pv 0  0 0  K pv nC f F 0 V   n1   1 1 0
Cv   iv , D    , Dv 2     
Bl 3   Bn   
oq 
 0 Kiv  v1  0

K pv 
 0 0 nC f  K pv 0 F
  V 
,  ni    n 2  ,
 
 od   n3   Bl 3 2 0 0
   
where kpv and kiv are the PI parameters of voltage controller. Rf  I oq 
   1 0 1
,Cf and Lf are LC filter parameters.   I od   
 
 Bl 33 0 0 
 VSI inverter - Current Controllers  PQ inverter
State space equations of the VSI current controller: Output equations of the PQ current controller:
 dq  i*ldq  ildq v*id  vod  n L f ilq  K pc (i*ld  ild )  Kic d
Output equations of the VSI current controller: v*iq  vod  n L f ild  K pc (i*lq  ilq )  Kic  q
v*id  n L f ilq  K pc (i*ld  ild )  Kic d
State space representation of the PQ current controller:
v*iq  n L f ild  K pc (i*lq  ilq )  Kic q  
 dq   [0]   dq   B1  i*ldq   B2  ildq 
        
State space model of the VSI current controller: 

 v *   
 C     D1  i ldq   D2  ildq   D3  vodq 
*

  dq   [0]   dq   Bc1  i*ldq   Bc 2  x f ,CI    idq  1  dq       
       
 The state equations and the state space model related to the

 v   
idq   Cc   dq   Dc1  i ldq   Dc 2  x f ,CI 
* *
 
    two state variables of RL filter dynamics.
  d  dild r f 1 1
 dq    ,  x f ,CI    ildq vodq iodq  T

 ild  com ilq  vid  vod

 q  dt Lf Lf Lf
1 0   1 0 0 0 0 0 dilq r f 1 1
Bc1    , Bc 2     ilq  com ild  viq  voq
0 1   0 1 0 0 0 0 dt Lf Lf Lf

K 0   K pc 0    K pc n L f 0 0 0 0  ildq   Al  ildq   Bl1  vidq   Bl 2  vbdq   Bl 3 com   Bl 3 ncom 

Cc   ic    
, D    , Dc 2           
 0 Kic  c1  0 K pc   L  K pc 0 0 0 0 ncom  n1
   n f 
Where kpc and kic are the PI parameters of current controller.   dq    dq   P 
   A   B1  vodq   B2  In   B3 com   B3 
 ncom 
 
 ildq   ildq   QIn 
 VSI inverter - Output LC Filter and Coupling  0 B2   B1 A 
A  , B2   
Inductance  Bl1C1 Al  Bl1D2   Bl1D1 A
State space equations of the VSI output LC filter and coupling  B1   0  1
inductance: B1    , B3    B11  B1 Ts  , C  0 0 Ts 
 Bl1  D1  D3   Bl 2   Bl 3   

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TEC.2017.2757012, IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion
10

Farideh Doost Mohammadi was born in Tehran, Iran,

in 1988. She received her privileged B.Sc. degree in
electrical engineering from Iran University of Science
and Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran, in 2010. She
received M.Sc. degree with first honor in the Electrical
Engineering department at Amirkabir University of
Technology (AUT), Tehran, Iran, in 2012. She received
her Ph.D. degree in the Electrical Engineering
department at West Virginia University (WVU), WV,
USA, in 2017. She is currently an Assistant Professor at
the Department of Physics, Computer Science and Engineering (PCSE),
Christopher Newport University. Her research interests include control
systems, power system dynamic modeling, micro and smart grid and
renewable energy sources.
Hessam Keshtkar was born in Tonekabon, Iran, in
1987. He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical
engineering with first honor from Iran University of
Science and Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran, in 2009.
He received his privileged M.Sc. degree in the
Electrical Engineering department at Amirkabir
University of Technology (AUT), Tehran, Iran, in
2011. He received the Ph.D. degree in the Electrical
Engineering department at West Virginia University
(WVU), WV, USA, in 2016. He then joined Jacobs
Engineering Inc. as an Electrical Engineer. His research interests include
power system operation, frequency control, power system dynamics, micro
and smart grid, cyber physical system and multi-agent.
Ali Feliachi is the holder of the endowed Electric Power
Systems Chair in the Department of Computer Science &
Electrical Engineering and the Director of the Advanced
Power & Electricity Research Center at West Virginia
University. He obtained MS and PhD degrees in
Electrical Engineering from Georgia Tech. Following
graduation he held a postdoctoral position at Georgia
Tech and was a consultant to Georgia Power Co. His
research interests are control, modeling and simulation of
electric power systems.

0885-8969 (c) 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.