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INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics - I 1
2 Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics - II 29
3 Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics - III 55
Week 2
4 Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium - I 66
5 Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium - II 92
6 Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium - III 114
Week 3
7 Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow - I 139
8 Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow - II 158
9 Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow - III 177
Week 4
10 Normal Shock Waves-I 194
11 Normal Shock Waves- II 218
12 Normal Shock Waves-III 238
13 Normal Shock Waves- IV 257
Week 5
14 Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks- I 279
15 Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks- II 299
16 Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks- III 320
Week 6
17 Interaction of Shocks and Expansion Waves- I 341
18 Interaction of Shocks and Expansion Waves- II 370
Week 7
19 Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer - I 393
20 Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer - II 414
21 Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer - III 437
Week 8
Measurement Diagnostics and Experimental Facilitates for
22 Compressible Flow - I 465
23 Compressible Flow - II 493
24 Compressible Flow - III 521
Fundamentals of Compressible Flow
Prof. Niranjan Sahoo
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Module – 01
Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
Lecture – 01
Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics - I
I welcome you all to this course, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. Now, we were in
the 1st module 1 which is essentially contents the topics Review of Concepts of Fluid
Mechanics and Thermodynamics.
So, essentially at UG level entire portion of this fluid mechanics and thermodynamic
courses has been covered, but however, since it is a advanced course on compressible
flow it is now a customary to revisit the contents of some of the important contents that
we are going to use in this course.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)
Now, in this lecture we will concentrate on three important aspects; first is concept and
definition of fluids; second is properties of fluids and third is classifications of fluid flow.
So, essentially this course is about fluids so, which contents mostly liquids and gases and
our main focus would be mostly on gases. So, based on that, we are going to discuss
about the properties that are mostly important for the gases.
1
The next part is the first part or what we say is the concept and definition of fluids, but
before you go for those definition of fluids, it is the most important concept of matter
that exist in three different states, so that is namely solid, liquid and gas. So, the
substances that are in liquid and gas phase they have a common characteristics and they
are called as fluids.
But, however, there is essentially catch between the solids and liquids and we have a
very fundamental scientific definition for it. So, which means, which is the essentially
the ability of the any substance to resist the shear.
So, start this things, let me explain the way we define the scientifically the definition of a
solid. So, we can imagine a solid block is being placed on a surface and in a similar way
we can also see there is a container having a liquid and same container or similar
container with gases in it. So, these gases are spread all around the container above or
within it.
So, what the basic philosophy of solid and this we say solid and this we say liquid and
this we say gases. So, when you actually see the scientific definition for this what has
been done is that all these substances they have their own weights and because of their
own weights the typical solid blocks is inherently a kind of a compressive compression
at some point some location which we say this and its weight is always acting
2
downwards because of this, any point on this solid block is inherently experiences a kind
of stress or a kind of load onto it.
And, in fact, this when you actually put at this cross-section for this when you put this,
then typically it looks in the manner that same point if you take any cross-section like
this A-A or A`-A`` and this is at an angle θ to the horizontal. Then what we see is for
solids that this solid block is a kind of a compressive load and a shearing load at that
surface. And, all other side surfaces it experiences there is no force and from the bottom
this there is a compressive load and that is nothing, but the pressure acting from the
bottom surface.
So, this is what we see at any locations or any location at the cross-section location at
point A and making a cross-section A` and A``; in a similar philosophy or similar
equations if you can draw the similar story here, then what we see for these liquids and
gases it is something like a structure in which all the surfaces except the inclined
surfaces, they experience a pressure which acts on this fluid element at that locations.
But, in this inclined location what you see I will say B`-B``. So, this turns out to be a. So,
here instead of stress we experience a pressure and, but we have a shear stress which is
zero in this case since the liquid and the gases they are at rest. So, this is the basically
scientific definition that tells a basic distinction between solid and fluid on the basic of
substances ability to resist the applied shear.
3
Next is the solid can resist the applied shear by deforming whereas, the fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how it is small. The fluid is
also defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted upon a shear stress or
shear force of any magnitude.
Now, when as I told earlier when the fluid is at rest there is no shearing force and all the
forces are perpendicular to the plane due to which in which it is present. Now, for solids
the stress is directly proportional to strain and for fluids the stress is proportional to the
strain rate.
So, typically we say σ which is directly proportional to strain that is for solids and for
fluids this stress is proportional to a another factor which is called as strain rate and then
du
down the line we will say this strain rate as . We will define this; this is termed as
dy
strain rate. The when a constant stress is applied the solid eventually deforms and
deforms at a fixed strain angle whereas, fluid never stops deforming and approaches a
certain strain.
The next fundamental definition that goes is that after having the definition between
solid and fluid, then we will talk about only on fluids that essentially constitutes liquids
and gases. So, as we say the as you know that liquids and gases they resemble a common
4
behaviour however, there are some distinctions so, which we can; which we can
characterise under certain conditions.
So, first fundamental difference is that it is easy to compress a gas whereas; liquids are
inherently treated as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume and
irrespective of size and shape of the container whereas, gases have no fixed volume and
they expand continuously unless restrained by the vessel.
So, as we say as it is known that liquids contains a free surface whereas, the gases are
occupies the entire volume of the vessel. And, but our main focus in this course will be
mostly on gases because these gases are compressible in nature.
Now, moving back to the this the next part of this lecture, which is properties of the
fluids. So, the thermodynamic definition of the property of a fluid means it is a
characteristics of the systems that depends on the state of a system. So, these properties
may be intensive which is mass independent or extensive with that depends on the size of
the system.
So, a classical example for this type of intensive and extensive properties is given. For
example, if you have a kind of a container and we there are it has certain mass it contains
certain mass of any gas and it has a volume V and it inside this the properties are defined
5
by pressure, temperature and density. So, the for example, if you make this things
equally half. So, then the what is going to change in this process?
So, your m becomes half, volume becomes half, but pressure, temperature, density do
not change. So, which says that these mass and volume they are extensive properties,
pressure, temperature and density they are treated as intensive properties. So, likewise
this will apply for any kind of properties for which we can make this kind of distinctions.
Now, in this category of properties of fluids we will talk about the following properties
that is thermodynamic properties and equation of state typically for gases, kinematic
properties, transport properties and some other miscellaneous properties which we
already know. About these properties while exaggerating more on to this we will talk
about the thermodynamic properties sometimes we will talk about the fluid properties as
and when they appear.
And, most of these things already although it is known, but it is advised that these
properties we are going to use routinely at any subsequent lectures down the line. So,
that is the reason this properties needs attention at this stage.
So, the thermodynamic properties that is the mostly when you talk about the fluids they
are air or gases they are essentially treated as a pure substances and all most of the
properties are related to the thermodynamic properties. And, at the same time the when
6
you look at fluid mechanics angles to the flow, the velocity is one of the parameter which
is treated as a fluid properties.
But, when a flow interacts during a situation when the flow in moves or flow interacts or
flow passes to a medium there are change in the properties and it interacts with other
fluids. As and when it does, it changes its properties and it mainly pressure which we
mainly consider as a pressure, temperature and density.
With the first important or fundamental property that temperature it comes from the
zeroth law of thermodynamics. So, apart from this the pressure and densities that are
independent properties of any given substances.
So, this is all about we when you do about this the two important three important
properties pressure, temperature, density or specific volume, but in fluid mechanics
aspects when you deal with fluid statics since when you multiply the density with the
acceleration due to gravity we call this another term we come across another term which
is known as specific weight and that is the weight of the fluid per unit volume.
There is another property is specific gravity which is defined as the ratio of density of
any arbitrary fluid to the standard reference fluids. And, in our situations we say that the
standard reference fluids if it is a liquid, it is water and if it is a gas, it is air.
7
Now, move we move to the basic thermodynamic properties. So, when we say talk about
the thermodynamic properties, we essentially talk about the first law or laws of
thermodynamics. So, in the first law which is essentially the concept of conservation of
energy the it introduces a properties which is known as internal energy for a static fluid
and or in this case we call it as closed system or fixed mass system. And, this internal
property is essentially a function of temperatures.
Now, in case of open systems and the thermodynamic definition of an open system is
that where both are mass and energy interactions are possible. So, this particular in this
particular open system, the properties that is of importance is enthalpy and its basic
p p
definition is internal energy u + . And, some many a times this is termed as
 
pressure times specific volume or we call this as a flow work.
So, the open systems keeps a characteristics which is called as enthalpy and in the having
defining these two terms, we again call the total energy of the systems e and it is
V2
essentially composed of three parameters internal energy, kinetic energy that is and
2
potential energy gz and this definition is made for unit mass basis.
Then, moving further we will talk go to the second law of thermodynamics and the
second law of thermodynamics introduces the term entropy. And, in fact, it gives the
8
directionality of a particular systems whether a flow should occur in certain direction or
not.
So, in case of entropy will essentially drive the flow in certain directions and this
definition of entropy comes from the fact that when there is a heat interactions and the
q
entropy change for a system is defined by ds  that is change of heat divided by the
T
temperature in which these change is occurring.
So, if you look at this kind of equations the first part of equation this comes from the first
law; entropy part that comes from the second law and based on the first law and second
law combines we get these two equations which is known as Gibbs equation. And, many
a times you call this as a Tds relation. So, in fact, one can derive these equations by
combining first law and second law.
Tds  du  pd Tds  dh  dp
Now, to do that let us talk about if let us write what is this dq from this definition as Tds.
We also know that rate of work transfer per unit mass basis we can say pdv. Now, if you
recall the first law which is q  w  du int .
And, by putting these equations what do you say Tds  pd and so, this is nothing, but
the first Tds relations. And, by putting h is equal to or internal energy equal to h minus
pressure times specific volume since density is the inverse of specific volume.
u int  h  p
So, from the first ds relations when you put u as this so, what we can write is
Tds  d (h  p )  pd
So, this can be expanded as
Tds  dh  pd  dp  pd
So, these two term gets cancelled ultimately we get the second T ds relation as
Tds  dh  dp
9
So, these two relations are very essential when we deal with the compressible flow
analysis.
Moving further we will now talk about the equation of state or thermodynamic relations
for gases and this is essentially governed as it is known thermodynamically that all the
gases at high temperature and low pressures they are in agreement of perfect gas law
which is p  RT where an R is nothing, but the characteristics gas constant and R is
nothing, but universal gas constant. And, they are related through the parameter known
as molecular weight. In fact, for our analysis we will routinely use this expression which
is known as equation of state.
Now, apart from this we also are of the another parameter which is of more interest
which is specific heat and this is related to the temperatures because essentially
temperature is the main cause of heat transfer to take place. So, a specific heat is defined
as the amount of energy required per unit mass of fluid for the unit rise of temperature.
10
Typically liquids we do not talk about liquids because they have a single specific heat
whereas, for the gases they can have two different types of specific heats because as you
know the gases follow the law p  RT . So, the change can occur at for a given
temperature difference we can have change or amount of heat required we can do it by
maintaining a constant pressure or maintaining a constant volume.
So, accordingly we say it is a specific heat at constant pressure C p , other one is the
specific heat of heat at constant volume. And, based on the first law of thermodynamics
they have been related with enthalpy and entropy that is C p is related to enthalpy and
C is related to internal energy.
So, the difference between the C p and C is nothing, but the characteristic gas constants
in additions we have another parameter called as specific heat ratio γ and based on this
definition the C p can be related with the parameters is equal to
R R
Cp  C 
 1  1
It is to be remembered that these two expressions we will be frequently using for the
when you deal with the main compressible flow.
11
Now, we will come back again for the kinematic properties which is essentially a fluid
properties. In general when the fluid is in motion it is essentially defined through a
velocity vector in a particulars time and space systems or it is called as a field. So, this
velocity is a vector function of position and time which is represented as

V  u ( x, y, z , t )iˆ   ( x, y, z, t ) ˆj  w( x, y , z , t )kˆ
they are all of them are functions of x, y, z and t that is in the Cartesian coordinates and
this position vectors can be found out by integrating this velocity vector with time and
so, this is what you call as a position vector.
Acceleration can also be find out where differentiating the velocity vector and there is
another term which we called as angular velocity. This angular velocity is nothing, but
the mathematical interpretation of curl of velocity vectors.
dV
The other parameter of interest we also define the volume flow rate and also we
dt
defined volume expansion rate. How the volume changes with respect to time and this is
nothing, but the dot product of velocity vector that is gradient of velocity vectors.
12
The next important properties which is are of more interest for the fluids we call these as
a first properties vapour pressure and this is mainly concentrated when your fluid is a
liquid. And, so, normally the liquid evaporates when it is kept on a container and open to
the atmospheres. So, it is very likely that since it has a free surfaces and these free
surfaces have a least energy and they try to evaporate from the surface.
So, when the vapour is at saturated state this that particular state we call this as a vapour
pressures and in a fluid motion if the pressure at some location is lower than that of
vapour pressure, a kind of bubbles start forming we call this as a cavitation.
The other properties of impotence is a surface tensions which is essentially the properties
when these liquids and gases come in contact together and this is governed by the
molecular interactions and typically known as surface tensions. However, in our
philosophy we will not be going to use this property exhaustively.
13
The and in fact, now we are coming to another important properties which is bulk
modulus and it is the property of a fluid that represents the variation of density change
with respect to pressure at constant temperatures. Ideally if you look at the equation of
state p  RT so, we can say that the pressure can change with respect to density by
keeping temperature as constant.
So, we define a parameter called as a bulk modulus E v , this is what we say
 p 
E v    
   T
Another parameter of interest is coefficient of thermal expansion which we say as β how

1 
the specific volume changes with the temperatures. So,   . And in fact, from the
 T
1
equation of state one can derive that beta turns out to be from the equation of states.
T
p
Now, from this equation we can write   . Now, one can find out
RT
   p 1 p     p  1 
   () 2 . So, if you take this  T . So,   reduces to     .
 T  p R T R  T   RT  T 
14
p
So, finally, from this expression we can and this is nothing, but is nothing, but ρ. So,
RT
after simplifications we get this turn β to be inverse of absolute temperature for an ideal
gas.
The next important properties which is called as speed of sound, this parameter we will
be looking at in more exhaustive form in the subsequent class. Just for the sake of
continuity I am just explaining that the one of the important consequence of
compressibility of gas is the fact that when a gas moves in a medium it creates a pressure
disturbance and these pressure disturbance moves at certain speed which is known as the
speed of sound or typically known as acoustic speed.
dp
This acoustic speed is defined by c  . This is the fundamental definition of
d
acoustic speed. Now, if the medium is attached to be isothermal this expression reduces
dp
to  RT if it is an isothermal case.
d
15
So, in such situations speed of sound becomes RT . The now if, but that is a very
unlikely event, but the most importantly when the speed of sound is approximated by
dp
keeping the medium to be isentropic for which this is calculated and that is comes
d
out to be RT for an ideal gas.
So, the point that I need to emphasise here is that although we call this as a speed of
sound, but it is very basic definition talks about the parameters which are essentially the
properties. So, even though it is a speed, but it is a property because it contains the terms
RT for a given situation or for a given gas.
16
There are very other properties of some other properties we call them as a transport
properties that is the friction and heat conduction effects becomes sometimes significant
when the velocity interacts with these parameters. In such a situation when the fluid is in
motion these properties affects the flow parameters.
So, during such situation we define some properties which is viscosity that relates
momentum flux to the velocity gradient; thermal conductivity that relates heat flux to the
temperature gradient; diffusion coefficient that relates mass transport to the
concentration gradient.
17
So, the first properties is the viscosity, it relates the momentum flux to the velocity
gradients. So, essentially the viscosity is the term which is defined as the ability of a
fluid to fluid flow to flow freely.
A classical definition goes in this way that the viscosity is the property of a fluid that
relates applied stress to the resulting strain rate. So, based on that we define a term which
du
is called as a shear stress and that relates the strain rate which is and one can find out
dy
du V
this as the .
dy h
So, a classical example typically is given the when there is a fixed plate and there is a
moving plate and in the moving plate the force is given. And, in between the moving
plate and fixed plate there is a viscous fluid. And, this plate is given by velocity V and
the fluid layers gets sheared.
So, at one instance at time t = 0, at time t = t1 and time t = t2 the upper plate position is at
these locations. So, based on that if you talk about the velocity profile it says that the top
layer of the fluid undergoes maximum change whereas, velocity at the fixed one it is
almost 0. So, the velocity changes from 0 to its final value within this distance h which is
the separation distance between the top plate and bottom plate.
18
The other properties of importance which is the now when we actually calculate the
viscosity for the gases, it is seen that the for gases the viscosity increases with the
temperatures. So, many a times when we deal with very high temperature flow gasses,
we need to find out how viscosity changes with the temperatures.
So, for that we typically refer a classical law which is called as Sutherland’s law and
which essentially relates the viscosity of gases at any arbitrary temperature T that is μ
has to be defined at any arbitrary temperature T provided we know the viscosity value at
the given temperatures. And, this is related by this expression where S is known as
Sutherland’s constant.
1.5
   T   T0  S 
      
 0  gases  T0  T S 
19
Similarly, we move on to properties called thermal conductivity. And, in fact, in our

mostly in our situations the gases have least thermal conductivity and it does not exhibit
very sensitive behaviour as it does with respect to solids. But, however, one can evaluate
these change in the thermal conductivity with respect to temperature which is almost
similar to that of a Sutherland’s law.
1.5
 k   T  T  S 
      0 
 k0  gases  T0   T  S 
20
The other parameter of interest is the diffusion coefficients. Once again this diffusion
coefficient is a parameter that talks about when there are two gases you have to find out
how one gas diffuses into the other. So, this is something like a. So, for that we defined
two fundamental concept we call this as a self either it can have a self diffusion that is a
same gas diffuses into other.
That is, for example, one gas is moving very high velocity and same gas is moving at one
other velocity when they mix together that means, one gas penetrating into the other then
we call this such type of situation as a self-diffusion. But, similar thing if the gases are
treated as a two different entities; that means, one gas tries to tries to diffuse into other,
then we call this as a binary diffusions.
And, in fact, more and more we can have the concept of multi diffusion; that means
more and more species gets diffused into other, but that is not of our interest.
But, however, one particular interest we want to say that when you deal with the high
speed flow of gases of then when a one gas tries to diffuse into other, then we would call
this as a coefficient called as a binary diffusion coefficients which is calculated by this
expressions D12 and, it is empirical relations.
21
0.5
M  M2 
1.5
0.001858T  1 
 M 1M 2  T
D12 
p 12  D
 
;D  T 
 0.145

 T   0.5 
2
;T  
T12
; T12  T1T2
Of course, we do not need to remember, but just to say that that one that is just the way
of evaluating a diffusion coefficients that talks about how a gas diffuses into other. So, in
these expressions there are parameters which is of interest is that we want to find out the
diffusion process occurring at certain pressure p.
Other parameter of interest since we have two species we have two molecular weights
M1 and M2 and these all pressure also happening at we want to find out diffusion process
at certain temperature and certain pressure. Apart from these there are other parameter of
interest which you know which you should know is that what is the temperature of
species 1 or what is the temperature of species 2. These are absolute temperatures.
And, apart from that we also need to know a parameter which is called as effective
collision parameter. This effective collision parameter which is  12   1   2 and in
fact,  1 is nothing but the molecular diameter of 1 and  2 for the second gas.
Now, after having defining all these things so, if you just read out something about fluid
statics that means, if the gas is not moving at all so, we treat this term as a fluid statics.
Under that behaviour we commonly refer these hydrostatic equations and the law that
22
governs these things is known as Pascal’s law. And, the equation of hydrostatic equation
p 2  p1
which is fundamental definition is z1  z 2 
g
So, but the very basic definition in our analysis whenever you will be using this
whenever there is the term the potential energy which is associated with the flow this
parameter makes of importance. In fact, it is a very fundamental aspects when you start
the fluid mechanics course or fluid statics.
And, the last segment of this lecture is the classifications of the fluid flow. Essentially all
these things are been covered as the fundamentals in the UG level.
So, first is whether the flow is viscous or inviscid. So, viscous or inviscid means that
during the flow whether there is a role of viscosity that is affecting the nature of the
motion. Other way is that, flow is completely inviscid; so, that means, in which the for
viscous flow frictional effects become fluid dominant and also we need to take into
parameter viscosity of the gas taken into account. And, in our day to day life we typically
call potential flows are inviscid nature of flow and the boundary layer flow as typically
governed through this viscous flow.
The next category of the flow is internal flow or external flow. So, whether a flow
occurring in an medium which is completely enclosed. For example, the flow through a
23
pipe a gas is moving in a pipe through certain pressure difference or a duct. So, these
particular things we call this as internal flow and if the flow does not have any bounded
surface, for example, flow of over an aircraft there is no bounded surface so, this is
treated as a external flow.
Here our main focus comes into it which is incompressible and compressible flow. So,
essentially in our entire domain we will be mainly looking at the flow nature which is the
compressible. So, under what circumstances we say the flow to be compressible
whenever there is a flow occurring in a system or in a duct system and are two arbitrary
locations.
If you try to evaluate density and try to see if there is a change in the density more than 5
percent such a case we call this to be compressible. So, we will talk more about this
when you actually deal with the situations why the density is going to change. But, in the
other extreme of this flow which is incompressible typically it is meant for liquids.
But, one point I need to emphasise here that when you talk about gases these gases under
certain conditions they behave in two manner whether they in they exhibit the nature of
incompressibility or they exhibit the nature of the compressibility is the question mark.
That is essentially decided under what pressure difference this flow is occurring.
24
Other type of flows that is steady flow and unsteady flow: so, when you say steady flow
when you say steady flow we essentially see how the parameter is any fluid parameter
which is changing with time. So, let us say pressure we are, but let us say I am plotting
pressure with respect to time, at any in a space medium so, I will see that the pressure do
not change. So, it is a steady.
Now, in that same domain if I try to see that there is a some variation of pressure, then
such a things we say unsteady. So, here in the nature of unsteadiness your time axis is
very important because at every instant of time the pressure values are different.
25
The other classical stuffs that are of interest is laminar flow and turbulent flow. In
general laminar flows are orderly flow and turbulent flows are disordered nature of the
flow. In fact, laminar flow follow a streamline pattern whereas, we do not see any
streamline or pattern for a turbulent flows.
When we say streamlines, these are the lines which are drawn in the flow fields such that
at any instant if you draw a tangent at that point it will give you the velocity vector. So,
on the basic of streamlines in a certain volume if you consider an array of streamlines
and enclosed in a certain volume we call this as a stream tube. More details of this
analysis we will talk about in the subsequent lectures.
Now, when the flow changes its states that is if the flow tries to attend from laminar to
turbulent or if it tries to attend from turbulent to laminar; that means, how it can do if you
change the upstream and downstream conditions this type of change can occur. In such
cases with the flows that are treated as a transitional flow.
Now, to decide whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, we define the term which a non-
dimensional term which is a Reynolds number Re and it is related to ρ, velocity V and L
that is the characteristics length by μ it is the fluid viscosity; that means, a single domain
defines a non-dimensional number Reynolds number that says that under what conditions
we can define the flow to be laminar or turbulent. This we have already seen in our
26
classical fluid mechanics course what is the role of Reynolds number in laminar and
turbulent flow regimes.
VL
Re 

The other type of flows are of interest many times is a natural flow. Natural flow and
force flow; natural flow is normally buoyancy driven for example, water boiling is a kind
of a natural flow and when the fluid is driven by some external agency that means,
whenever there is a pressure difference mechanism which is being put so that the flow
can occur. So, such a flow we call this as a force flow.
Now, having said this one can also think the dimensionality in nature of a flow field. So,
one can view the flow field phenomena occurring in a particular direction or not. So,
traditionally orthogonal coordinates are the right approach which decides the flow in a
given directions. So, based on that we say whether the flow is 1-dimensional, 2-
dimensional or 3 dimensional in nature.
27
Now, having said this the last part of this lecture if you just summarize that we have
talked about inviscid flow and viscous flow; we have talked about internal and external
flow; we have incompressible and compressible flow; we have laminar, turbulent flow;
steady, unsteady flow; natural and force flow and 1-dimensional, 2 dimensional or 3
dimensional flow.
Now, having said this, we can say that any type of combination is possible. So, one can
have a viscous flow which is occurring in a pipe which is internal and this viscous flow
can be compressible or incompressible so, any combination of and that flow may be
steady in nature or unsteady in nature. So, any combination of these things is possible.
So, it is also left to the analysis in what framework we are going to do.
And, as far as our main fundamental things as far as our concentration is fix that in this
particular flow we will talk about or the fundamentals of compressible flow is mainly
dealt with inviscid compressible flow which is naturally occurring and its a laminar flow.
And, we will address them typically for a steady analysis in orthogonal coordinates, and
in particular our focus will be in the one and or two-dimensional framework. So, with
this I conclude this lecture for today.
Thank you.
28
Module – 01
Lecture – 02
Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics – II
Welcome to this course, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in the first module
that is Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics.
So, this particular module has 2 lectures. In this first lecture, we discussed about the
concepts and definition of the fluid and in general for gas. Then, we discussed about the
properties of fluids and mostly very specific to gases which are compressible in nature.
The last part of this lecture was classifications of fluid flow and there we analyzed
various types of fluids that is compressible, incompressible, inviscid, viscous fluid flow,
internal flow, external flow etc.
And the and in this particular lecture, we will move ahead with describing two important
concepts that is fluid as a continuum and governing equations of fluid motions and in
particular, we will debate here about only for inviscid flow.
29
Now, going for the concept of fluid as continuum. So, when you say fluid as a continuum
which means that the fluid has certain number of molecules which is occupied in certain
volume and these number of molecules are sufficient enough to take the statistical
average of any fluid properties.
So, this is also applicable for liquids as well as gases and in general, the molecular
motion inside the gases are loose which means that the gases move around inside the
closed container and in their moment, they collide each other in such a way that we
define a parameter that is called as mean free path.
So, based on these particular concepts, we will describe under what circumstances, we
can say fluid is a continuum. So, the first point that is fluids are aggregation of molecules
and they are widely spread for gases and closely spaced for liquids. It is quite obvious
that distance between the molecules are large, as compared to their molecular diameter.
Here, we define a parameter called as molecular diameters.
The number of molecules involved are immense and the separation between them is
almost negligible. Now, the properties of fluids at any point can be treated as a bulk
behaviour. Hence, the fluid can be treated as a continuum. So, to treat this medium to be
continuum, we require sufficient number of molecules to be packed in a closed volume
and this closed volume, if you say V and for this volume, if you want to define a
30
particular parameter, let us say density. The first we say the density as a global behaviour
which means we can say it is mass times its volume.
So, this means this entire volume occupies certain mass and divided by volume, we call
this as a density and this is what we say as a average density. For instance, for gases or in
particular, air, we say density of air is 1.2 kg/m3, which means whether you take 1 kg of
air or 1 gram of air, its density remains same. So, now how long we can keep this
continuum hypothesis to be valid?
So, for example, you divide this volume in some very small elements so that each
volume, each element will have certain volume V . So, for that case, for that volume if
m
you calculate the mass, we say its mass is , but still this value of density remains
V
same.
Now, if we reduce this V to a very small value V  , which means that is the minimum
volume that is V  is the minimum volume for which the average behaviour can be
defined, which means that you do not have enough number of molecules, if the volume is
reduced to a value below this value V  . So, for that case, we define this fluid as this
density.
 m 
For same situation, we define this density   lim  
V V  V
 
So, the same fluid property which is density, but it is defined in three different situations.
Hence, it is said to be the fact that density can be considered as an average behaviour or
global behaviour of the fluid particles as long as the fluid is treated to be continuum.
31
Now, to define this continuum parameter, we quantify it in terms of a number which is

known as Knudsen number. This Knudsen number is a very vital parameter that
essentially says that whether a certain fluid mass can be treated as a continuum or not.
So, what does this mean? So, Knudsen number is defined quantitatively as the ratio of
two parameters that is the molecular mean free path and characteristics linear dimension
of the flow field. For instance, if we have a flow domain of certain length, width and
height; so, its overall or maximum characteristics length can be defined by a number L
and the molecular mean free path which is nothing but the distance travelled by the
molecule between two successive collisions.
So, in a closed space of fluid elements in a container, the molecules in general move
randomly and during their motion, they collide each other and during their collision, we
characteristically define a parameter called as mean free path which is λ that is distance
travelled between two successive collisions by the molecules; so, that is λ.
So, it is quite obvious that if you have enough number of molecules or sufficient
molecules or the medium is very closely packed, then the mean free path is much much
smaller than the global length that is L. So, such a situation, the Knudsen number
happens to be less than 0.01 and such a flow, we call this as a continuum flow. And now,
the other extreme that comes in that if the mean free path length is very large. So, this
32
happens when we see this in particular, this happens in vacuum. So, when the medium is
vacuum will hardly find any molecules in certain domains.
So, for instance, when you view these a deep space atmosphere, there are hardly any
molecules. So obviously, the characteristics linear dimensions is much much less than
the mean free path. So, such a case, we call this as pre molecular flow for which
Knudsen number is greater than 1.
Now, sandwiched between these two that is continuum flow and free molecular flow, we
also defined another types of flow, Slip flow; means that under certain circumstances, we
can treat this behaviour of the fluid as a continuum flow and in some other
circumstances, we can with the fluids behave as a free molecular flow.
But as far as this particular course is concerned, we will be mostly talking about the fluid
to be a continuum. To describe this continuum behaviour, there are two approaches that
has been followed so far; one is Lagrangian approach, other is Eulerian approach.
Now, what are they? So, in general, the properties of a fluid particles in a flow field, the
in a flow field, the properties of the fluid particles change from point to point or from
time to time. Now, when you say it is a point to point, so that means, you are talking
about space. When you are talking about time to time that means, you are talking about
the different time instances.
33
So, at any situations, so we can describe this fluid as a continuum medium by these two
descriptions; Lagrangian description and Eulerian descriptions. So, in the first category
are like that is Lagrangian descriptions, we say that the motion of the fluid particle needs
to be studied from time to time.
So, with respect to time we have to see that how this fluid particle changes its positions.
Now, the other approach is Eulerian approach. So, here the attention is focused to the
fixed point in the space that is fixed domain in the space and the variation of that domain
that we will look with respect to the fact that when certain fluid element passes through
it, how that medium changes.
Now, this is what the way we represent the continuum medium in Lagrangian Eulerian
approach. Now, corollary to this or analogous to this, we have closed system and open
systems. So, this is something similar to thermodynamically the way we view it as a
closed systems that is which is a Lagrangian approach and open system when it is
viewed as a Eulerian description. So, open system in general as a control volume
medium.
Now, once you say this continuum, now let us go by one by one that how we can say
quantitatively in a Lagrangian approach. So, now, we are dealing with Lagrangian
descriptions. So, in this Lagrangian descriptions what we want to study is the fact that we
34
define a fluid element at certain locations. Let us say this if in our situation referring to
this figure, we have a fluid element located at point A.

Now, with respect to cartesian coordinates x, y, z; we represent this position vector rp for

the point A. So, rp (0) means we are defining the position of the fluid particle at point A
as its coordinate xA, yA, and zA and which is defined at the time instance t = 0. Now, we
allow some time to pass. So, by that time, the position of the particle has changed from A

to B. So, when it goes from A to B, the new position vector is defined as rp (t ) . So, the
coordinates of the point B has change to xB, yB, and zB.
So, in this process of changing the position of the fluid particle, it would have undergone
  
at certain velocity which is V p and it would have this V p and rp is related by this
differential equations; that is velocity of the particle p can be defined as the

differentiation of the position vector with respect to time.

 drp dx p dy p dz
V p (t )   iˆ  ˆj  p kˆ
dt dt dt dt
So, in this way, we describe this position and when we talk about the position A and B,
we also say that at that particular point, the pressure might be p p as a function of x p ,
y p , z p and t and also, we can have temperature at point p can be defined in a similar
manner.
35
Now, the same situation, when you view as a Eulerian approach; although event is same,
but the way of representation of the description changes. So, here the velocity vector is
defined with respect to space as well as time; globally, with respect to space and time.
Now, in the event of this fluid particle the change in the fluid particles, there would have
a some global change in the medium that we are looking at. So, for that situations the
representation has changed as a velocity vector pressure or temperatures and these we
see as the global picture with respect to velocity vector with respect to space and time.
36
So, once having said this, now we are going to discuss about a very important theorem
which is called as Reynolds transport theorem. So, till this point of time, we are
essentially focusing that how you want to describes the medium in terms of Lagrangian
description or in terms of Eulerian descriptions. But the global effect remains same
because we are representing the same event, but in two different forms.
So, to link between these two events or these two forms, a famous theorem that comes
into picture that is Reynolds Transport Theorem. So, it is an essentially linkage between
the change in a property of the fluid with respect to a control volume. So, control volume
is essentially a Eulerian descriptions, but if you very specific to the fluid property of an
element that element has certain properties.
So, the particle approach and the control volume approach can be linked together in
terms of defining the properties in two different domains. So, this particular figure says
that first thing is let us take the first elliptical space which typically we call this as a fixed
volume, fixed control volume with this control surface. So, this is nothing but your
control surface and this control volume is defined as a system at time t.
Now, what has happened is that there are certain stream of flow which is entering to this
control volume. Through this entering process, it would have done some changes in the
mass, changes in the energy and in this process, the system is now changed to a another
location; but with same fixed volume and that is defined as system at time t+dt. So,
eventually, what has happened? System has changed from one time instant to other and
through this change, if there is a property N which is defined at particular time t, that
property, how it changes when the system has gone to another time instance?
So, in this particular say if N is your any extensive properties for which the
corresponding intensive properties is η. So, this can be related in an integral form
dm
ms
s . So, s stands for system and in terms of volume, we can write it as  dVs . So,
Vs
this is how the extensive properties is defined.
Now, we see that when this extensive property is going to change based on this Reynolds
DN
transport theorem, we defined this as . This particular term, we call this as a total
Dt
derivative and through Reynolds transport theorem, we say that this is equal to the
37
properties that same properties when you when it changes with respect to time and same
property, how it changes with respect to space.
DN d  
Dt
  dVs   dVs    V .n dA
dt Vs t Vs
 
s
The first term of this right hand side equation is the rate of change of the arbitrary
extensive properties with respect to control volume and the second term represent the net
rate of efflux of extensive properties through this control surface. We will not derive this
Reynolds transport theorem, but we will only talk about how it is relates a given property
of a fluid system.
DN
Now, the Reynolds theorem introduce a parameter which is called as and it happens
Dt
to be a mathematical term which we called is as a Total Derivatives. So, to solve this
mathematical term, we have a tool which is mathematically which is represent this DN in
terms of dx, dy, dz and dt. So, this is a mathematical expression that comes for a given
properties.
N N N N
DN  dx  dy  dz  dt
x y z t
38
DN N N N N
 u  w
Dt t x y z
DN
Now, here this total derivative we call this as a substantial derivative or particle
Dt
DN
derivative or material derivatives and first term that is is nothing but the local
Dt
N N N
derivative that is with respect to time; the other three terms u ,  and w is
x y z
nothing but your convective derivative and these two are very important parameters that
essentially talks about the changes in a fluid system and when we deal with the space as
well as time, such a time such a concept, we call this as a field concepts. So, which will
come in the subsequent slides.
Now, since these expressions when we represent in this form that is derivative form, the
other way of representing the same expressions in vectorial form or that is
DN dN 
Dt

dt
 
 V . N
Now, when you say it is a field concept, so we will now introduce that these properties N
whether it is a scalar property or vector properties. Now, if it is a scalar property, we can
represent either as a pressure or temperature by using the same expressions and if it is a
39
vector properties, then we have to again orient these properties with respect to cartesian
coordinates x, y and z and unit vector for each orthogonal directions, we say iˆ , ĵ and k̂ .
So, the velocity vector has three components u which is again a function of x, y, z and t,
v and w. Both u, all the terms u, v and w they are all functions of x, y, z and again, this
velocity vector and in our case, when this velocity vector is differentiated in terms of a
total volume derivatives, we represent we call this as a acceleration vectors. So, this is
how the importance of this total derivative is all about that it captures different or it
expresses different flow field nature.

V  u  x, y, z , t iˆ   x, y, z , t  ˆj  w x, y, z, t kˆ
     
 DV V  V V V  V  
a
Dt
   u
t  x

y
w 

z  t
 V . V  
See once you know these velocities, then another important parameter fluid as a
continuum is the force. Typically, in a fluid domain, there are two types of forces; one is
external forces, other is internal forces. So, and in general and we are looking at the
external forces; because we are talking about the global behaviour. These external forces
has two components; one is the body forces, other is the surface forces. Body forces are
generally by virtue of its own weight or volume; whereas, surface forces are the forces
that acts on the boundaries of the fluid domain.
40
So, in general, if you say there are in a domain, they are many arbitrary forces acting on
it. So, we say F1, F2, F3 likewise and we can say there are n number of forces acting on it

and this n number of forces has a resultant force vector F and these resultant force
vectors acts at some points which you typically call as centroid. So, with this point, if
you just take an certain small area and draw a normal to it, we say area vector normal to
the surface.

Now, perpendicular to it, if you draw another vector t , we say the tangential to it. So,
irrespective of the fact what directions force comes, whether x, y, z, we now represent in
terms of the normal forces and tangential forces. So, this is how we say Fn and Ft.

F  Fn nˆ  Ft tˆ
Now, if you represent same behaviour Fn and Ft, we can say that we can define these
normal forces and this tangential forces in this following manner that we call these
normal forces. The net effect of normal forces is nothing but it induces an internal force
which is expressed as a stress and even for tangential force, we can also represent
another term which is called as shear stress. So, the stress is nothing but the force per
unit area. So, the stress is defined as the internal force acting per unit area of the body.
So, based on the definition of forces acting on the fluid, we call this as a normal stress or
shear stress.
41
So, by virtue of the definition of normal forces and shear stress, we say that this normal
stress which is the average behaviour. And if we talk in terms of small elemental force,
 F 
then we represent this normal stress as   lim  n  and the shear stress
AA A
 
 Ft 
  lim   . So, this is how the continuum hypothesis needs to be satisfied to define
AA
 A 
this normal stress and shear stress and this contribution comes from the force acting per
unit area and in this case, this force is the internal force. Analogous to this, we also come
across the term pressure. This pressure also P also represented by normal force per unit
area; but the basic difference between pressure and stress is that for pressure
calculations, we take this Fn which is external. So, but while stress calculations, we say
the force acting is the internal force acting per unit area. So, this is how the definition is
slightly different.
Now, moving further, these pressure concept, force concept gives us and stress concept
and with respect to a continuum medium, we behave this stress or we represent the stress
in a more global manner that is called as stress field. So, for to define a stress field, what
we look at is that for a given surface, we see that there is a force perpendicular to it and
there is a force tangential to it. So, essentially, this normal force which is perpendicular
to the surface gives rise to normal stress and the tangential force which is perpendicular
to this normal force gives rise to shear stress.
42
So, for a given surface or a given domain like this as shown in the figure, if you take an

elemental area dA and for that elemental area the force vectors F and along this normal
 
and along the tangential directions, we say Fn and Ft and once you say this, so
 
essentially this is a unit vector which is normal to this is n and tangential to this is t and
now, let us see that same representation of the force as shown in (b), we now bring it to
orthogonal coordinates x, y, z.
So, for that given space, we can see that for this for the same point P will have three
different forces; Fx , Fy and Fz . But these net three forces actually gives rise to three
stresses on this particular plane.
So, out of these three stress; one is normal to this that is  xx and other is the tangential to
this. So, one may be one is due to Fy that is  xy and other is  xz . So, likewise, we can
imagine this size of this element x , y and z for a particular q for which we have six
surfaces. For these six surfaces, one can define these normal stresses and shear stresses
for each particular face.
And finally, it turns out to be in a matrix form which is
43
 xx  xy  xz 
 
 x , y , z   
 n x , n y , n z  yx  yy  yz 
  zx  zy  zz 

n x , n y and n z that is unit vector in respective coordinate directions and this matrix is very
important that is it contains all the nine stresses. So, out of which there is only the
diagonal vector or diagonal part of this matrix is the normal component and rest are shear
component.
So, this is how we define these stress. Although we initially call it as a vector, it has a
particular directions, but since it has lot of there are nine components that drops in all the
six surfaces. So, it is referred to as a tensor quantity and this complete descriptions, we
call this as a stress field.
Now, moving further, we are now going to discuss about the governing equations of
fluid motions and in particular, it is inviscid flow. Till this point of time, we know that
the governing equations are based on Continuity that is Conservation of mass,
Momentum equation that is Newtons law of motion, Energy equation which is the First
law of thermodynamics and in particular for incompressible, the first three equations are
mostly important and this are called as decoupled equation which means this energy
equations can be treated separately from the continuity and momentum equations.
44
So, essentially in most of the situations, we solve continuity and momentum equations
simultaneously and energy equation is treated as a separately, that is what we call this as
a decoupled equations.
Now, when you when you move to compressible flow, we will bring two more equations
into system that is entropy equations, where we bring the Second law of thermodynamics
and that is equation of state that is Perfect gas equations. It is quite obvious that when
you deal with the compressible flow, we mostly deal with gases and all five equations
needs to be solved in such a way that it gives the complete description of the systems.
This is one aspect.
The second important aspects that while dealing with these equations, we treat a
particular parameter to be importance. Like in the continuity equation, we say this mass
flow rate remains constants. So, in the Newton’s law of motion that is a momentum
equation, we say it is a momentum is the main parameter; in the energy equation, we say
it is a the total energy contained in the system is the main parameter and in the entropy
equation, it is the entropy and from the second law, the important property is entropy
gives the direction of the certain process to happen.
Now, while talking about these equations and we will not derive those equations, we will
I will just give you the end results of those equations with some important remarks. So,
for deriving those equations which is based on these fundamental theorem that is
Reynolds transport theorem which is analysed in two approaches; one is as a control
volume approach. When you say control volume approach, we say it is a integral from
integral form of equation. Now, when you say the system approach, it is a differential
form of equations. However, both the form of equations are equally importance; but it all
depends how you deal with a particular flow problem.
Now, for all the cases, we say there is a control volume V . It is bounded by a control
surface. Now, we say some fluid element or we take some elemental area for which these

velocity vector is V and this velocity vector is normal to this area vector. We say that
velocity vector is the resultant vector in which fluid is moving, we also define ρ to be

density and we say this V to be velocity.
45
And this continuity equation will bring about this mass flow rate; momentum equation,

will talk about mV ; energy equation will talk about the energy total energy that is consist
of internal energy plus per unit mass. Its energy per unit mass consists of internal energy
V2
plus kinetic energy plus potential energy that is uint   gz and for entropy equation,
2
we say s and for equation of state, we say p  RT . So, essentially, while using these
equations the Reynolds transport theorem that talks about the extensive property ‘n’ is
now replaced with these parameters that is first case, it is mass; second case, it is
momentum; third case, it is energy.
Now, when you deal with this, when you do this and apply this equation; then, the
integral form of conservation equation that is conservation of mass as two terms; left
hand side and right hand side. The left hand side term represents a surface integral which
is the net mass flow rate into the control volume through the entire control surface. The
second term or right hand side of this term is a volume integral which is the time rate of
change of mass inside the control volume.
  
 V .ds  t  dV
s V
46
Now, moving further, when you same equation, we talk about integral form of equations
for momentum. So, here the momentum is the main parameter.

    
 V  
 
s

V .ds V   
V
t
dV   fdV   pds
V s
It has this equation has four terms; T3, T4, T5 and T6. So, T3 is the rate of flow of
momentum summed over the control surface. So, it is a surface integral. T4 is the change
of momentum in the control volume due to unsteady fluctuations in the local flow
properties and it is a volume integral.
And T5 term is the total body forces because the left hand side term talks about the rate
of change of momentum; whereas, the right hand side term talks about the that is equals
to the force. So, that is what the T5 term is talked about the total body forces and T6 term
the total force that arises due to the pressures acting on the boundaries of the control
surfaces.
47
And the next part is the energy equations, which is based on the first law of
thermodynamics. So, if you look at these expressions, here we are the term that is energy
consisting of internal energy, kinetic energy plus potential energy. Here, we have not
mentioned about the potential energy because we are not we will not be dealing with
this.
      V 2    V 2   
 
Q  Wsh   pV .ds    f .V dV     uint   dV     uint   V .ds
t   2  2 
s V V s  
So, this part comes as the total energy that is in the right hand side equations and the left
hand side of this equation consists of energy transfer in terms of work or work or heat.
Then, in terms of the work done with respect to pdv work; thermodynamically, it is pdv
work and the work transfer due to control volume.
So, here T7 terms is the net rate of energy transfer in the form of heat and work; T8 term
is the rate of work done on the fluid inside the control volume due to pressure forces; T9
term is the rate of work done on the fluid inside the control volume and T10 term is the
rate of change of energy in the control volume due to transient variation of the field
variables; T11 term is the net rate flow of energy across the control surface. So, we want
to do derive these equations and, but however, we will make some corollary of these
equations which are much more beneficial of for our analysis.
48
Now, we will talk about this the differential form of conservation of equations and that is
continuity and momentum equations. In this slide, there are two equations given one is
for continuity equations and the second one is the momentum equations.
So, in certain problems, they are addressed through differential approach. So, in which
we represent them in differential form. So, in the first equations that is continuity
equations, we say the total derivative contains the density. But however, or when you say
density as a function of x, y, z and t and from the very basic assumption of the
continuum, the density we say it is as a global properties and it do not change with space.
D
So, we say it density can change only with time. So, this happens to be change with
Dt

respect to . So, from these equations, we can directly write this
t
D 
Dt
 
 . V  0
 
t
 
 . V  0

DV 
  p  f
Dt
Du p D p Dw p
    f x ;     f y ;     f z
Dt x Dt y Dt z
49
And for the momentum equations, we talks about velocity vector multiplied by density in
the form that is left hand side of these equations and right hand side expressions are in
terms of pressure force and body force.
Of course, these equations are based on certain unit volume and this velocity vector has
three terms; one in x directions, in y direction and z directions for which respective
p p p
forces are f x , f y and f z . Similarly, pressure forces are , and . And with
x y z
respect to velocity, the corresponding velocity in x direction is u, corresponding velocity
in y direction is v and corresponding velocity in z direction is w.
 V2 
D uint  
2    
 
Dt
   
 . pV  q   f .V
And the most important part of the differential form of this equation is the energy
equations. This energy equation, as I mentioned earlier is the physical statement of first
law of thermodynamics. Now, when you deal with see this equations in differential form,
this is essentially the term that comes from the change of the energy within the
differential fluid element. So, this is total energy change for a moving fluid.
50
And the right hand side, there are three terms; all these terms refers to the energy
transfer. Now, in the first term, the first term is the due to work; second term is due to
heat and third term is due to body forces.
So, what we have seen is the total energy change is related to the energy transfer in terms
of work heat or body force in this form of equations. Now this is what we say is a
corollary of first one of the form of energy equation that is first law what we say is
dq  du  dw . So, if you recall this change in the internal energy du int  q  w , which is
the basic form of first law of equations.
So, what we see these are the different forms of energy equations. In fact, these
equations are most usable equations for our analysis. So, that is what we will talk about
only end results. So, in one of the form of this complicated equation which is

De DV
p  q , is the form of first law of thermodynamics.
Dt Dt
Another parameter which we will be using in a compressible flow is the total enthalpy
change in a flowing fluid. So, total enthalpy change consists of two parameters; one is
the static enthalpy plus dynamic enthalpy. So, static enthalpy which we will discuss later.
V2
But for the time being if I can write this expression for h0  h  ; it has two
2
components which is static part h, other is the dynamic part.
So, the static part of the equation h and when the fluid is at rest this part is not 0 or this
dynamic part becomes important for a moving fluid. So, in some instances, if you are
interested in this total enthalpy change of the fluid, so, the energy equations turns out to
Dh0 p  
be of this form 
Dt

t
 
 q   f .V .
Now, if for this total enthalpy change, if you do not consider the dynamic part, so, it is a
static enthalpy, then we do not talk about the velocity vector. So, hence, this part that is
for static fluid means we say does not involve velocity. Then, this particular equation
Dh p
again further simplified    q . And the most important part is that further
Dt t
51
p
simplification can be done for a steady flow in which we say =0 in this above
t

equations and flow is adiabatic we say q =0 and there is no body force, we say f = 0.
Dh0
So, the total derivative of stagnation enthalpy or total enthalpy  0 which means h0
Dt
is equal to constant. This is one of the important consequences of energy equations
which is very vital for the compressible flow analysis.
Now, moving further, the last part that we needs to be solved is the entropy equations.
and when we say combine first law and second law of thermodynamics, this relations
gives us the Tds relations.
This Tds relations are the fundamental parts that we do when we combine first law and
second law of thermodynamics and that Tds equations is given by this form

Ds De DV
T  p .
Dt Dt Dt

De DV
Now, from the first law, this particular term p is nothing but your q . So, from
Dt Dt
Ds
this when you simplify, we say  0 or s=const. So, this entropy equation, entropy
Dt
remains constant. If it is entropy remains constant, we say it is a isentropic case. So, why
52
we are particular about isentropic case? Because most of our compressible flow analysis
is based on the reference situation as isentropic.
So, the conclusion from this analysis, what we can say from this the analysis of these
equations that if a flow is steady, the entropy remains constant along a stream line in an
adiabatic, inviscid flow. If the flow originates from a constant reservoir such as free
steam ahead of the body, that means, from if it is originates, from a free stream, then
each stream line has a same value of entropy. So, it is a definition for isentropic case. So,
this is one of the important consequence for the analysis of compressible flow.
Now, with this, I am going to close this module 1. So, if I summarize what we have
discussed in this module that this particular module was focused on some review aspects
of the fluid mechanics and thermodynamics. Why we say fluid mechanics and
thermodynamics? Because we are mainly deal with gases and the properties of fluid as
well as thermodynamic behaviour is equally importance.
Now, while doing so, we discussed the concept and definition of the fluid in particular
gas. We debated about the properties of fluids. There are many properties, but some
properties are most important with respect to gas.
Then, we also talked about different classification of the fluid. Now, having said that
when we do all this analysis, we have to represent the fluid motion mathematically. So,
53
to study this fluid behaviour, we have to assume the fact that fluid has to be treated as a
continuum. And finally, we discussed about the governing equation of the fluid motions
and in particular, we highlighted that how these equations are important with respect to
compressible flow.
So, in the all subsequent modules our main fundamental compressible theory will come
into picture and in that fundamental compressible theory, we will take this governing
equations as a background to study this compressible flow behaviour.
Now, our attention will be mainly dealt with inviscid compressible flow and it is a
naturally flow and that has to be addressed through steady analysis and in terms of
particularly, orthogonal direction that is one-dimensional or two-dimensional situations.
So, I hope, I have clarified most of the fundamental things for the module 1.
Thank you very much. So, we will see in the next module. Have a good day.
54
Module – 01
Lecture – 03
Review Concepts of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics - III
We are back to again this module 1 this last part of this module that is Review Concept
of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics. So, I think in the previous two lectures I have
clarified the some of the important topics of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
And in fact, these two topics that is fluid mechanics and thermodynamics is very vast,
but to the best possible extent, I just tried to give some brief introductions that are
essential for this course that is modern compressible flow. And I have talked about those
topics of interest that are related to some sense to the compressible flow.
So, if you have to recall the learning components from this module then you must ask
yourself that whether you know this or not on these broad topics. That is you should by
this time you should be able to define the definition of a fluid and in particular if it is a
gas; because the shear stress is absent here. Also we talked about fluid flow its
55
classifications we introduced the concept of continuum into the fluid motion and with
that relations there are Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions.
Then we introduced the concept of total derivatives, and acceleration and stress; these
are the two important topics and for this fluid particles if you want to find out its
acceleration and its stress and if we want to express it in terms of space as well as time
then the field concept is introduced. So, we call this as a acceleration and stress field.
Then we introduced the concept of how the forces are experienced by the fluid. And in
particular the forces are expressed as a normalized component and tangential
components. Then after having discussing all these things we try to give some insight to
the governing equations that is; mass, momentum, energy equations for a fluid flow. And
in particular we did it for an inviscid analysis and these equations can be represented as
an integral as well as differential form.
In fact, we tried to find out that how this integral and differential form of equations for
an inviscid compressible flow will be beneficial for our application. Now these are
mostly on fluid part and coming back to thermodynamic part because why I am saying
thermodynamic part. Because this is equally important because since the properties many
thermodynamic properties of the gas many thermodynamic properties of the gas and
fluid they are related in many sense.
In fact, to have this more clear we can say the first law of energy equations and first law
of thermodynamics and the energy equation of the fluids they are almost same. Then we
have this these thermodynamic properties, we also talked about ideal gas equations, laws
of thermodynamics. And then important part is the compressibility in particular for a gas.
This is one of the vital part we are concluding this in this thing; so, that in the next
module we will be able to start from this as a beginning in the sense that this is the
essentially the most important part of this course.
56
Now in this course although there are many numerous problems that are available, but I
will try to give some insight of some standard problems how just to clear certain
concepts. So, this particular problem that is first problem; in which we are talking about
a Eulerian vector field.
So, normally when you say a vector field it is represented by three components i, j and k;
that is in orthogonal coordinates, if I write x y z and this unit vectors are iˆ, ˆj and k̂ and
we can say the velocity components u, v and w. And here for any point in the space is
defined by the vector field then we can say your u = t, v = xz and w = -2t.
Now, we wanted to have this acceleration of this fluid particle. So, acceleration for

DV
acceleration we can recall this as derivative of this velocity vector and this is
Dt
    
 DV V  V V V 
nothing, but a    u  w 
Dt t  x y z 
Now, from this equation one can directly calculate we know ‘u’ we know ‘v’ and we
know ‘w’ and we want to find out these components. So, from this equation we can

V
rewrite ; that means, partial derivative with respect to t both. So, when you do this
t

V ˆ
the only where the t term is present we have to retain this that is  i  2kˆ .
t
57

V
And , so, we can write so the first component, there is no x, only there is a second
x
 
V ˆ V
component there is x. So,  zj . , so there is no y in any of the term so we can put
x y

V
it 0. so if you look at z here, only middle term has z component. So, we can write
z
that is xˆj . So, this is how we can write.
So, after finding these terms we can simplify this as

 
a  iˆ  2kˆ  t zˆj   zx 0    2t xˆj
Now from here we can simply write we can separate it out i, j and k.

a  iˆ  tz  2tx  ˆj  2kˆ
So, you can write this acceleration vector as this so iˆ  tz  2tx  ˆj  2kˆ . So, from this
velocity vector by using this derivative one can find out this acceleration vector.
The next problem talks about the use of what I can say Bernoulli’s equation or in other
words we can rewrite as steady flow energy equation that involves head loss. So, when
there is no head loss this steady flow equation turns out to be Bernoulli’s equation.
58
So, what the problem talks about that; we want to pump a gasoline in a pipe of diameter
100 mm and the distance I want to go in an elevation of 150 meter. So, the fluid is
gasoline and what needs to be calculated? We have to calculate the frictional head and
velocity head. So, this frictional head why there is a frictional head? because this is being
and you know this gasoline is being carried in a long pipe of this diameter and as and
when it flows that will be loss in the pipe and that loss is accounted as a head loss hf.
Now, to calculate this one simplest expression of steady flow energy equation can be
used which is; that means, we can put as ‘i’ as inlet ‘e’ as exit. So,
p i Vi 2 p V2
  z i  e  e  z e  h f . This hf will be added in this part because this is at
g 2 g g 2 g
the exit, so as when flow ends here, so we will have this head loss. So this has to be
calculated.
So, one thing we can say is, since it is a constant diameter pipe and it is a gasoline, flow
is incompressible and when you say flow is incompressible, an area does not change. So,
V
we can say Vi  Ve 
A
So, volume flow rate we can find out because we know the mass. So, since we know
mass and we know that is 15 kg per second. And for density of gasoline that we can find
out from the any book that is about 680 kg/m3.
So, once we know mass and density we can find out volume. So, once we know volume,

we know area = d 2 , d is your 100 mm that is 0.1 meter. So, after putting it we can find
4
V2
out this term that is nothing, but velocity here. So, this term after putting all these
2g
V2
values we can calculate this to be about 0.4 meter. That is what we require the
2g
velocity head.
Now, to calculate this friction head we have to use this equation. And in fact, in this
equation the velocity head remains the same for the both sides. So, what we can do is
pi  p e (25  1)101325
here and you can have z e  z i  150m . And this  .
g 680  9.81
59
So, this we know; this we know velocity head remains same ze  zi also we know. So,
from this equation we can calculate this hf to be about 215 meter. So, head loss would be
about 215 meter.
So, this example gives you that how to use this steady flow energy equation in a given
problem. And in this problem the fluid is gasoline and in general it is incompressible.
And next important problem we are going to talk about a centrifugal compressor of 0.5
meter diameter is used to compress hydrogen at 15 degrees centigrade and 1 bar.
Calculate the maximum allowable rotational speed to avoid the compressibility effect.
So, here the solution we should start from the fact that we are asked to calculate the
rotational speed Ω. So, the Ω and this velocity can be related as omega and V that is
linear velocity, can be related by the fact that V  r .
So, this will be V  0.5(0.5) so this will be in meter per second. But what it is asking
that to avoid the compressibility effect at the blade tip, then we have to calculate what is
the sonic velocity. Sonic velocity is defined by RT .
Now, here your medium is hydrogen so for H2 we say gamma to be again 1.4, but R is
something different that from data sheet we can find out that is 4124 J/kg-K. So, by
putting this we know RT and temperature is about 15ºC.
60
So, we can say sonic speed a = 1.4  4124  273  15  1289m / s . So, in order to have
the velocity at the impeller tip that is 0.5(0.5) . If this speed does not have to account
the compressibility effect then we must satisfy these conditions that your V should be
less than or equal to 0.3 of a.
That means when your Mach number is less than or equal to 0.3, we say that flow is
treated to be incompressible; that means, hydrogen the medium the flow will be treated
to be incompressible. So, that there will not be any compressibility in the blade tip.
So, the blade tip your velocity is V and your speed of sound is 1289 m/s. In order to have
this compressibility effect to be neglected your V should be less than or equal to 0.3
times a. So, if we put it we can turn out to be 0.5(0.5)  0.3  1289
So, this will land off Ω to be about 1553 rad/s. Once you put this number or you can say
Ω is about 14830 rpm. So, this number is nothing but the rotational speed that is about
14830 rpm.
So, this example talks about that when a centrifugal compressor is operated in a
compressible medium then you can see this rotational speed of this number about 14830
rpm. So, this number is essentially very high and normally all the aircrafts they operate at
this rotational speeds. In fact, all conventional aircrafts the rotational speeds will be of
this number in the range of 15,000 rpm.
61
So, the next point again we bring here as the isothermal compressibility at a pressure of
0.4 bar. So, isothermal compressibility when you calculate, if you recall our analysis we
 p 
define a parameter called as a bulk modulus that is E v     .
   T
1   
And from this parameter if we put   1 we define a term  T that is  T    . And
   p 
when you put rho in terms of  then we are going to get density in terms of specific
1   
volume that will be    .
  p  T
So, this is the term which is used for isothermal compressibility and represented as a
function of pressure and density or specific volume and pressure. So, here what you say
d   
in a ordinary differential form, but when I express them as   , then we are
dp  p  T
saying that we are defining this compressibility for a isothermal medium that is keeping
temperature constant.
So, having said this we can say  T comes in this expressions. But what we can say is that
if you say air which is at 0.4 bar pressure; that means, we can say 0.4 *101325 N/m2; so
this is the data given. So, we need to calculate the isothermal compressibility for an ideal
gas.
So, for an ideal gas we can write p  RT . So, when I say RT or we can simply
RT 
write p  RT . So, from this we can write p  . So, we require . So, it is better
 p
RT    1
that you would express v in terms of p,   . So, this will be     2 RT .
p  p  T p
1    p  1  1
So, we can write  T         2 RT   . So, by putting this we can
  p  T RT  p  p
1
write . So,  T  2.46  10 5 m2/N.
0.4  101325
62
So, this expression says that the isothermal compressibility for any gas at a pressure of
0.4 bar is each 2.46 10 5 m2/N.
The next problem we are going to discuss about a situation where we have a pressure
vessel that has a volume of 12 m3 is used to store high pressure air at 20 bar and 25ºC.
So, you want to calculate the internal energy of the gas that is stored in the vessel that is
first part. Second part is that if the gas is to be heated at 350ºC then we have to find out
entropy change.
So, this is a very classical thermodynamic problems; where we need to calculate the one
of the properties that is internal energy. So, internal energy nothing, but it is we can say
it is C vT , total energy and we second part we are going to calculate about the entropy.
So, let us solve the problem.
So, basically we have a container here that is that volume has 12 m3. It has pressure 20
bar temperature is 25ºC. So, it is a closed container and in this container we are also
going to add heat so that this final temperature becomes 350ºC. So, let us do part by part
in the first part.
So, when I say this entire container so I must calculate what is the mass? Mass of the gas
that is in the container. we have given the volume. So, we have given volume as 12 m3, p
63
as 20 bar and T as 25ºC that is 293K. So, mass we can calculate that is volume times
density.
p
So, how do you calculate density? Density we can calculate   . And since this is
RT
air, so we can we can say R is 287 J/kg-K. So, from this we can find
20  101325
out    23.7 kg / m 3 . So, we know volume, we know ρ, then you can find
287  293
out mass. So, this will be 284.4 kg. So, once we know the mass we can find out internal
energy.
 R 
So, total internal energy U int  mu int  mC vT   m T . So, when you put all the
   1
numbers which are known to us then; we know m, we know R, we know T, we know γ,
then we can find out this total internal energy of the entire mass is about 60.8 MJ. So,
this part it is now clear, internal energy.
Now if the gas is heated to 350ºC then what is the change in the entropy? So, you have to
T  p 
recall entropy equation that is s 2  s1  C p ln 2   R ln 2  . Since it is a constant
 T1   p1 
 p  T 
volume process, so we can say  2    2  .
 p1   T1 
T2 350  273
So, we know  . So, we know temperature ratio, we know presser ratio, we
T1 25  273
R
know Cp, C p  . So, we know Cp, we know R, so we can find out s2  s1 as 529
 1
J/kg-K.
So, remember this is per unit mass, but we have total mass about 284. So, total entropy
change that is S 2  S1  ms 2  s1  . So, this number would be about 150 kJ/kg-K. So, this
is the total entropy change for the mass 284.4 kg. So, this entire problem talks about all
types of thermodynamic properties how this is going to be calculate.
So, likewise there are many such problems that can arise in this particular module. So, it
is suggested that the candidates should refer some standard problems to brush up the
64
knowledge of fluid mechanics and thermodynamic fundamental aspects. So, with this I
conclude this module 1.
Thank you for your attention.
65
Module – 02
Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium
Lecture – 04
Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium - I
Welcome you all we are now in this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow Module
2. So, in the first module we discussed about the fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics
and gas dynamics that are used to cover in undergraduate syllabus. Now at higher level,
in this compressible flow we will make use of those equations those properties and try to
study the fundamental behaviour for the flows that are compressible in nature.
So, this is the first lecture on the module 1 and this title of this module is Wave
Propagation in the Compressible Medium.
At the end of the lecture we will come to know about some brief introduction to
compressible flow and we will talk about some important parameters that are used
specifically for compressible flow such as speed of sound, Mach number. And we also
talk about wave propagation in the compressible medium means that under what
circumstances we say the fluid can be treated to be compressible in nature.
66
Now, to address the fluid flow problems we will develop some fundamental flow
equations that are routinely used for the flows that are compressible in nature, something
about isentropic flow which is also equally important, because this isentropic flows are
taken as the reference or basics for subsequent analysis. Now we will start this lecture.
Now, we will revisit something what we discussed in the types of fluid flow that is
incompressible and compressible flow, just to give some brief insight or revisit those
concepts, I will just spell out some of the important aspects.
So, when the fluid is moving at low velocities the variation in the pressure is usually
small enough to justify the behaviour of incompressible flow. That means to decide so
that the flow to be compressible or incompressible, the pressure as well as velocities is
important and for incompressible flow these pressure changes are very small.
Since the density does not change in the incompressible flow, the energy equations can
be decoupled. So, that continuity and momentum equations are solved for pressure and
velocity. Now, to address this flow phenomena, we normally encounter three major
equations; continuity equations, momentum equations and energy equations, when the
fluid is incompressible nature where density is a invariant quantity. So, it does not come
as a specific parameter for calculation through these equations.
67
So, in normal circumstances the mass or continuity equation and momentum equations
are solved simultaneously for velocity and pressure and to calculate the thermal energies
or other types of energies or internal energy of the system we have to use the equation
for energy equations explicitly or separately, but this is what we do in the incompressible
flow.
Now, when you look at the compressible flow what we see is that at higher velocities the
variation in the density as well as temperature to the pressure changes is large. So, in that
aspects in terms of addressing those parameters we have to take two more other
equations in addition to continuity momentum and energy we have to bring into two
more equations that is equation of state and the entropy equations and that is specifically
used when there is a directionality in the flow.
Hence the compressible flows are routinely called as variable density flows, the very first
bottom line in this study is that for compressible flow we need the density changes to be
a significant parameter.
Just to give some brief insight we say liquids are incompressible and in our case in a
commonly use situations we say water whereas, gases are compressible in nature and so
in our normal circumstances air is one of the fundamental gas. So, just to give you a
number one can say that air is about 20000 times more compressible than water. So, this
is how it makes the distinction between a compressible flow and incompressible flow.
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Now we will not deal about incompressible flow now onwards we will specifically talk
about compressible flows, now to address this compressible flow the first fundamental
parameter we are going to look at the is known as compressibility. So, it what it does is.
So, it is given by this expression κ what it says is that the variation of density with
respect to pressure.
1  d 
  
  dp 
1    1   
T    ;  s   
  p  T   p  s
So, this is what the differential term which is used here variation of density with respect
to pressure and this density change is taken as one of the parameter and with respect to
its original density rho how this parameter changes. So, this is the fundamental definition
of the compressibility term mathematically.
Now, let us use these equations logically for the flows to occur. So, as we say that since
our situation is such that we will only use gases as a compressible medium. So, the very
bottom line is that we can use the ideal gas or equation of state for the gas. So, if you say
this equation of state we write p  RT .
So, the pressure, density and temperature are related with a characteristics parameter R,
now looking at these equations if we want to see that how the pressure changes with
respect to density then one must say that what happens to temperatures. So, obviously, so
while looking at this equation differential equations and we want to make any changes in
the density then we must do something about temperatures.
So, this brings thermodynamics into picture under what circumstances I can change the
density with respect to pressure. So, for that reasons one assumption thermodynamic
sense in one assumption says that I can hold temperature is constant.
So, this is where the  T is represented as compressibility at constant temperature. So,

these differential equations now becomes two ordinary differential equation now turns to
be to a partial differential equation where this  T is looked at the density change at
constant temperature or for isothermal process.
69
But having said this so, we call this as a isothermal compressibility, but having said
these, but important issues that is very difficult to change the density although it is
mathematically feasible or thermodynamically feasible, but it is very difficult to change
the density with respect to pressure while maintaining temperatures to be constants.
So, for that reason another way of looking at changing this compressibility is defining a
term called as isentropic compressibility  s . So, here what the thermodynamic
assumption says that instead of temperature you keep entropy to be constants. So, that is
what the it gives you an indication that one can think of an isentropic process where the
compressibility parameter can be addressed or in general density can change with respect
to pressure while maintaining entropy to be constant.
So, this basic definition tells at that the how density can change with respect to pressures.
Now moving further, let us see that how density change with respect to pressure is
addressed through isentropic process. So, for this reason let us consider the situation of
what we call as wave propagation in one - dimensional mediums.
So, to bring out the simplicity we talk about a one - dimensional medium. So, for this
one - dimensional medium the first thing what you see thermodynamically that we have
a cylinder in which a piston is enclosed.
70
So, the entire idea is that the top part and bottom part or bottom wall of the cylinder we
have, one side face we have the piston while the bottom surface of the cylinder is you
think it to be a empty. So, that there is no physical wall.
So, ideally what we can see that this can be thought of consisting of a gaseous medium
where lot of gas molecules we can find on either side of the piston and in the cylinder.
So, statically so, in this situation we can say that gas is hypothetically at rest and piston is
in equilibrium.
So, now what you do is that in the next instant you give a little bit of push to the piston
now when you give a push to this piston what is going to happen these gases on the
downstream side of the piston gets affected.
So, as if what we feel is that at the first instance, we say that the first layer of gases they
gets affected subsequently they transfer the information about the movement of the
pistons towards this next layer, subsequently this information keeps propagating to the
down streams.
So, eventually what happens, the gas molecules which are just adjacent side of the piston
gets disturbs and that disturbs the next layer of the gases. So, why it happens? To
theoretically model this what we say is that there is a wave gets created and in the first
instance we say let this wave be a compression wave. So, this compression wave keeps
moving into in the stationary medium.
So, when it moves so what we see is that behind this wave whatever gases are there now
they have make their changes because they got the information about the piston
movement and, but as long as the wave does not pass through the stationary gas that is
other side of the piston. So, they do not know about the motion of this wave; that means,
the information what changes that happens through this moving wave, we can
differentiate the entire stationary gas now as a moving gas other is stationary gas.
So, moving gas I mean the amount of the velocity which is given to the piston with same
velocity the gases they try to move, while the other side of the moving wave, all the
gases they are stationary. So, this is the philosophy how the information gets propagated
through this movement of the piston.
71
So, now in the beginning we say that this is a moving wave, now hypothetically you say
that had this moving wave be a weakest disturbance. So, weakest disturbance means the
disturbance is very small and since beginning we say it is a compression waves;
obviously, it is the pressure parameter that is going to be a concern.
So, if this wave or the pressure pulse is happens to be very small then we call this
moving wave as a sound wave or in other words we can say the sound wave is the
weakest pressure disturbance. So, it travels always in the medium whenever we talk,
disturbance is created, it moves at speed of sound.
Now, this is what we see that movement of the sound wave in a gaseous medium, even
one can create a sound wave when the medium is liquid, we can have a sound wave
when the medium is as well solid; that means, sound wave can travel in any medium that
is gas liquid or solid, but it does not exist in the vacuum. So, it requires a medium to
travel that is the reason in outer space we do not have a sound waves because there is no
medium as such.
Now, when we actually see the when this pressure moves at the speed of sound we can
also quantify what is its speed. So, in down the line we will derive this expression, but
for the sake of continuity I can say and estimate for a typical conditions the speed of
sound in air is about 340 m/s and that speed of sound in water is about 1480 m/s; that
means, speed of sound is higher in liquids.
72
Now, had this situation be a incompressible situation, the pressure disturbances would
have felt at every locations at same time. So, there is no question of sound waves ok.
Now, we will bring about some mathematical orientation whatever I have explained
through a analysis called moving gas analysis and stationary gas analysis and this falls
under the domain that we are looking at a one - dimensional medium.
So, what we see is that. So, the first instance when you talk about the moving gas
analysis we say that there is a moving wave it is moving at certain velocity. Now how
does moving waves gets generated?
So, we give a small piston movement; that means, piston is given a velocity dV. So,
when this piston is given a velocity dV the gases in one side of the piston they move at
also velocity of dV and because of this is a moving gas, this gas this moves at speed of
sound a. So, this moving wave or I can directly say it is a sound wave. So, it moves with
a velocity a. Now let us see that, on this side we have stationary gas or stagnant gas, on
this side we have moving gas.
Now, let us see that the when this gas does not see the sound wave its conditions are
defined as pressure p density ρ and the other side of this, the corresponding parameter on
other side would be p+dp because it is a very weakest disturbance and density also will
change in this process that is   d . So, if I try to plot this an xt diagram where x stands
73
for the distance along this piston and t stands for time; that means, we are looking at this
wave at different time instance.
At one time instance when the wave is at this location, I draw a line. So, let us see that
what happens. So, first thing it says that this line denotes the motion of piston. So, we
call this as piston path. So, because this dV comes from this xt diagram through this
piston path and the movement of this wave we can represent in this manner. So, we call
this as path of pressure wave. So, this is how we see in xt diagram.
Similarly on pressure and distance diagram one can see that one side of the piston there
is a pressure p+dp, but just at these vicinity of this moving gas, pressure again comes
down to original pressure of the stagnant gas p.
Now, same thing when you draw this velocity versus x diagram. So, we can say that
initially this piston has this velocity and all of a sudden this velocity drops to 0. So, this
value is we say dV, this magnitude is dp. So, this is how we do in a moving frame of
analysis. So, it means that I am looking at the wave sitting in the laboratory.
Now, let us see that I want to bring a stationary frame of analysis where the stationary
gas analysis where we say we bring this wave to be stationary. So, all these plots in this
side is the analysis for stationary wave which says that the wave is treated to be
stationary. Now to address this how I bring the wave to be stationary so, effectively so,
when I say this wave to be stationary I have to artificially initiate a flow that changes
similar properties.
So, in the beginning stage we say same pressure and density and we say this to be a very
thin region across which the property changes and in one side the pressure is p, density is
ρ and velocity is a and in other side we say the pressure will be p+dp density will be
  d , now if we say this wave to be stationary then; obviously, I should get a velocity
a  dV for the other side of the gas.
So, this is your stagnant situation. Of course, this side also flow is stagnant. The
conditions at one particular time instance the condition will be p+dp,   d . So, I
should subtract  dV because the piston movement is originally in these directions.
74
So, the speed that happens will be a and a  dV . So, likewise one can draw from this
particular point; that means, here we have to draw with this wave as the starting point.
So, from there I can draw this piston path, I can also draw the moving fluid and path of
wave. The pressure plot will remain same but velocity will be something different.
So, we have to bring a reference line which is much below this because the directions are
opposite where we say it is  a  dV  and from there it will start, finally it will end with
a, because directions are taken in the opposite directions when you look at in this frame
of reference. So, I hope I make you understand about this concept and in the subsequent
analysis we will now recall only this particular figure which will come into our equation.
So, whatever I told I will just brief about it, say in moving gas analysis and stationary gas
analysis, what is we looked at an infinitesimal disturbance created by the piston induces
a compression wave that moves at speed of sound into the stationary gas.
Now, at one particular instant of time the piston attains a steady velocity and becomes
equilibriums. So, when it happens the pressure and density next to the piston space face
are infinitesimally greater than that of wave; that means, there is a slight increase in the
pressure and density. So, in this process we can make a dynamic transformation when
the motion of the wave can be studied by keeping wave to be stationary.
75
Now, to do the mathematical treatment we have to create a differential control volume
across which the basic equation of motions can be addressed through one - dimensional
framework.
Now let us see how we are going to address. So, first thing we are going to address is the
continuity equations so; obviously, when you talk about the continuity equations, we
have to say is say this is how you have this control volume.
So, here are the parameters of interest are a, ρ in one side and in other side of the wave
we have a  dV and   d and this thin region of control volume, we are going to see
medium is one - dimensional, we assume that there is no mass or there is no heat and
there is no work interaction. Having said this, the first equation that is going to be written
is the continuity equations.
So, we can write m  aA    d a  dV A and we are saying this entire area to be A
on both sides of the wave. So, if you simplify these equations what we are going to get is
that you get a term ddV which can be neglected and this aA will get cancels and
finally, what we get is AdV  aAd
a
And the end expression is which you are going to get is dV  d . So, this is nothing

but this equation. So, this is the equation, which we get from the continuity equations.
76
Moving back to the momentum equations here the parameter of interest will be p and a;
here will be p  dp, a  dV . So, the momentum equations can be written as by
considering the Newton’s law for this one - dimensional medium. So, we say
 p  dpA  pA  m a  m a  dV 
  aA which is we get from

So, one can simplify these equations. Also one can write m
the continuity equations.
After expanding these equations will get cancelled so many terms. So, there will be term
 a, m
that is going to cancelled is pA, pA will get cancelled; m  a cancelled. So, ultimately
Adp Adp  1 
what we get dV     dp . So, this is what we get from this momentum
m Aa  a 
equations.
77
(Refer Slide Time: 32.01)
Now, moving further when you talk about energy equations, here I like to emphasize
there is no work interaction, there is no heat interactions, the parameters of interest are
h  dh and h and where velocities are a and a  dV and one thing we need to emphasize
that we do not consider the elevation that is what we say the change in the elevation is
negligible.
There is no change in the elevation. So, for that potential energy term we will not come
into account. So, for this reason we can write this energy equation beginning as
h  dh  a  dV 
2
a2
that is one side of the gas, other side will be h  and this
2 2
a 2 dV 
2
2adV a2
equation can be simplified h  dh     h . Finally, simplifying
2 2 2 2
we get dh  adV and finally, we arrive at this relation.
78
So, having said this we say that this we will now revisit the entropic equations to recall
this entropy equation first thing what we see is that we recall this Tds relation, one of the
dp
Tds relation says that Tds  dh  .

Now, for this particular problem from the energy equation we get dh  adV and from
dp
momentum equation we get  adV . So; obviously, when you put this equation we

say Tds  0 which means ds =0.
So, this gives a very important inference, what says that entropy change for the whatever
problem we say is there is no entropy change. Hence we say that when a weakest
disturbance is created in the medium through a sound wave, the entire process can be
treated to be isentropic. So, that is the emphasis what we are going to get from this
analysis.
79
Now, we will again see that when we say that this process is isotropic process then we
will see that what speed the wave moves. So, when these particular speed we call this as
a speed of sound or many books also talk about this as a acoustic speed almost both are
of same nature so, but most routinely used term is we say it is a speed of sound.
p
Now, let us derive the speed of sound which is a, we can relate this to term as or we

say that a  RT . Now to do this what we have to recall now from continuity, we get
a 1
dV  d and from momentum equation we also get dV  dp .
 a
a 1
So, when we recreate these two equation, what we get d  dp then we can get a
 a
dp
term as a 2  and we also proved that although it is a differential equations. So, we
d
also prove that when we define the speed of sound the process happens to be isentropic.
So, these differential equations, a more appropriate way of representation would be in
 p 
representing in a partial differential equation   .
   s
80
 p  p
Now let us evaluate what is this   . So, for an isentropic process we say   C .
   
Now, this equation we can write in terms of logarithmic that is ln p   ln   C . Now
dp d
you differentiate, we say  0.
p 
So, this becomes when we represent in terms of isentropic way, we can find out is
 p  p p
   . So, thus this a 2  . So, this is how we get for an isentropic process, we
   s  
say that is the square of speed of sound is function of pressure and density.
Next thing comes that for this equation can be further simplified by recalling equation of
state. So, we say equation of state p  RT . So, from this equation we can find
p
 RT .

So, when I say this and we can put it here and finally, we will end up with this important
p
expressions speed of sound in two forms, one is and other is RT and under

atmospheric conditions when you put gamma for air and temperature to be 298K or
25ºC.
Then this we can evaluate the speed of sound and in most appropriate term we say the
speed of sound is in the order of around 340 m/s under normal circumstances.
81
Now we will move further to define another properties that is called Mach number. So,
when I define the speed of sound that is the disturbance that moves in a medium, but
why that disturbance moves, but at the same time we say that your body is moving with
certain velocity; that means, your moving gas also has certain velocity.
So, considering that when there is a relative velocity between the body and the
compressible fluid, the variation of density influences the properties in the fluid. So, for
which we define a non - dimensional number known as Mach number that relates the
V
velocity of the body to the velocity of the sound. So, M  .
a
Now interestingly this Mach number relates the direct measure of the directed motion.
V2
This directed motion is nothing, but that relates to the kinetic energy and also to the
2
random thermal motion. So, this random thermal motion is with respect to internal
V2
energy. So, interestingly one can find out that ratio that is the kinetic energy to the
2
internal energy. If you can calculate or simplify based on for a common calculations, this
   1
ratio happens to be M 2 . So, essentially what I am trying to say here is that the
2
ratio of kinetic energy to the ratio of internal energy is a function of Mach number. So,
one can say the Mach number is also a indirect measure.
82
Now, moving further what we see in this for the gases, we say that the gases normally
behave as a dual nature. Dual nature means under some situations, gases behave as a
incompressible medium or gases can be considered as a compressible medium. So, what
is that circumstances.
So, that essentially we see that these all depends on the pressure and velocity; that
means, if the gas is moving at low velocity it may be treated as a incompressible medium
because the pressure changes is small, but if the gas moves at very high velocity the
pressure changes are very significant one cannot assume to be a incompressible medium.
So, for which we define this Mach number as a limiting case. So, a non - dimensional
V
number that comes into picture is the Mach number which is the ratio of and it has
a
been shown that if the Mach number is greater than 0.3, so, we can say the
compressibility effect is predominant in the medium.
So, based on this the all high speed flows are decided in terms of Mach number. When
the Mach number is less than 1 it is a subsonic flow, when the Mach number is equal to 1
it is a sonic flow, when Mach number is greater than 1 it is a supersonic flow. We will
discuss about in this course in the subsequent lectures, but the most important point to be
addressed here is that under what circumstances the compressibility effect comes into
picture.
83
And this condition turns out to be fact that for this condition mach number your velocity
is the hardly in the range of 100 m/s; that means, when your body is moving at more than

100 meter per second we expect a change in the density that is to be higher than 5%.

So, this is how the standard typical definition normal layman sense one can give that
when the density changes are higher more than 5 percent the medium can be treated to be
incompressible.
Now, moving further we will now move on to the next topic that is isentropic flow, since
we say the medium to be isentropic when there is a disturbance occurs. So, based on the
isentropic flow we will now define some properties which is known as stagnation
properties.
And to define this stagnation conditions in a compressible medium we say that these are
kind of hypothetical properties. So, before I explain further just to give some insight that
in an isentropic process gives a useful standard for comparing various flow conditions
with respect to an idealized flow and this isentropic process we call this as to be
reversible and adiabatic process.
So, when you say the process to be reversible adiabatic flow and we get this information
from the second law. So, considering this as one of the input and consequence of the
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second law, in our compressible flow situations we defined some states which is called
as “stagnation states”. So, the stagnation state is a state where the fluid is treated to be a
reservoir. So, fluid happens to be in a state where as if it is lying in a reservoir, but there
is a thermodynamic meaning to the state.
So, here we will now give some these thermodynamic meanings to the state as a
stagnation state for the fluid; that means, any fluid might be moving, but it will have a
hypothetical state which is known as stagnation state. How this hypothetical state will
achieve, when the fluid is isentropically slowed down to 0 velocity.
So, this is how the thermodynamic definition of a stagnation state is all about. So, the
fluid can be accelerated isentropically to axial states from a thermodynamic stagnation
state having 0 speed. There is another angle one can interpret that one can accelerate a
fluid from a stagnation state. Either a moving fluid can be brought to rest or stagnantal
fluid can move to a active state.
To define these things what I am trying to say here that we now say that as if we have a
reservoir having certain conditions of pressure p0 temperature T0 density  0 these are the
properties. So, to study the stagnation conditions, we define these things in a standard
way as p0 , T0 ,  0 , but it happens to be at 0 velocity.
85
Now, we want to create a flow from this reservoir. So, we say it is a reservoir. So, one
can imagine that this fluid is at very high pressure high temperature and density such that
it can induce a flow to happen in certain passage. So, we are allowing this flow to happen
in one of the passage by creating a hole into this reservoir and we allowed it to go to a
state.
So, this is how we defined this active state; that means, p, ρ, T all these parameters we
say as active state. So, active state means as if this flow gets generated from this
reservoir.
So, hypothetically what it says is that the fluid can accelerate from reservoir to arbitrary
state or fluid can decelerate from its active state to the stagnation state. So, if this is your
initial stage, one can accelerate this fluid to final state. We can accelerate the fluid and
this process is isentropic, other angle is that if we assume this to be an initial state and we
come to the final state. So, here we have to decelerate the fluid and the process is also
isentropic.
So, in other words what we are saying any arbitrary fluid state has a thermodynamic
situation which is known to be a stagnation state and that condition is reached through an
isentropic process and the corresponding notations what we give we for pressure
arbitrary state is denoted as p corresponding stagnation state is denoted as a p0 similarly,
T0 and  0 . This is how we view this.
Now let us see that how it means to us in terms of a fundamental diagram which we
normally represent for an isentropic flow what we call as Mollier diagram. This Mollier
diagram has x axis as entropy and y axis as enthalpy and on this Mollier diagram
thermodynamically one can represent constant pressure lines. So, this constant pressure
lines for our case we can say because in our case our two constant pressure lines one is p,
other is p0 .
So obviously stagnation state will have higher pressure. So, it is denoted as a p0 and
what we say is that when we are going from either static state to stagnation state or from
stagnation state to the static state. So, in this case we get the first case we either you can
come this way or you can go this way. So, on this process we say entropy remains
constant.
86
So, for this process one can also draw the temperature entropy diagram here the curves
will be little bit steeper this is also s  s0 and the temperature terms we can say T0 line,
this is T line. So, this is how one can say we call this as a static temperature and we call
this as a stagnation temperature, here we call it as a static enthalpy and here we call it as
a stagnation enthalpy and this is how the concept behind the static temperature, static
pressure and static enthalpy.
So, whatever I told if we want to just summarize what we can say that the associated
fluid parameters of the fluid in a hypothetical stagnation state are called as “stagnation
properties.” So, one can have stagnation pressure, stagnation temperature and stagnation
density. All these stagnation properties can be assigned to the fluid when it is actually
moving with a finite velocity at certain conditions of pressure and temperatures. Many a
times the “total properties” are also used similar to “stagnation properties.”
87
One other important inferences that we get from this stagnation enthalpy and stagnation
temperature is that the term associated with velocity. For stagnation enthalpy we say
V2 V2
and for stagnation temperature we say what we see is a dynamic term. So, if I
2 Cp
say stagnant enthalpy or stagnation temperature implicitly this dynamic term is already
taken into account.
So, this is how, what is the advantage of talking about stagnation temperature or
stagnation enthalpy or stagnation pressure in addition to its static value, because the
velocity components are already incorporated in these equations.
88
Just to moving further whatever analysis we do we did it for the last case. Now, we can
just revisit that analysis just to say that just to analyze the energy equations in terms of
stagnation temperatures.
So, the first thing what we are going to study that if the flow is steady, for an adiabatic
compression system if the flow is steady without work transfer. In all our analysis we
never consider work transfer and heat transfer, just to say for the sake of work transfer
and heat transfer and we defined this stagnation properties how these equations we can
address.
So, for that we talk about a process one which goes from 1 to 2, now when it is when
some system goes from 1 to 2 we can write the energy equations in this form.
 u 22   u12 

q  w   h2   
 gz2    h1   gz1 
 2   2 
Now in this equation if both 1 state and 2 states are at same elevations, we can neglect
gz1  gz2  0 and all the analysis we consider for unit mass of the fluid and when it goes
from 1 to 2, the heat transfer and work transfer are related through these energy
equations that is q - w.
89
Now, from the first case when the flow is steady, but it is a adiabatic compression
systems, so, we get q to be 0 and this will turn out to be w  C p T01  T02  where we say
C pT01  h01 and C pT02  h02 and in other situation, the second case when it is without
work transfer so, we say w to be 0. So, the heat added q  C p T01  T02  .
Now, the last part of this topic is the isentropic relations which is a very commonly
p
written as for an isentropic process where  C . So, for that process a commonly



p  T   1   
used relations we can write 0   0    0 
p T    
So, here the thermodynamic process which goes from 1 to 2. Here we consider 1 as
arbitrary state, 2 as stagnation state. So, when you say arbitrary state we say p, T and ρ
and when you say stagnation state we say p0, T0, ρ0.
So, by recalling this ds to be 0 and this equation as this entropy equation as this, one can
find out these relations with respect to ds by 0 and using these equations one can write
Cp  C 1
and also we have to use the relations like  and we say  .
R  1 R  1
90
T  p  T   
C p ln 2   R ln 2   0 C ln 2   R ln 2   0
 T1   p1   T1   1 
And once we simplify the entropy equations we can frame these most important relations
what we call as the static versus stagnation relation. So, with this I conclude for this
lecture for today.
Thank you.
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Module – 02
Lecture - 05
Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium - II
Welcome you again for this course; we are in the module 02 and this is the 2nd lecture in
the module 02. The topic of this module 02 is Wave Propagation in Compressible
Medium.
Now, just to give the brief introduction what we have seen in the 1st lecture of this
module that is introduction to compressible flow. We will say that we bring into
parameter that is compressibility into account.
Then you discussed how wave propagates in a compressible medium. And when the
smallest wave is generated in the medium, we call this as a sound waves. Now, for the
sound waves we derived this one dimensional flow equations, then we talk something
about isentropic flow.
Now, moving further we will continue it from here again and here also we will continue
with isentropic flows. Also we will talk about this one dimensional flow equation, but in
92
a different context. Apart from this the last component of this lecture is the
characteristics properties of a compressible fluid.
Now, when I said that in a isentropic flow field, we say that a system undergoes a change
of state from 1 to 2 and when the process is isentropic. So, the essentially basic feature is
that when such a change takes place 1 and 2 we can represent that change to happen in a
small volume we call this as a control volume as shown is this figure.
So, the flow fields before this is condition 1, flow field after this control volume is
condition 2 and this process undergoes in isentropic manner. But in other words in the
last lectures we also define the concept of stagnation properties. That is again a situation
where we hypothetically bring the state isentropically also to the condition which is
called as stagnation.
So, when a state 1 becomes a stagnation state we define this properties to be p01 that is
pressure, T01 temperatures, ρ01 that is density, e01 is total energy. And now when you
bring this flow to stagnation situation we say that you are bringing this u1 to be 0. Now,
similarly since condition 2 is also another arbitrary situation we can also bring this flow
conditions to be also stagnation.
So, that situation also we will have u2 is also equal to 0, p2 will become p02, temperature
will be T02, density will be ρ02 and then total energy will be e02.
93
Now, these 2 conditions also needs to be same. So, what it means that any arbitrary flow
fields can be brought to a stagnation states. And essentially stagnation states are nothing,
but the another definition of a given flow field and we also assign them with certain
properties.
Now, coming back to these things, when we talked about all this case we say that process
undergoes a change of state from 1 to 2, that process is isentropic. But what you are
trying to say is that when both the conditions become stagnation and they are essentially
same we call this as p0, T0, ρ0. So this p0, T0, ρ0; how you are going to evaluate?
So, for this reason second law of thermodynamics talks about a property called entropy
and in this case the flow is isentropic so change in entropy from state 1 to 2 is 0. And the
entropy equations has been given through these fundamental principles where there are 2
equations essentially, when you know the static properties like pressure, temperature and
specific volume one can calculate the entropy change.
So, let us talk about the first equations when we are talking about gas we are talking
about this calorically perfect gas. When you say calorically perfect gas you are using two
R R
important relation that is C p  and C  . Now, these two things we are going
 1  1
to put here and we shall be solving these equations.
94
T  p  T   
C p ln 2   R ln 2   0; C ln 2   R ln 2   0
 T1   p1   T1   1 
T  R  p2 
When we are solving these equations we can write ln 2   ln  .
 T1  C p  p1 
R
Now, when you put this from this equation then this happens to be in this situation
Cp

p 2  T2   1
like we can say   . Now, it happens to be the case that; if your condition 2 is
p1  T1 

p  T   1
static and condition 1 is stagnation. So, you can write this as 0   0  .
p T 
Now, from this similar expression also we can do same way, but here we have to use the
1

R  T   1
relations for C  . Now, from these equations we can rewrite 2   2  .
 1 1  T1 
1
Now, here also we will say   . So this equation can be written in terms of density.

So, finally, we are going to say the condition 2 is static and condition 1 is stagnation. So,
1
  T   1
we say 0   0  . So, now, we will move further to derive another relations.
 T 
95
So, in the previous relations we talk about pressure, temperature and density. Now, we
did not bring into the flow speed into account and we say that compressible flow is also a
function of the flow speed. Now, flow speeds are essentially characterized through this
non dimensional number that is Mach number.
Now, let us see that if any flow field has pressure, temperature and density given as p, ρ
and T and this flow has certain Mach number M. Then when it is going or it is moving
through in a compressible medium what will happen to the corresponding stagnation
properties; p0, T0 and ρ0.
So, this is how we are going to calculate when a flow is isentropically brought to rest and
to reach the stagnation state. So, to do that the first task to derive this relations we have
to look into this particular expression that is temperature. So, the temperature is
fundamentally related to this energy equation.
T0   1 2
 1  M
T  2 
96
So, you recall these previous lectures where you talked the total enthalpy as
u2
h0  h  for a one dimensional flow. And these equations can be written as
2
u2 u2
C p T0  C p T  . So, bring C p to the other side so we can write T0  T 
2 2C p
R
Again you recall C p  . When you put this equation here this equation turns out to
 1
u
be and also we will also talk M  where a is your speed of sound written by RT .
a
So, when you use these equations here then this turns out to be
T0 u2
 1
T  R 
2 T
  1
So, this when you put these relations one can arrive at the fundamental lesson between
T0  1 u2  u2
stagnation temperature and static temperatures as  1   and 2 is nothing
T 2  a 2  a
T0   1 2
but M2. So, this means  1  M .
T  2 
Now, knowing these relations we can recall the similar relations between pressure and

p  T   1
temperature as 0   0  . When you substitute these equations we will land up in
p T 

p     1  2   1
this expression 0  1    M  . Another relation of isentropic relation one can
p   2  
1
  p 
bring out as 0   0  .
  p
p0
So, you know relations from these equations and when you substitute we will arrive
p
1
     1  2   1
at this relation 0  1   M
   2  
. So, this is how we derive the relations between
97
stagnation and static properties in terms of Mach number which is most important. And
in fact, this is also called as isentropic relations.
So, whatever I have told it is summarized here that is; what we did is we found the
relation between static and stagnation properties for a given flow field.
So, here I need to emphasize that the actual flow field need not have to be isentropic, but
we can assign the stagnation properties as a hypothetical state for a given arbitrary flow
field. Now, we will move to the one dimensional flow equations in a different context.
98
So, in earlier situations we are talking about any arbitrary properties of a given flow field
with respect to stagnation flow field and this is related through isentropic manner. That
means; thermodynamic process has to be isentropic. Now we will see the another
situations that when a thermodynamic states move from 1 to 2 through a control volume
in an isotropic process, what will be the one dimensional flow equations.
So, essentially the properties which we are talking about the velocity, pressure,
temperature, density and total energy and in fact, in the downstream side also we have
same properties. So, here what we are assuming that we think about this flow field to
happen in one dimensional manner; that is we have a constant area duct and entire flow
field is one dimensional. And here in our subsequent analysis our work transfer is not
important.
So, we will assume that the flow is changing its states without having any work transfer
into the medium, that means; there is no work transfer. But still the control volume can
do the energy interaction in terms of Q.
So, with these assumptions we will now move to the one dimensional flow equations. So,
here we say that Q is the heat added into the systems. So, obviously we will be talking
about three important equations that is what we discussed in the last module; continuity
equations, momentum equations and energy equations. And all these equations are
addressed through the control volume approach.
99
So, through integral form of those equations one can write this continuity equations
as 1u1   2 u 2 . And similarly we can also derive this momentum equations that is the
second part of these equations. I think this analysis is simple, we have to talk about the
nature of the forces here and simplifying the equations. So, the momentum equations
says that p1  1u12  p2   2 u22 . And moving further which is the energy equation and it
is mostly important.
So, here we are saying that only the system undergoes the change of state only through
heat transfer. So, that is what this heat transport term that is heat added into the system is
to taken into account. And in fact, all for all the equations we are saying that area is a
constant area so that is A. And another parameter of interest is the total energy.
Total energy consist of in this case here there is internal energy u and the kinetic energy
u12
. So, here we represent this internal energy as u int,1 that is for the state 1 and similarly
2
u12 u 22
for state 2 and flow kinetic energy will have and . And we are neglecting the
2 2
changes in the potential energy so that term is absent here.
 u2   u2 
Q   p1u1 A  p 2 u 2 A   1  u int,1  1 u1 A   2  u int,2  2 u 2 A
 2   2 
And in fact, entire equations we will have A common. And finally, when you simplify
that equations we turn out to reach at this stage where we define this each term of the
equation in terms of energy per unit mass.
Q  p1  u12  p 2  u 22
  u int,1      u int,2  
1u1 A  1  2   2  2
Q
So, when you say energy per unit mass the first energy that is Q is nothing, but
1u1 A
heat added per unit mass and this is represented in terms of q and internal energy and this
flow energy or flow work is happens to be the enthalpy and kinetic energy term remains
as it is. So, this is the one of the fundamental equations that is utilized in all subsequent
analysis.
100
So, if the summary of these equations we will have continuity, we will have momentum
equations; we will have energy equations. So, these equations are the thermodynamic
change of state from 1 to 2.
Now moving further we will now, talk about another segment that is characteristics
properties of the compressible fluids. In all previous situations we discussed about the
thermodynamic property, we discussed about fluid mechanics properties, we discussed
101
about the stagnation properties of a given flow. Here we will now bring into another
concept which is called as characteristics properties.
So, what does this mean? So, in all previous cases when we talk about these properties
we give the thermodynamic definition for the change of state. Like in the stagnation
states we say that fluid was brought isentropically to rest. So, in this case what we are
trying to say is that in a given arbitrary state of the fluid; now this flow when it changes
its state to a situations where. So, let me redraw it, when a medium consisting of large
number of streamlines, we take certain fluid elements which has some velocity V;
obviously, it has some Mach number M. So, this is any arbitrarily flow.
Now you define a state which we call as a hypothetical imaginary state. So, you define a
state hypothetical or imaginary state in which we will say that fluid is brought to a Mach
number M which is equal to 1. So, in a given flow field when which is arbitrary in nature
it has a velocity v or u and the Mach number M; obviously, it has associated temperature
also.
So, in this case when you are bringing it to 1, the thermodynamic definition that we give
is that the process has to be adiabatic. Now, when you say Mach number 1 the fluid has
to either slowdown or we increase the speed; that means, fluid element has to be slowed
down so that Mach number becomes 1 or you increase its speed so that its Mach number
becomes 1.
Now, when such a state is defined we say its a * conditions that is known as this
characteristics condition. Now, when you say characteristics conditions when you either
you slow down or increase the speed; obviously, temperature is going to change. So, in
star conditions we define another new temperature which is called as T*. So, when I say
T* also we can define the speed of sound at T* that is a*. And that is what we define the
speed of sound a  RT * .
u
So, if you say the Mach number of this fluid is M which is in general flow field and
a
when you are defining this a* again with reference to this imaginary state. So, we can
define a another Mach number which is M* which is known as characteristics Mach
u
number and this is defined as the ratio of .
a
102
So, this is how the concept of characteristics Mach number is defined. Likewise
whichever is related to the * conditions we can define any situations as a characteristic
states. But very basic bottom line is in this case the characteristics state is raised when
the fluid is brought to sonic state adiabatically, this is the most important definition to it.
Now, when given flow field is defined as its velocity u, what is the maximum speed it
can attain? So, this is we call as a maximum speed that is umax. So, a gas can attain a
maximum state when it is hypothetically expanded to zero pressure. So, when it is at a
zero pressure, but the static temperature is also 0 that is represented in terms of Kelvin
corresponding to the state.
So, what it physically means that it is a maximum speed of the gas represent the state
corresponding to complete transformation of kinetic energy associated with the fluid.
That is fluid has its own kinetic energy and it gets transferred completely to the gas
molecules. Its associated motion of the gas is into the directed kinetic energy.
So; that means, the complete transformation of the kinetic energy is associated with the
random motion of these gas molecules. So, when it is becomes 0 there is effectively no
random motion. So, that means; fluid has attained its maximum velocity. So, again we
can define this for a given state we can define that; what is the maximum speed it can
attain?
103
u2 u2
So, again we can revisit the energy equation of this form h0  h  or T0  T  ;
2 2C p
R   1 2
we say C p  . So, this turns out to be T0  T   u .
 1  2R 
Now here we say u has to be umax. So, when you say u goes to umax, this can happen when
2RT0
T becomes 0; that is absolute temperature. So, u max  . So, this is how we get
 1
this maximum velocity for a given arbitrary velocity of u. Again we will talk about a
characteristics speed as I mentioned that characteristic speed is nothing but the speed of
the gas when it is at the sonic state.
Again also we can find out same these expressions using the energy equation. So, we can
know that how that energy equation is very vital in all this analysis. So, everywhere you
are using this energy equations here; we will use this energy equation for stagnation
  1 2
temperature T0  T   u .
 2R 
So, this derivation was made in one of the previous slides which is this. So, here what we
are assigning is that u becomes u*; or u*=a* speed of the sound at sonic state, so that M
becomes 1. So, Mach number becomes 1.
104
  1 2
So, for that case we can rewrite this equation as T0  T    u that is arbitrary
 2R 
state becomes a star conditions, so you solve for u*. So,
 2RT0   2RT  
   
2
u   
  1    1 
2
Now, what you will do? We will now simplify this u  . So, you bring this particular part
we say; RT   a  u . When you bring this expression to the left side and solve for
2 2
 2 
u* we get u     RT0 .
  1
So, basically we have to say use this expression and bring this expression to the left side
2RT0
and then solve for u*. So, ultimately u   . So, further we can write this
 1
2RT0
RT   a . Now, since u*=a* we can also write a  
2
.
 1
So, there is some mathematical jugglery or simplifications one has to make to arrive at
this relation.
105
So, whatever I told, I summarized here. We here will talk about the speed ratio. So, we
defined the maximum speed, we defined the characteristic speed of sound, we defined
the stagnation of the speed of the sound.
So, what it essentially means; for any given state that is which is arbitrary. For this
arbitrary state, we can define an imaginary state and this imaginary state is achieved
through the adiabatic process and conditions are defined through *. But same arbitrary
states, we define stagnation state. For these conditions, we defined as o.
So, when we try to make relations between this imaginary state and stagnation state this
is how we define. That is first one is stagnation speed of sound, maximum speed of
a  u max u
sound, characteristic speed of sound. Then we can find this ratio , and max .
a0 a0 a*
Now, here we can see that all these expressions are function of gamma. Now, for air with
a u
gamma is equal to 1.4 one can fix this ratio as follows that is  0.92 , max  2.24 and
a0 a0
u max
 2.45 .
a*
Now, with this basic concepts and defining these properties, we will now visit the
information through graphical manner. So, what does this mean? We will define a term
106
called as adiabatic ellipse because most of us known as what is a ellipse which is a very
common mathematical term.
And here we will define an ellipse which is adiabatic ellipse. So, in a compressible flow
field, this adiabatic ellipse is a graphical representation of speed of sound as a function of
speed of gases in a steady flow medium.
u
So, as you know Mach number is equal to . So, it is essentially the relative speed
a
between u and a that defines this Mach number. Mach number becomes high when speed
of the gas is high for a given conditions.
So, it has also another implications that because u happens to be related to the kinetic
energy of the gas and a is related to random motion in terms of the disturbance. And
based on this particular concept we can now derive these equations for adiabatic ellipse
u2 a2
as 2
 1
u max a02
So, as I mentioned we know what is u max; that means, how a gas can attain maximum
speed. And we also know what is the speed of sound speed of sound at the stagnation
conditions for a given gas. So, this turns out to be the equation of an ellipse in terms of
mathematics.
107
And let us derive how we get these equations. So, to start these equations we again
u2
revisit the same energy equations that is C p T0  C p T  .
2
Now, we can say, since we are using a mathematical term we say this happens to be
constant so assign a term which is a constant C. So, what you do now? We can write this
u 2  R 
equations as   T  C1 . So, RT  a 2 .
2   1
 2  2
So, this will implies u 2   a  C1 . So, let us find what is this constant C1. So,
  1
here we will try to bring how we can get umax here. So, to get umax; we have to say that
when u goes to umax at what condition?
So, what it will do now this? So, we say T goes to 0; u goes to umax. So, we can write
 2  2
u 2   a  u max
2 2
because this C1 becomes umax where T is equal to 0 and a goes to 0
  1
2
so C1 becomes umax . Then we bring what is this u max square here.
u2  2  a2
So, what you do here to use this equation we can say    2  1 . So, from
   1  u max
2
u max
 2  2
2
this umax 2
you bring these relations from the earlier one i.e. u max   a 0 . So, we put u
  1
u 2  2    1  a 2
max square from this then we rewrite equations as     2 1 .
   1  2  a0
2
u max
u2 a2
So, this terms will get cancelled ultimately this leads to this expression 2
  1.
u max a02
So, this is how we derive these equations for adiabatic ellipse starting with energy
equations.
108
So, now let me see that when you take this adiabatic ellipse equation, how you represent
it graphically. So, this is the equation of the ellipse. So we are plotting this graphically
where x axis represent u, y axis represent a. We have a gas can attain maximum velocity
that is umax which is given by the abscissa of this ellipse or that is half of the major axis.
And the stagnation speed of sound a0 which is defined by this point which is the half of
the minor axis of the ellipse. So, at every point on this ellipse we can define about the
relative importance between u and a. So, when your Mach number is equal to 1 which is
u
.
a
That means, essentially u and a are same; so we can drop a slope from this point. This
point can be located that is from origin we can draw a line 45° and wherever it touches
the ellipse at that point we will have Mach number is equal to 1 because this u and a will
be same that is slope remains same.
So, this is how the physical significance of this adiabatic ellipse. So, what it means that
change in the slope from point to point indicates the change in the Mach number through
relative change in the speed of sound and velocity of the gas in the medium.
109
So, here we will now talk about something more what is called as a sensitive analysis.
What we essentially trying to say that how we can relate this Mach number with the
slope of this curve or ellipse. So, for that we want to find out this particular expression
da
that is .
du
u2 a2
So, to find these equations we start this basic equations 2  2  1 and from these
u max a0
da
basic equations you try to find out this . So, how do you do it? So, we separate this
du
a2 u2
equation as  1  .
a02 2
u max
Then what you do; simplify a 2  a 02 

1
2
 
a 02 u 2 . Then you find differentiate that is
u max
da  a2 
2a   20 2u
du  u max 
110
a02 a 02  1
So, now you try to find out 2 from this equation 2  , substitute here. Then
umax u max 2
da   1
when you substitute then we say    M . M you get because the left hand side
du  2 
 2  da
a goes to right hand side we get this Mach number. And M    .
   1  du
So, through the sensitive analysis, we get Mach number which is related the slope at any
point on the ellipse.
So, now let us revisit what does this mean. So, what we have drawn here to study the
effect of sensitivity of Mach number with respect to slope. We have taken only the one
fourth portion of the ellipse; that is the first quadrant.
So, just to see this relative importance, we are now trying to define different flow
regimes. So, just looking at this curve one can make out that when we our u tends to 0;
when you move towards left that means we are going closer to 0 although we have speed
of sound as maximum as a0, but we are in the situation that the speed has no effect in the
medium.
So, for that reasons we say that we are moving towards incompressible medium when u
decreases. But as and when u increases; that means, when we are going towards right
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hand side then u keeps on increasing. So, relative importance of u increases more and
more as we move towards this.
Now, coming back to this figure here we have defined essentially 5 regimes of flow. So,
first thing is that the first regime when you say the flow to be incompressible that is
defined as I where the flow is incompressible.
That means, we are in the domain of incompressible region and you choose that point in
such a way that that particular point your Mach number becomes 0.3. So, that means, as
long as we are in this domain, the flow is incompressible in nature. That means, the flow
is incompressible flow and the role of Mach number does not come into picture.
Now, as we move towards the region 2 which is this; the Mach number keeps on
increases. So, till Mach number is equal to 1 which is shown through a line drawn 45°
drawn from the origin to that point where Mach number is 1. The flow is defined to be
sub sonic that is second category.
So, as and when keep on progressively increasing. So, we are moving towards the 3rd
regions which is flow is happens to be supersonic. And in some dominance region like
flow is neither in the vicinity of subsonic, but trying to going to supersonic region. Or in
other words flow is initially supersonic and tried to goes to subsonic regions.
So, those regimes are defined in certain Mach number range that is 0.8 to 1.2. So, that is
denoted by domain IV that is 4th region that is transonic flow. And the last part which is
flow happens to be hypersonic so we are in the last part that is 5th region, flow is
happens to be hypersonic. So, in this domain we say that we are moving flow toward the
hypersonic regime.
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So, the last part of these things whatever I have explained which we talk as inferences
from adiabatic ellipse. That is change in the slope from point to point indicates the
change in the Mach number relative to change in the speed of sound and velocity of the
gases. So, it gives the direct comparison of relative magnitude of thermal and kinetic
energy in the steady flow compressible medium.
So, what it shows from the adiabatic ellipse that; at low Mach numbers flows the
changes in the property parameter are mainly associated with the change in the velocity
of the gases. And at high Mach number flows the changes in the property parameter are
mainly associated with the change in the speed of sound. And in the limiting case when
Mach number is in the range of 0.3 or less the flow is treated to be incompressible. These
are the important inferences that we get from this adiabatic ellipse. So, with this I
conclude my talk.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 06
Wave Propagation in Compressible Medium - III
I welcome you again for this course that is Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are
in module 2 that is Wave Propagation in the Compressible Medium.
So, prior to this we have finished 2 lectures on this module. Just to brief about what we
have completed that is we just introduced to what a compressible flow is, how it is
different from the incompressible flow and we discussed about wave propagation in one
dimensional medium. Here, we specifically talked about when a medium starts to
become compressible, it generates a sound waves.
How that sound wave is generated and we also derived the speed of sound from this
method. Then we also discussed about one dimensional flow equations that is pertaining
to speed of sound. Then next we move to isentropic flow where the one fundamental
thermodynamic properties was defined which is specific for the compressible fluid that is
stagnation properties; that means, for a given thermodynamic states we can have a
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stagnation properties and for to define those properties the flow needs to be isentropic
throughout.
Now, then moving to further there is some other properties known as characteristics
properties of the compressible fluid. And this was also derived for a situation when a
flow is hypothetically moved to a sonic state; that means, at that state where the Mach
number becomes 1. So, corresponding to those states we say it is a characteristics
properties.
Now, moving further in this lecture we will try to emphasize two important topics that is
again with respect to isentropic flow. We will talk about the energy equations in more
exhaustive manner; that means, in one dimensional flow equations earlier energy
equation was one of the fundamental equations and we are trying to express in different
forms.
So, that is what it is a alternative form of energy equations. In fact, these equations are
derived based on those properties we defined earlier like stagnation properties,
characteristics properties, how you can correlate those informations. Then on other the
segment what we are going to discuss is again with respect to pressure disturbance in the
compressible medium, but here the philosophy will be something different I will come
back to as and when it comes.
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So, moving to the first topic that is alternative form of energy equations, the very basic
idea is that in a given flow situations or flow along a streamlines, the property change
with respect to point to point or with respect to space. But here what we are trying to say
is that we are looking at two different locations in a medium or that locations may be
treated as a arbitrary locations.
So, we are talking about 2 locations 1 and 2 and for that 1 and 2 in earlier discussions we
have derived the mass continuity equations, we have derived momentum equations also
we have derived energy equations. So, that means, the properties at state 1 and 2 are
related in some fashion. So, if that is the situations and in fact, we says these 2 are
arbitrary situations.
Now, what we are trying to look at here we are very specifically looking at this energy
equation and with respect to this energy equations we are trying to see that if I move
these arbitrary states to a very specific state or any arbitrary state to a very specific state.
This means for example condition 1 or state 1 at these conditions velocity u1 and
pressure p1, temperature T1, density ρ1 and total energy e1.
Had this condition be a stagnation state what would have been the relation between 1 and
2 or in other situations also if state 1 is stagnation state, state 2 is a characteristic state.
So, what will be the relations between these two and in fact, all the energy equation is
valid because we are looking at the domain in a one dimensional medium and the flow is
occurring along this constant area duct.
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So, this is how the philosophy is all about. Again here to start with the first form of a
energy equations for the situations as shown in this case where we say q or work that
they are 0 mean there is no work transfer or there is no heat transfer.
So, if this is the case and its a constant area duct of the area A and the medium is one
dimensional; so, it is flow is only in one directions. The first form of a energy equation is
u12 u 22
h1   h2  . This is how the state 1 and 2 are related.
2 2
So, here h is enthalpy and u as you know this flow velocity and u2 is the flow velocity at
state 2. Now, from in the equation 1 if you write a calorically perfect gas with h  C pT ,
u12 u2
we get the equation 2. C p T1   C p T2  2
2 2
R
Now, when we write C p  . This is how it is related Cp and R and then we also can
 1
write a  RT or a 2  RT . When these two equations are put here, we get equation 3.
a12 u2 a2 u2
 1  2  2
 1 2  1 2
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p
Now, moving further there is another form of the speed of sound that is a 2  . If you

put it for state 1 and 2, these expression we get equation 4.
  p1  u12   p 2  u 22
     
  1  1  2   1   2  2
So, just to say that although we started the equation is the basic equation that is 1, but we
have 3 other important forms of equations that are of importance. So, this is how one can
use this equations in a one dimensional medium as and when the parameters are given.
So, moving further here what we are trying to say that in a flow field domain, if the
condition 1 is any arbitrary state. Arbitrary state I mean that is instead of defining as 1, I
can write u, p, temperature T, density ρ and energy e, but these conditions that is
condition 2 we will called it as a * conditions or characteristics condition.
Why is a star condition? Because, normally the properties are defined as T*. So,
hypothetically what we are trying to say that this condition is reached in an adiabatic
manner for which u2 becomes a* and M becomes 1. Let say we reaching the sonic state.
So, what we can do is that one form of equations that is in the last slide in equation 3
what we can write, if we put this condition 2 as *; the right hand side of the equation will
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 1
turn about this expression that is a *2 whereas, the left hand side of the equations
2  1
is a any arbitrary state.
a2 u2  1
  a *2
 1 2 2  1
So, equation 3 from the last slide will turn into this particular expressions. So, we can say
this is also another form of equations where one of the condition is a * condition or
characteristics condition.
The next expression that we can do in a similar way; we also can say that this condition 1
is again as it is. It is a arbitrary state and these condition we will say it is a stagnation
state which means this condition is reached in an isotropic manner for which the velocity
u2 is equal to 0 and all the property parameters becomes p0, T0, ρ0 etc.
So, in same equation 3 when you say u2 is equal to 0, this the expression turns out to be
in this form.
a2 u2 a02
 
 1 2  1
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a02
So, that means, the left hand side of the equation becomes because that point of
 1
time we defined this as a0 as a stagnation speed of sound.
Now, moving further here what we are trying to say is that when we say like in previous
2 situations, we say one as arbitrary other as any of the possible conditions either
stagnation state or the characteristic states.
Here, we will say that your condition 1 is a characteristic state which means u1 is equal
to a* and at this stage M is equal to 1 and this condition is a stagnation state where u2
becomes is equal to 0 and a speed of sound becomes a0.
So, in that aspect that means, we say the condition 1 and 2 can be one of the energy
equations we will take the form of this shape.
 1 a02
a* 
2
2  1  1
That means, in the previous way we derived those equations. Now, if we can correlate
 1 a2
them, then it will be becomes like a *2  0 .
2  1  1
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So, here we can further simplify this relations that is a *2  RT  and a 0  RT0 . When
2
you put these equations and simplify, we will get a very fundamental equation that is
T
.
T0
So, this is a very important expressions that we will be frequently using in the
subsequent analysis of this compressible flow classes that when a fluid goes from
stagnation state having temperature T0 to a state where it is Mach number becomes 1 that
is at that point of time your temperature become T*.
T 2

T0   1
It is the relation between T* and T0 is a function of gamma. It is only a function of

gamma. So, it is no other parameter comes into picture. So, this is how the first important
expression is derived.
Now, moving for the next similar expressions; now, here this is also same situation that
condition 1 become * and condition 2 becomes stagnation. Stagnation means * is used as
T  p  
a superscript, 0 is used as a subscript in the parameters that is , , .
T0 p 0  0
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T 2
So, in the last expression we derive this first relation that is  . Now, we can
T0   1


p    T   1
recall our isentropic relation like 2   2    2  .
p1  1   T1 
Now, when I use this equations and for which between pressure and temperature, then
we get this equations because temperature ratio we already know.


p  2   1
  
p 0    1 
Now, when I use between pressure and density, then I can get this expression because I
already know the pressure.
1
   2   1
 
 0    1 
So, what we see is that we get a relation between a state where u1 is equal to a* and u2 is
equal to 0 that is stagnation. So, in such situation the property relations are derived in
such a manner that it turns out to be a function of gamma.
Now, for air; so, these expressions can be derived or found out which is a fixed number
T p 
that is  0.833  0.528  0.634 and this is for gamma is equal to 1.4. So, this
T0 p0 0
is a very important numbers that gives lot of design calculations in the compressible flow
analysis.
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Now, having said this now we will talk about another relations where we will bring
Mach number into account. So, what does this mean that any arbitrary state that is
condition 1 if it is any arbitrary state for which your Mach number is M and this
condition 2 is a characteristic state for which your Mach number is 1.
u2
And when you say Mach number is 1, but we can define as M   . So, you can also
a
define this M* for this Mach number. So, we reach here u=a*. So, Mach number for this
u
we can write, if in this state your speed is u. So, you can say which is Mach number
a
M*.
If this is the situation, then we are trying to see what is the relation between the M and M
star. So, for that what you are writing one form of the energy equations; one for the
arbitrary state, other for the characteristic state.
a2 u2  1
  a *2
 1 2 2  1
So, here we have brought the parameters into account that is speed of sound and velocity
of the gas or body. We also define a* that is corresponding to the speed of sound at the
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characteristic state. So, in this equations we can simplify a or divide that equation by u
that is on both sides.
So, we can write

a u   1   
  1 a* 2
. So, once you simplify this we can
 1 2 2  1 u
1 * 1
write a  and a  * . So, after putting this expression we can simplify this
u M u M
equation in this manner where you talks about Mach number relation with the
corresponding Mach number at the characteristic state.
2
M2 
  1
 *2     1
M 
So, just to give you brief about this particular parameter. So, what we can say the direct
relation between the actual Mach number in a flow field and characteristics Mach
number is related by this equation. And the aerodynamics of high speed flow involving
shock waves, expansion waves which further we will be discussing further, these
characteristics Mach number becomes a useful and significant parameters. How I will
just try to explain that what is going to happen. So, on normal circumstances when I say
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u
define Mach number we say . So, when your M is equal to 1, that is sonic state your
a
M* goes to 1 that is you can check from this equation.
Now, when M is less than 1 that is flow is subsonic your M* will be also less than 1.
When M is greater than 1, these M* also will be greater than 1. So, by this one can say
that the way the M changes similar way also M* changes.
Then question arises then why should I define M*. So, the main reason of this definition
of M* comes when M is much much higher or M goes to infinity. So, when M goes to
infinity, this is a situation when the flow becomes hypersonic that is Mach number is
predominantly high. So, under that circumstances if I simplify this equations, what turns
out to be M*.
So, what we do is you rewrite this equation in this manner like divide M on numerator
and denominator.
M *2 
  1M 2
2    1M 2
 1
So, what we will get M *  . So, when M*goes to infinity, this part goes
 2 
 2     1
M 
 1
to 0. So, this turns out to be . So, putting gamma is equal to 1.4, your M* happens
 1
to be a fixed number that is 2.45.
So, this is a very interesting analysis for this expression that as long as you are in the
domain of subsonic, sonic and supersonic, your M and M* they are related in same
fashion. But, when you go to hypersonic situation, the M*becomes a fixed number
although M goes to infinity.
So, this analysis makes a very simplified analysis in terms of mathematical expressions
because instead of using M as infinity people tried to express M in terms of M*where
there is no question of infinity comes, it turns out to be a fixed number. So, this is not
much covered details in this course. Just I tried to explain what is the significance of
M*in this situation.
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So, now we are going to move to a different topic that is pressure disturbances in the
compressible fluid. So, in the previously situations we talked about wave propagation in
a compressible medium in which we said that how a disturbance gets generated in a
medium and when this disturbance is generated, it moves at a speed of sound. If this
disturbance has very small magnitude, then that we called as a speed of sound.
So, now you imagine that in any medium this disturbance always moves at a speed of
sound. So, that speed of sound is always remains in the medium as long as there is a
disturbance. At the same time, we also have a moving body. So, a body also is moving at
the same time it is creating disturbance. So, there is a velocity associated to it. So, there
are 2 velocities now. One is the speed at which the body is moving and other velocity or
other speed is that speed at which the disturbance is moving.
So, this is related by a number which you called as a Mach number. So, one is your
speed of the body, other is the speed of sound and we made this ratio. So, the relative
difference between these two speed will essentially talk about the Mach number whether
it is higher or lower, other is medium is compressible or incompressible that we
discussed in the previous lecture.
What we are trying to say is that in this slide that we are talking about pressure
disturbance in a compressible medium when there is a relative importance between the
speed of the body and the speed of sound.
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So, what does this mean? That is what there are 4 possible cases we have discussed that
first is even your body is stationary; that means, a standing body it is creating a
disturbance or a source that is creating a disturbance it is moving in the different
directions.
When it moves a different direction, it creates a speed of sound; that speed of sound at a
certain time it encloses area defined by at. So, it is a spherical domain at that is what till
that time the disturbance should have travelled. Second case what we are going to see is
that when you at a subsonic speed.
So, apart from this, instead of velocity of the body is 0, if the body is also moving and
creating disturbance; that means, disturbance moves at the same speed, but your body is
moving relatively higher. So, if you progressively increase this velocity when it is a
subsonic situation that means V less than a; when it is a sonic when V becomes equal to
a. Now, when at supersonic speed V greater than a, then what happens in the medium.
So, that is the basic philosophy of this case which we are going to analyze.
And in fact it is very important as far as our understanding is concerned. So, the first
situation what we are trying to say just to explain this phenomena, we are saying there is
a point source which is located at point A and this point source is stationary; that means,
point source is not moving, but it creates disturbance around the medium.
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That one instance and this disturbance moves at a speed ‘a’. Now, at certain time δt; that
means, if your t=t0 is initial time at time t. So, this t- t0 becomes δt. So, at different time
steps it creates a disturbance that moves in a spherical fashion.
So, one can say the by time δt, this disturbance would have moved aδt; at time 2δt, the
disturbance would have moved a2δt and at time 3δt, the disturbance would have moved
a3δt. So, this is a very simple situation wave is moving and since body is not moving, the
disturbance moves at this location or at this distances. So, by staying this what do we
physically mean that, if you say at time a =3δt, even though the body is at point A, but
entire domain outside the point A is aware about the presence of the body at point A.
That means, entire flow information like pressure, temperature, velocity or the density
for this point A is essentially shared in the medium.
So, now moving further if I say instead of sitting at point A, the body has moved at
certain velocity V. So, at time t the body would have travelled from point A to point B.
So, the distance travelled by the body will be V  t . So, at same time the disturbance
would have moved a distance a  t and that is represented as a sphere in the space. So,
the most important point here is that within the space entire domain is aware of the
body’s movement from point A to B.
So, whatever changes in the flow field that is pressure, temperature, density, etc are
already shared by the medium. How? Because, this has been shared through the
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disturbance that moves at a speed of sound. How long these disturbance or the
informations are known; till the distance a  t enclosed in a spherical domain. So, but
one important point is that at any time instant, the point B as long as your V is less than
a, the point B will be always remain within the bigger circle that is a  t .
So, because V is less than a and we are looking at the distance at same time t. So, this is
what it means that since the speed of point source is less than the speed of sound, it will
always be remain within the sphere at any time instance. So, the point source will always
remain inside the family of circular sound waves and the wave continuously move ahead
of the source.
These are the important phenomena that from our analysis we can understand. So,
because of this reason, the pressure disturbance always warns the medium about the
presence of the body. So, within that circle a  t or spherical space a  t , the pressure
disturbance warns the medium. Medium here I mean apart from the body enclosing
space is your medium. It warns the medium about the presence of the body.
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So, in a very technical term or from with respect to our analysis term what we can say by
removing the point source it can be spell out in general that if a body moves at a
subsonic speed in a compressible fluid, the fluid ahead of the body becomes aware of the
presence of the body. How? Because the body emits disturbance signal in terms of sound
wave ahead of the itself. So, by the time body reaches there, the sound wave would have
traveled and it has warn the medium. This is the one of the important conclusion from
this analysis.
130
So, we discussed about what happens when your V is less than a which is subsonic.
Now, let us see what will happen if V becomes equal to a; that means, your speed of the
body is equal to the speed of sound means the point source is moving at a speed which is
equal to speed of sound. So, for that case referring to this figure we can say that the
relative difference of point B will be more and more as and when its velocity is
increased.
So, at any time instant t if you can say that your initial point or position of the body is A
and by that time t if you are looking at this pressure disturbance space of travel, we can
say it is a  t . And at same time the point B would have moved to a location B and that
distance should be AB that is equal to V  t , But, here interesting part is that all the
circles which were emerged out of this will try to merge at a point B only.
So, these are like essentially different sound waves that would have generated at time t.
And all this sound waves will try to merge at this point B and obviously, when V=a, this
circle will have same radius that is V  t = a  t or the sphere or circle whatever we say
will be V  t is will be equal to a  t . So, what does this physically mean to us? So, we
can draw a line X-X and we can clearly distinguish two different zones.
So, what are the zones? We say this, the space which is left to this X-X we say as zone of
silence and within this spherical circle we can say these are zone of action means what?
Since V=a, we can say the speed of sound or disturbance cannot move faster than the
velocity of the body. So, beyond this line X-X no information will be shared. So, what
does this mean?
That whatever flow information pressure, temperature, density, it is limited within this
spherical domain of a  t radius and the and the region outside the line of line X-X has
no information about the presence of body, but that is not the case when it is a subsonic.
Now what will happen if you just move further that is when V becomes greater than a?
So, what we are trying to see that this line X-X will try to gets bent in a fashion that as
shown in this figure; that means, since because your velocity has becomes progressively
higher than the speed of sound. So, the point B we will try to shift towards the left again
and again and as and when B is more than A, you will have number of circles and these
circles will try to move towards the left. And entire information which was about the
sharing of the medium is limited within this distance limited by the radius a  t .
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So, this is how what happens when the body moves at sonic speed and this circle is
known as sonic circle. That is the maximum radius what we can have when it is at that
point of time.
Now, as I explained earlier that when the body moves at supersonic speed, the point B
will try to move towards left. So, in this process the figure turns out to be number of
disturbance waves which is engulfed in a domain which is a cone.
So, in this cone what we will try to see if one interesting point that happens, if this
velocity keeps on increasing and increasing, at one point of time it becomes a point. It
can be imagined to be start at a point and this spherical circles of pressure disturbance
will keep on increasing and increasing and with a maximum radius of a  t .
And from that point, if you draw tangent to all this circles of pressure disturbance waves,
then we will land of a very interesting geometrical figure and this will be represented by
a right angle triangle ABC, where the ACB  90 . And this angle ABC is represented
as µm. What is that µm? We will explain now.
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So, this is how I have explained that by removing the point source it can be spell out that
in general that if a body moves at supersonic speed in a compressible fluid, the fluid
ahead of the body would never know about the presence of the body.
So, this is another interesting or landmark remark when a body moves in this speed of
sound. So, at this particular situation what we can say that as long as we are in this sonic
circle we say this region will be zone of action. So, which means the entire domain
within this cone is aware about the presence of body and outside this cone we call this as
a zone of silence.
So, outside this cone we will have the zone of silence. So, if you are standing in this
domain that is in the zone of silence, you will not be aware about the motion of the body
or any physical presence of the body. Because you have not received the pressure
disturbances in the form of speed of sound. So, the flow information has not been
propagated to you. So, that is the reason this is called as a zone of silence and other thing
that is within the cone we will define this as a zone of action.
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Now, moving about little bit of mathematical or geometrical understanding to this

phenomenon that is when your V is less than a. So, what we say is that in a 3
dimensional plane we will try to find out some mathematical background or insight to
this flow phenomena that is the pressure disturbance envelope is formed through a
straight lines that are tangent to the family of circular waves.
So, that means, each point on this, it will be tangent when you would start from the point
B. So, the point B is the final location of this P of your source, point A is your initial
location of the source.
Now, in a 3 dimensional plane the locus of the leading surfaces of the waves is a cone
with a body at its apex. So, this point B is known as the apex; that means, the location of
the body is known to be its apex of the cone and this particular cone is known as Mach
cone. So, we say it is a Mach cone. The line of disturbance is known as Mach wave. So,
essentially the line of disturbance I mean the line that we draw the tangent; we call this
as a line of disturbance that is known as a Mach wave. So, this is known as line of
disturbance.
The half angle of the Mach cone is known as a Mach angle that is µm. Half angle means I
think one can make it understand that along this line AB, this cone is symmetrically is
nature with half angle µm that is known as Mach angle.
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So, as I mentioned that for this case within the Mach cone we call this as a zone of
action, outside the Mach cone we called as a zone of silence. So, this has been
emphasized here. So, one can take a note of it. So, generally the pressure disturbances
are largely concentrated in the neighborhood of the Mach cone as Mach cone that forms
the outer limit of action. So, this is the limiting line of the Mach cone as a Mach wave
that separate the zone of action and zone of silence.
So, it is essentially means if you are close to this Mach wave you will at least know the
presence of the body. If you move away from this Mach wave, you are not aware of this
presence of the body or you are not aware about the flow informations.
135
So, this is how I summarized with respect to compressible flow and in fact this concept
has to be used as a basics of this particular course. That is when the body moves at a
supersonic speed, then the information related to its flow properties such as pressure,
temperature, densities are limited within the Mach cone that is in the second figure. That
is what we call as a zone of actions and these information cannot propagate upstream.
On the other hand when the body is moves at subsonic speed the flow property
information propagate everywhere in the medium. So, that means, in this case the flow
properties are always moves everywhere in the flow field because the disturbance moves
at higher speed than the body.
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So, this is a like a closing module for this second module that is wave propagation in the
compressible medium. With this we come to the end of this module 2. So, the highlights
or learning components for this module we should understand that what is the
compressibility.
We also know about sound waves, speed of sound or acoustic speed. We have to know
about Mach number, characteristics Mach number. We derived the expressions for
maximum speed of any gas and the characteristic speed of the gas. Then we discussed
about static and stagnation properties of the any gas.
We also talked about a graphical representation of the importance of Mach number in

terms of a ellipse which is known as a adiabatic ellipse. Then we also derived different
forms of energy equations and we also discussed about their relative importance, their
relative significance in a flow domain. In fact, we have now clear about the subsonic and
supersonic Mach number, how they are different in terms of pressure disturbance.
Now, when we are in the supersonic Mach number, it starts with a Mach wave. Then we
defined a Mach cone and also we also talked about Mach angles. So, with this I hope you
should as a reader for this course at the end of this module you have to ask yourselves
whether you are find the answers for all these terms or not.
137
So, this you can take it as a keywords for this module and try to dig into this definitions
at appropriate slides. And, once you are once you find this answers, then you will get
satisfied with your understanding. Now, with this I come to the end of this module 2. In
the next subsequent discussions, we will start the module 3.
Thank you.
138
Module – 03
Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Lecture - 07
Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow - I
Welcome you again for this course that is Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are
in the module 3, it is a new module, title of this module is Quasi One Dimensional
Isentropic Flow.
So, the content of this lecture are as follows; that is effect of area changes on flow
properties, concepts of quasi one dimensional flow, governing equations for quasi one
dimensional flow.
Now, let us see that we have brought about a new word, which is quasi one dimensional.
So, in all previous sections, we essentially emphasize the flow to be one dimensional in
nature; in a sense that it is the flow is entering in a constant area duct, that duct in
particular we assume to be a stream tube. In fact, the cross sectional area at the inlet and
the exit are essentially same.
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Now, while analyzing the flow field, we really do not bother about how the flow is
changing within the duct; rather we are essentially bothered about the inlet and exit
condition of the duct. And while analyzing all those things it is assumed that, the flow is
isentropic in nature. So, that is what we have analyzed till this point of time.
Now, moving further, we are talking about the quasi one dimensional flow. So, in this
approach I will explain that, how it is different from the conventional one dimensional
flow and why the word quasi is comes into picture. So, before you move further, we will
bring into effect of area change on the flow properties; rather we will say that, we have
to do the relaxation of the one dimensional nature. So, one simplest thing that we can do
is that, we can the change the area; but still the flow can be treated to be isentropic.
So, there is some thermodynamical physical insight into it. So, for which we will revisit
the Mollier diagrams just we explain that how we can do area change; while doing so the
properties are going to increase or decrease or there is a change in the flow properties.
So, let us revisit this Mollier diagram.
So, when you draw the Mollier diagram, we normally refer it is as in enthalpy entropy
plane as shown in this figure. So, on this enthalpy entropy plane, we are defining a state
which is any arbitrary state 1 and we will also talk about a stagnation state 0.
140
So, when I say this stagnation state, though I can define a stagnation
u2
enthalpy h0  h  . So, for this case for the state 1, any arbitrary state 1; if I can define
2
this as enthalpy as h1 in this diagram and corresponding to this stagnation state, I can
define h0 as its state. Now when I am at point 1, we are at pressure p1 which is the any
arbitrary pressure and when we are at point 0, we are at corresponding stagnation
pressure. So, this stagnation pressure p0 corresponds to the static pressure p1.
Now, looking at these equations what we can say is that, the total stagnation enthalpy is
divided into two parts; one is the static enthalpy h1, other is the dynamic enthalpy that
u2
comes by virtue of its velocity, that is . So, in other words what I can say, I can go
2
from state 1 to 0. So, when I go from state 1 to 0; that means, I am moving isentropically.
So, for this process 1 to 0 or 0 to 1, essentially the entropy s1 is equal to s0.
So, when we are moving from 1 to 0; that means, we are increasing the pressure. So,
relative weightage of u comes down. When I am moving from 0 to 1; the relative
weightage of u increases. So, in one case I am accelerating the flow, in other case I am
decelerating the flow. So, this is the very important basics that one can accelerate the
flow. When I say I have to accelerate the flow then we have to go from state point 0 to 1,
so that pressure must decrease. Pressure decreases, velocity increases.
When you say decelerate the flow; this means pressure increases, velocity decreases. So,
this is the very basic fundamental things that how the flow processes change
isentropically, when we are moving from stagnation state to a static state or from static
state to stagnation state in isentropic manner.
So, this is how the Mollier diagram is framed of, in which the flow process with known
initial properties and mass flow rate; the locus of all isentropic path can be traced in a
Mollier diagram. And in this case while accelerating or to accelerate or decelerate the
flow; the driving potential for this variation in the flow properties comes through area
change of the passage.
141
In fact, while decreasing the pressure and increasing the pressure, we come across the
change in the velocity; now to achieve this, we must take into account the area change of
the passage.
Now, let us see that, we will go by one by one; the first thing what we are going to see is
that on a Mollier diagram, we have to see that how an expansion process is taken place
on a Mollier diagram. So, to study the meaning of flow expansion; it means that the flow
path involves decrease in pressure with change in the area, so the pressure must decrease
in the direction of the flow with change in the area.
So, that is what the flow expansion means. So, like emphasize this word; flow expansion
means decrease in the pressure. And this through this process, the area can increase or
decrease. So, those things will come in the later part; but the basic understanding goes
that when we say flow expansion it must decrease the pressure.
Now, to do this, so let us take a state which is going from 1 to 2; in the previous case we
say we are moving from stagnation to static or static to stagnation, now you are saying
that it is any arbitrary process we are moving from state 1 to 2 and this process is treated
to be an expansion process.
So, what I drew is that, in the same Mollier diagram that is h-s plot; I am putting a point
1 that is coordinate 1 and point 2. So, we are moving in the direction of 1 to 2. So, in a
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manner such that, we say s1 is equal to s2. So, the process is isentropic. So, when I am
moving these things; now on a Mollier diagram these two lines represent the constant
pressure lines. So, at point 1, the constant pressure lines can be represent in this manner,
and for point 2 one can draw the constant pressure line in this manner. So, this is how it
is shown in the figure.
So, next important point is that the flow process is isentropic. So, when I say flow
process is isentropic. So, for state 1 and state 2; we will have same stagnation enthalpy
u2
that is h0, which is h  is equal to constant. So, this needs to be constant.
2
So, what I can do is that, I can draw another constant pressure line which can go in this
manner such that I can define for this point 1 and 2; I can then define a point o for which
the total pressure line is defined in this manner and corresponding stagnation enthalpy is
defined as h0. So, what I can say, your h01= h02 and this is nothing, but s0.
So there is no change in the entropy. So, let us define the state point 1 and the relative
weightage of h and u. So, for point 1, I can draw a line as h1 which is this and
u12
corresponding we can write as shown in this figure. Now, for point 2 we say, this is
2
u2 2
your h2 and corresponding is defined by this line.
2
So, in this process what we can say by maintaining total enthalpy constant, one can play
with the relative decrease in the enthalpy or increase in the enthalpy. So, let us say if you
are moving from point 1 to 2; what I am trying to say, in this process and the process
goes in an isentropic manner, in this process I am decreasing the enthalpy, so that means
it drops from h1 to h2.
u12 u2
But at the same time I am increasing its flow speed; that is from to 2 or in terms of
2 2
kinetic energy is increased. So, the increase in the velocity happens at the cost of
decrease in the static enthalpy and in this process I am going from 1 to 2, so pressure
must decrease. So, this means that I am expanding the flow that involves decrease in the
pressure and in this process I am also increasing the flow velocity at the cost of static
enthalpy.
143
So, this is a very fundamental aspect and we call this expansion process on a Mollier
diagram, we call this as a nozzle action. So, when I say nozzle action; that means, I must
expand the flow, the pressure must decrease. Now, this is a mechanism in which one can
increase or decrease the area, whether your inflow is subsonic or supersonic; which
means if at the inlet state your velocity is subsonic, we can increase the velocity or for a
Nozzle action the velocity must increase and pressure must decrease, this is the
fundamental aspects.
Now, moving further we will just take a reverse situation. So, there is nothing just to
explain here we are just saying that, it is a compression process on a Mollier diagrams.
So, we redraw the same figure. So, I will just put the reverse symbol like we are now at
point 1 and moving to point 2 that is pressure must increase; but still your stagnation
pressure remains same.
So, direction of this is given as 1 to 2. So, there is a increase in the pressure. So, you
u12
have your h1, you have h2 and this is h0. So, in this process we are saying this as h1  ,
2
u2 2
h2  .
2
144
So, here 2 and 2` are same. So, in this case also your h01= h02. So, the function is just
exactly opposite. So, this process we call as a compression process and it is called as a
diffuser action.
So, in this process what is going to happen; your static enthalpy increases, but flow
velocity drops, and the path involves the area change. So, there is the flow compression.
it’s a increase in the area. So, the flow compression involves a path that involves increase
in the pressure with the change in the flow passage.
So, now we are able to say that process is isentropic and we can define the compression
process and expansion process on a Mollier diagrams. So, accordingly we define diffuser
action or nozzle actions. Till this point of time we do not say anything about the area;
whether it should increase or decrease, that part, that aspect will come later. But for a
nozzle action pressure must decrease and for diffuser action pressure must increase.
Now, let us do a kind of a relaxation saying that, instead of talking the flow to be
isentropic; we can say it is a adiabatic. So, when I say adiabatic; so I bring friction into
account. So, in the same nozzle action, we can bring into friction; so essentially flow is
not isentropic, rather flow can still can be thought of to be a adiabatic.
So, what does this mean? So, again we will revisit this enthalpy entropy diagram h-s;
now since it is a nozzle actions, so we define this point to be situated and the top. So, it is
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a expansion process; so one is moving from 1 to 2. So I will define this state as 2`, so
which is isentropic.
Now, if the flow is not isentropic, the actual process the flow can take place in a non
isentropic manner. So, we say 2. So, the actual process we say it is a 1-2. So, we actually
one can say that your s2 is greater than s2`; that means 1-2 process is non-isentropic
process.
In this aspect we can say there is a enthalpy lost; so this is nothing but h2  h2 . So, this
particular concept; where it is lost; this is lost due to heat equivalent energy expended in
overcoming this friction, that is q f . So, when I am performing a nozzle action while
moving from 1 to 2` in isentropic manner, in reality it does not happen; we land of in

another location 2, for which there is a heat loss in terms of friction, that is q f .
So, obviously, this is a negative quantity for a nozzle action. But, we can still say that
flow can be assumed to be adiabatic without any work and heat transfer.
Now, in similar concept also apply here, but here the heat equivalent energy expended in
overcoming friction for the situation of a diffuser action happens to be a positive
quantity. So, in the same plot h-s, one can say that I am at p1, I am moving to p2. So, here
an isentropic process would have gone to 1 to 2`; but a non-isentropic process will take
to a real situation and your h2 also greater than h2`.
146
And in fact, there is a deviation in the enthalpy; that is h2  h2 , that enthalpy deviation is
taken into account as heat equivalent energy expended over to overcome the friction. But
in any case the flow is still adiabatic and one dimensional.
So while analyzing these two, if I can sum up what we have discussed so far; for a
compressible flow, these are the summary what we are going to get. That is when a
compressible flow is allowed to flow through a passage in which the area can change;
that means we are changing the area, it can compress or expand, that means flow will
compress and expand in the direction of the flow with still assumption of steady and
isentropic process.
So, these area change has two major effects. So, first effect that we can expand the
flowing fluid, so we call this as a nozzle action or we can compress the flowing fluid, we
call this as a diffuser actions. Now, both the actions are possible or both the actions help
us what to do; that means, if your inflow is subsonic, we can expand the fluid; if your
inflow is supersonic, we can still expand the fluid, but what is going to happen whether
we have to either increase or decrease the area.
So, it all depends, so we are bringing the condition of inlet condition into picture,
whether the inlet condition is subsonic or supersonic. Now, that is what in either case or
expansion or compression, the flow passage can have increase or decrease in area in the
direction of the flow. So, whether you have to increase or decrease it all depends what
147
condition your inflow is; means whether your inflow is subsonic or your inflow is
supersonic.
So, accordingly we have to take a decision, whether to increase the area or decrease the
area to perform the expansion action or compression action. So, now, when I say that
area has to change, so we have to relax the assumption of constant area situations; that
means there is no question of one dimensionality, so rather we are going to bring the
concept what we call as quasi one dimensional approach.
So, in a quasi one dimensional approach what really happens is that, in a normal situation
we say the flow to be one dimensional contained infinite number of streamlines and we
assume this to be a stream tube. And we are really bothered about the inlet and exit
conditions, that is 1 and 2 and we say this process needs to be isentropic.
So, this was the concept we did for a constant area flow in a stream tube, where the
properties vary in one directions. Now, when I say this is a stream tube, we really do not
bother about what happens within the area; whether this flow properties change happens
in any of the manner, whether the process is isentropic, non isentropic that does not
matter, rather we are worried about two extreme conditions 1 and 2.
148
So, such a process either within the stream tube; this we can think of heat addition, we
can think of heat rejections, we can think of any other phenomena such as formation of
normal shock, we can think of any other phenomena such as friction.
So, there are variety of mechanisms in which the condition 1 and 2 can change and all
these process are essentially non isentropic; in fact this particular part we will be
discussing more details in all subsequent analysis. But the very basic point I need to
emphasize here that, we really do not about the control surface of the stream tube,
because it is a constant area and does not change.
And in fact, our all the governing equations which were treated, which were derived; it
was essentially a following the assumption of constant area. But what we are trying to
bring the concept here a approach, we call as quasi one dimensional approach.
So, what we are trying to say here; one can have another situation where the flow is
isentropic, where the properties do change with respect to increase or decrease in the area
of the passage. So, the restriction of constant area is relaxed; means area can change in
the direction of the flow. So, how that is possible?
So, you bring this particular concept here is that, this is a kind of a situation where we
can say the; it is a kind of a duct which has certain inlet area A1 and also some exit area
A2 and in this case the area changing only in the direction of x. So, I can write A as a
149
function of A(x). So, what you see is that, there is a flexible surface which is bounded
from inlet to exit. So, this is nothing, but your control surface.
So, in this case it is also a stream tube stream tube, but it is a flexible. Flexible means, I
can increase this area, also I can decrease in area; if I am coming from the other side, this
is a situation of decrease in the area; if you are moving from inlet to exit, it is a situation
is with increase in the area. So, the approach that we do here, like we are in all other
cases, we are talking this entire volume to be a control volume approach; it is bounded
by the control surface, the properties change in these directions.
So, the very basic point that needs to be emphasize that, although by relaxing these
assumptions we say that; it is a quasi one dimensional approach, flow properties are
uniform across a particular cross section.
So, at a particular cross section means, I can define the cross section and these are
essentially the cross section at which I can define. So, at these particular cross section, it
may have a average property value and that remain same at all the points at this location;
but if I move to different x, the properties are going to change.
So, to some extent it is a logical approximation of actual flow properties. So, this point
also I have emphasized that the properties are represented as a function of spital
directions in a flexible stream tube. This is how we say it is a control volume approach.
In fact, while doing analysis one can say, we can think about this overall property change
to happen in a very infinitesimal small manner through a small distance dx.
If I measuring x along these directions, so we can define very small elemental lengths of
dx and that dx the property change is very marginal. And while doing so, we can make
sure that isentropic process assumption still holds good.
150
So, these are already I have explained, just to go through these, just I can just read out
that; we are now moving for quasi one dimensional flow analysis for which we are going
to derive the governing equations. In this case, we are we have to consider any arbitrary
region in the one dimensional flow through a stream tube. The flow properties in the tube
can change as a function of x.
So, that means area can change in the direction of the flow. And we can still need to have
a flexible rectangular control volume, which is defined by this volume V and it is
bounded by a control surface S; either you going from section 1 to 2 or 2 to 1, we can see
their area varies, either increases, increases when you are moving from 1 to 2 and
decreases when you are moving from 2 to 1.
So, the approach that we are flowing here that, we have to derive this entire volume as a
very small elemental length dx, and across which we are going to fit the one dimensional
flow equations.
151
So, the first equation that comes out is the continuity equation; so obviously the
continuity equation is a straight forward, its a algebraic equations, the very basic
difference what we are bringing here. Whereas in previous equations, where the area was
assumed to be constant; but here we are saying area as A1 that is section 1 and area as A2
here.
So, likewise these areas are defined. So, we get a straight forward continuity equations
which is algebraic in nature, that is 1u1 A1  2u2 A2 . So, otherwise we can say
uA  const ; then we can differentiate this. So, we will take this one and moving further
d  du dA
and doing simplify, we will use these particular expression    0 . Now,
 u A
question comes that, why you are using this approach?
Because for this analysis; we expect the property change to happen in a very small
manner, so that the justification of isentropic process is ensured and that is possible only
when we take a differential approach by dividing the entire control volume through
elemental length dx.
152
Now, moving to the momentum equations; momentum equations essentially it is a not

strictly a algebraic equations, because the area change matters. So, what we see is that,
from inlet to exit that is from 1 to 2 what we see is that the area that comes by virtue of
pressure is p1 A1 that is for this side and area that comes by virtue of exit is that p2 A2 .
The press force that get exerted on this exit area is p2 A2 .
A2
p1 A1   u A1   pdA  p A  2u22 A2
2
1 1 2 2
A1
In addition to that there is another pressure term that acts on this control surface and
these changes as a integral. So, pressure changes over that area from A1 to A2 over this
integrals.
So, that is what is not a strictly algebraic equations, but there is an integral into it. And
while recalling the one dimensional equations; the only difference that comes here is this
part, where your area is different and also the integral also has another parameter that
gets added in the momentum equations.
Now, this is the equation we are trying to analyze in more details. So, this is how we get
the first equation in the integral form.
153
And what we are trying to look at here, we have to revisit the concept that we are
dividing this entire control volume with small elemental length dx or elemental area dA
and area changes from A to A+dA. So, accordingly when the area changes this; so the
thermodynamic properties pressure, velocity and density they also change in a very small
manner like p+dp, u+du and ρ+dρ.
So, difference between them is hardly a very small number dp. So, this approach we call
this as a differential approach. So, for the time being we these particular equation what
was derived earlier from integral calculations, we are going to apply for these two
locations having this. So, if I write this equation for this before for the figure shown in b;
so what we can write is
pA  u 2 A  pdA   p  dp  ( A  dA)     d   u  du  ( A  dA) .

2
what you do now? You expand this right hand side term.
So, when I expand this right hand side drop, I must drop the terms involving product of
differentials; by differential means, like du 2 , you will have here du 2 , we will have
dA2 , we will have d du , these components wherever it is appearing we have to remove.
154
So, by doing so what we are going to get is that, Adp  Au 2d  u 2dA  2uAdu  0 .
Now, we have to recall the continuity equation which says, d  ua   0 ; this we call as
from the continuity equation.
So, we can differentiate this in a manner, we can write that taking this parameter as one;
we can say udA  Adu  uAd  0 . So, you have to differentiate. So, every part these
two terms kept constant keeping the differential of the other. So, this is how we do in the
mathematics.
Then what we do? Multiply u on both sides. So, when I say multiply u. So, I will say
u 2 dA  uAdu  u 2 Ad  0 . So, when I say compare this equation; I have here u 2dA is
here this equation, we will have u 2 Ad .
So, these two equations, so the term remaining here when I substitute here that equation;
so I can write this momentum equation, it is Adp  2uAdu  uAdu  o , ultimately we
get Adp  uAdu
So, A gets cancelled; ultimately we come back dp  udu which is nothing, but this
particular equation. So, this is a very famous equations known as Euler equation. So, this
Euler equation is a very famous equation in the compressible flow analysis. So,
essentially we will be using Euler equation to study the quasi one dimensional flow
approach.
155
Now, moving to the energy equations; now as you can see the energy equation is still
algebraic, because the flow is isentropic. So, total enthalpy remains constant, that is
h01  h02 . And, when I say total enthalpy is remains constant; that is if I write
u2
h  const and differentiate this equation, then we move to the equation that is
2
dh  udu  0 .
156
So, just to summarize whatever you have studied, I can make out that we are looking a
quasi one dimensional flow approach where the area can change; but this area can
change in a particular direction that is A as a function of x. It is first approach, first
assumption of quasi one dimensional flow, essentially the flow is one dimensional; but it
is still not one dimensional, but we are relaxing the dimensionality in some aspect. So,
we say it is a quasi.
So, while doing so, we derived this governing equations; but our approach would be
instead of not having a control volume approach, our approach would be a differential
approach. While, deriving the conservation of momentum equation that is we will say it
is a continuity equation; d  ua   0 . We will have Euler equation that is momentum
equation or in the other words we say let us say Euler’s equation and third one is energy
equation.
So, this all these things form the very basic bottom line equations to be studied for quasi
one dimensional approach. Now, while doing so, since we have already talked about the
situations that the flows now here can move from 1 to 2 or it can go from also from 2 to
1, and this 1 and 2 are the arbitrary state,.
And when I say arbitrary states, these arbitrary states have their own stagnation state. So,
that stagnation state we say 02 state and 01 state. So, these are stagnation states. Now
when I say these two states, so; one can define their own stagnation states. So, to do that,
p0
we have to use these particular isentropic relations . So that means for the state 1, I
p
p01 p
can write this as , for this state I can write 02 .
p1 p2
Now, to define all this things we are going to use these isentropic relations, where it is a
function of Mach number. So, this is a function of M1 this is a function of M2. And in
fact, this is true for all other properties relations like temperature ratio and density ratio.
We also have stagnation speed of sound a0  RT0 . So, this is the very basic form of
equations that needs to be used for the analysis which is quasi one dimensional in nature.
So, with this I will conclude my talk.
So, thank you for your attention.
157
Module – 03
Lecture - 08
Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow - II
Welcome again to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in the

module 3 that is Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow.
So, in the previous lecture, we introduced the topic of quasi-one dimensional flow and
with respect to that quasi-one dimensional flow, we say that there is a area change and
this area change leads to the property change in the flow properties. So, and in the entire
flow process, we say that the thermodynamic properties associated with the change of
state is said to be isentropic. Also, we discussed the fundamental equations for a quasi-
one dimensional flow.
Now, in this lecture, we will also touch upon those topics, but in a most quantitative
manner. So, the first fundamental equations that governs this quasi one-dimensional flow
is the area, velocity and Mach number relations. Then with that relations, we are going to
analyze what is the effect of area change by considering the entire process to be
158
isentropic and in fact, this area change leads to two important consequences that is
nozzle and diffuser actions.
In fact, nozzle and diffuser these are the two fundamental tools to expand the flow or
increase the velocity or compress the flow to decrease the velocity. So, in this process,
we are going to say that how a compressible flow can perform a nozzle or diffuser action
by using this governing relations.
So, these concept also leads to the very fundamental topic of supersonic nozzle and
supersonic diffuser. In fact, these are the typical devices, geometrical devices that are
used in a wind tunnel setup either to increase the velocity or decrease the velocity. So,
this is the very basic bottom line of this lecture. Now we will move to the topic.
So, essentially just to go more into this topic, if you recall what we have summarized the
governing equations for a quasi-one dimensional flow, what we say is that the flow is
allowed to pass through a duct which is a hypothetical stream tube and that is flexible in
nature. That means, area can change with respect to only one direction that is A is a
function of x.
Now, while doing so, we expand this area in such a way or increase the area in such a
way that the property change is associated with a very marginal increment like pressure
changes by a small magnitude dp in a small distance dx. So, likewise, having making this
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assumption in this change, we can say that the entire process can be considered to be
isentropic.
As so, with this logic, we use this continuity equations in a differential form, then we use
this momentum equation and typically it is the Euler equation that is also in differential
form and in fact, we have this energy equation which is essentially same what we have in
one-dimensional flow.
Apart from this, we also try to correlate the property informations through stagnation as
well as static properties such as stagnation to static pressure ratio, stagnation temperature
to static temperature ratio, stagnation density to static density ratio. And in fact, since it
is a moving flow so, we say all of them are functions of Mach number. So, this was the
basics of quasi-one-dimensional flow equations.
Now with these basics, we are now going to derive another relations which is called as
area, velocity and Mach number relations. So, again we have this same nature of the
flexible stream tube and in fact, this area, velocity Mach number relations is govern by
this equations. So, let us see how these equations can be derived.
  M 2  1
dA du
A u
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Now, another point needs to be emphasized here that this area, velocity Mach number
relations is used whenever there is area change that is one can use this equations for an
expansion process or for a compression process of a flowing fluid and we can represent
them in a qualitative manner through this equations.
Now, since the there is no other source of property change except the increase or
decrease in the area and the flow is isentropic so, this is the driving potential that is area
change is the driving potential for this change to occur. So, to start this equations let me
derive this particular area velocity Mach number relations. So, what you have to do you
have to start with continuity equation.
So, in the continuity equations, we represent this continuity equation that is in

differential form d uA  0 . So, this is one of the relations we used earlier. So, if you
d du dA
differentiate individually, we can write    0 . So, let us make a pause of it.
 u A
So, now, you say that you recall this momentum equation or I will say this Euler
equation. So, that Euler equation you write dp   udu . Now from this equation, we
dp dp dp d
have to write what is this dp. So, we say  udu . Now this   .
  d 
Now, for the time being now you move to another relation that is speed of sound. So,
 p 
you can write a 2    . So, since we are already saying, we can write this also as in
   s
dp
ordinary differential form . So, you can write this implies dp  a 2 d .
d
d d  u2  du
So, now, putting this so, we can write a 2  udu . So, we can find   2  .
  a  u
d du
So, this turns out to be  M 2 .
 u
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Now using this equation again in the continuity equations so, you can write
dA d du dA du du
  . So, these M2  or in other words, we can say
A  u A u u
  M 2  1 .
dA du
A u
dA
So, this is how the fundamental equations we derived which signifies how area
A
du
changes and say that how velocity changes and it is again to Mach number of the
u
flow.
Now, when I say area change with velocity, there is another significant relations that this
area change makes the change in the velocity, then what it does in terms of pressure. So,
how that area change is related to pressure change. So, this is again a simple expression.
So, we can also derive this from this area Mach number relation.
So, what you try to do? Again, we recall this Euler equation which is dp   udu . So,
dp du du
So,  u 2 . Now from this equation, we can replace this in this Mach number
 u u
du dp
velocity relations. So, how do you do? So, this will talk about  2 .
u u
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 dp 
  M 2  1   2  or we can write
dA
So, now, I can write from this equation
A  u 
 p  dp
 1  M 2   2  .
dA
A  u  p
So, this gives the area change with respect to pressure, but here there is another term that
p
drops in apart from Mach number that is this is nothing which includes pressure as
u 2
well as velocity.
So, these are the two basic equations that governs the flow that enters in a passage. So,
essentially one can analyze this expansion and compression of the flowing fluid in these
isentropic process, but same results one can use it for a adiabatic flow as well. Although
because in many situations, flow is not treated to be isentropic rather it can be considered
to a major extent, the flow to be adiabatic like we explained in the last class about its
property change in a Mollier diagram.
Now, we are going to analyze these two basic equations for a situation that in a diverging
passage and in a converging passage. When I say diverging passage, I say increase in
area. When I say converging passage, I say decrease in area. So, let us talk one by one.
So, what I am saying only say that we have a diverging passage, the flow is entering and
leaving. So, we assign this as inlet and exit. So, we assign the conditions as 1 and 2.
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Now, when I say this inlet and exit; so, my inflow conditions that is M1 it can be less
than 1 that is flow is subsonic, it can be also it can be greater than 1 or it that is flow can
be supersonic. So, we can have a situation that the either a subsonic flow can enter a
diverging passage, or a supersonic flow can enter a diverging passage.
When it enters, what happens in the exit? So, for both the situation, what happens in the
exit? Now taking this as a reverse situations, when I say this is 1 and 2 that means, flow
is entering at the higher area and leaving in the smaller area. So, at the inlet also we have
similar situation M1 can be also subsonic less than 1 we can have M1 also can have can
be greater than 1. So, in both the situations, we will find out what is the condition of M2.
So, essentially there are four conditions and two passages. So, all the four conditions we
are going to analyze through this fundamental relations.
So, for that let us see the first situation, what I will say inference 1 that is case 1: in the
limit of Mach number approaching to zero. So, when I put M tends to 0. So, what
dA du dA dp
happens here? We say   and in the second equation, we say  and this
A u A u 2
turns out to be Au is equal to constant.
So, what is this physical significance of this? So, when M tends to 0; M tends to 0 that
means, the area, velocity and Mach number relation turns out to be Au is equal to
164
constant. There is no parameter density here. So, Au typically represent the volume flow
rate and this is essentially what happens in an incompressible flow.
So, that is what it says that in the limit of Mach number approaching the 0, the relation
reduces to familiar equation for continuity for which volume flow rate remains constant
for an incompressible flow. In fact, density has no role in the continuity equations.
Now, when such a situation happens, we can say that for a diverging passage when
incompressible flow enters, then with increase in the area, the pressure must increase so,
it increases. So, velocity must decrease so, it decreases. So, this is how what happens in a
diverging passage.
Now in the reverse situation that is in converging passage, when a incompressible fluid
enters, the area decreases; when this area decreases, pressure also decreases by satisfying
this equation, but velocity increases. So, this is how we simply govern by the Bernoulli’s
equation for an incompressible flow between two states.
That is, we can write p1  p 2 

1
2
 
 u 22  u12 . Of course, we do not consider alleviation
into account here. So, this is how the equation is going to satisfy to make this pressure
and velocity changes and based on this, we design the concept of venturimeter for which
there is a minimum area known as throat.
So, this is how what we did in the incompressible flow. But this is not at the part of our
interest, main part of interest is towards the compressible flow, but what it turns out to be
the case that our main relations when it turns to incompressible limit, still the Bernoulli’s
equation and the concept of venturimeter still gets satisfied.
165
Now, let us move to the cases that when we progressibly increase the velocity or Mach
number. So, instead of Mach number going to the 0 limit, we use to keep increasing
towards the compressible flow limit. So, we will try to move the Mach number from
subsonic to supersonic side.
So, before you do that, we will say that what happens if I increase the velocity from inlet
to exit what happens to other parameters? So, when velocity increases so, if you see this
Mach number it is a relative function of the speed of your gas velocity and the speed of
sound.
So, Mach number can be increased by increasing u or decreasing the speed of sound.
Decreasing speed of sound means we must decrease the temperatures. So, this is how as
a consequence of increase in u or decrease in T, the Mach number will always increase.
So, let us see that what happens if I increase u. So, if I am increasing u which implies I
must decrease the h, h means static enthalpy. Why? Because along a streamline, we can
say that the total enthalpy remains constants which constitutes the static part and the
dynamic part. Static part is h and dynamic part is u.
So, and I am increasing u, h must decrease and since h  C pT for a calorically perfect
gas. So, this will implies temperature also decrease. So, decrease in the enthalpy will also
decrease the temperatures.
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Now, when temperature decrease, this will imply speed of sound also will decrease. So,
increase in u will lead to drop in speed of sound and in both increase in u and decrease in
a, this will imply the Mach number will always increase.
So, what it says is that for an isentropic process, if the velocity increases, the enthalpy or
temperature should decrease so that, stagnation enthalpy remains constant. The speed of
sound decreases due to drop in temperature. Hence, the increase in the velocity in the
isentropic flow results in increase in the Mach number and vice versa.
So, why I am saying this consequence because in the subsequence slides, we will say that
while increasing the velocity, the Mach number also increases; because here we are in
this equation talks about both Mach number as well as the velocity. So, based on these,
we can prepare a matrix that talks about what happens for different possible conditions.
So, what does this means in this matrix, how do you look at? In the one axis, I can put
dA either it can be less than 0 or greater than 0. What means in the direction of the flow;
that means flow can enter in a converging passage for dA less than 0. So, flow can enter
in a diverging passage for which dA greater than 0. So, in fact, the first row is the
converging passage analysis and the second row is the diverging passage analysis.
Now, when I am doing this dA less than 0 and if M is subsonic that is M is less than 1,
then your du must increase so, dM must increase. So, likewise using this correlations
which I derived here, this matrix can be formed. In fact, this matrix is the benchmark for
our all subsequent analysis. So, this is how once I frame this matrix, I can tell that what
is going to happen to my flow.
167
So, this is my next section that is case 3 which is a nozzle actions. So, by definition the
nozzle action means the flow should expand, pressure must decrease and velocity should
increase in the direction of the flow. So, under what circumstances in that matrix I can
have. So, if I have to perform this nozzle action, then I must have the Mach number
should be greater than 0. So, dM should be greater than 0 that is the diagonal
consequences can be written.
So, in this case, you say that your du must increase and or du and dM they are greater
than 0. So, this is how the nozzle action talks about. So, what does this mean? I can
perform a nozzle action that means, I can increase the velocity of the flow by allowing a
subsonic flow in a converging passage or I can allow a supersonic flow in a diverging
passage.
So, this is a very contradictory statement that we had in the incompressible flow. So, in
incompressible flow, we are mostly concentrated on a converging passage. To increase
the velocity we must talk about the converging passage. But in a other case that if we
have a supersonic flow, then if you want to increase this velocity, then you must use a
diverging passage. So, this is one of the important consequence or significance for a
nozzle action in a supersonic flow.
168
The exactly opposite to that situation like I will tell du less than 0 and dM less than 0 that
is a diffuser action. So, velocity must decrease, pressure must increase that is in the
direction of the flow. To have this, if we have a incoming flow is subsonic and then, we
want to perform a diffuser action, this means we have to use a diverging passage.
In other scenario, for a supersonic flow, if you want to perform a diffuser action, then we
must use a converging passage. So, this is how the we say the nozzle action and diffuser
action with respect to area change.
169
The next important segment that means, same interpretation we are analyzing in a
different aspects. Let us use always a converging passage that means, when it is only a
converging passage dA less than 0, then from this we can use the first row where dA less
than 0. So, when dA less than 0, now if I allow a subsonic flow when it enters a
converging passage; so, in the downstream the Mach number will increase.
But in other case, when a supersonic flow enters a converging passage, the Mach number
decreases. So, what it says in a converging passage which is means decrease in the area,
the Mach number increases in the direction of the flow that is when the inlet Mach
number is subsonic.
But in other scenario, the Mach number decreases in the direction of the flow, when the
inlet Mach number is supersonic. So, this is how the significance of a converging
passage.
Then, moving further in a reverse situation we will say what happens in a diverging
passage. So, as I say if it is a diverging passage, your dA must be greater than 0. So, I
should refer this second row. So, in second row in one case I get dM less than 0 and
other case, I get dM greater than 0. So, subsonic case, we say dM less than 0, supersonic
case we say dM greater than 0.
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So, what it means to us that if a subsonic flow enters a diverging passage, the Mach
number decreases in the direction of the flow. This is similarly the consequence we get
in a incompressible flow situations. But in a reverse situation, when we have a
supersonic flow, when it enters a diverging passage the Mach number increases. So, the
Mach number increases. So, this is in contrast with the incompressible flow analysis, but
it is true with respect to area, Mach number and velocity relations.
Now, we will talk in another important inference that is in a situation when the flow is
  M 2  1 ,
dA du
sonic. So, when I say flow is sonic so, if I try to use this equations
A u
 p  dp
 1  M 2   2  . So, if I put M is equal to 1 in this equations, I will get
dA dA
0.
A  u  p A
dA
So, what does this mean when I say  0 ? It means is a situation of maximum or
A
minimum area in a passage. So, let us analyze this situation that when a subsonic flow
entering in a converging passage.
So, we are analyzing that in one situation, the subsonic flow is entering a converging
passage. In another situation, the supersonic flow is entering in a converging passage. So,
continuously our result show that in the for subsonic case, the u increases and the
supersonic flow u decreases. So, this must increase or decrease.
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Now, this flow cannot increase subsequently by keeping on increasing this area. So, in
our analysis, one can say this area has to decrease. So, this means this is a minimum area
situations. Now, if I cannot have a situations where the area will have maximum for a
sonic flow to occur. So, what does this mean?
That means, as long as the flow becomes sonic so, it only is possible for a minimum area
situations because we cannot have in a diverging passage, we cannot have continuously
increase in the velocity. The there is no limit of maximum area.
So, the practical application point of view, the minimum area is the most realistic
situation because it divides a converging and diverging passage. But if it is a only
diverging passage, then there is no limit of this area which will lead to a situation
dA
 0 . So, this essentially very important consequence that leads to a concept of
A
minimum area and this minimum area is a situation that divides the converging and
diverging passage.
Now this particular concept gives another important phenomena which is called as
choking. So, when you say in the last slide that when M goes to 1, dA goes to 0 and this
is a situation for minimum area and this minimum area is known as throat area.
172
So, in a passage, the throat is the minimum area locations and when the flow reaches to
this throat, then it is said to be choked because the flow has attained a sonic velocity at
this point and no further area change is possible. And, when I say when there is no
further area change possible; that means, a sonic flow cannot enter a converging passage
continuously and still satisfying the conservation equations. So, by satisfying the area
velocity, Mach number relations, the sonic flow cannot enter a converging passage.
So, such a phenomena is known as choking and the minimum location at which it
happens is known as throat. So, to satisfy these things, what important consequence we
have? We can have a converging-diverging duct. Although, the word converging duct or
diverging duct they mean two different entities for different flows, but here by using this
concept, we can bring both the duct together so that, we can have a minimum area in
combining both of them and finally, we can treat either a subsonic flow or a supersonic
flow.
Now, when I do so, then all this equations: area, velocity, Mach number and area Mach
number and pressure relations gets satisfied to achieve the concept of nozzle or diffuser.
Now, let us see how it happens. So, now, in this case what I have merged here a
converging passage and a diverging passage, they are merged together. Here also
converging passage and diverging passage are merged together.
Now, let us analyze two basic distinct situation where one case inlet condition is
subsonic, other case the inlet condition is supersonic. So, let us say when a subsonic flow
enters a converging passage; so, obviously when it enters a converging passage, the
velocity increases. How long the velocity can increase? The velocity can increase up to
the minimum area that is throat locator. So, when it increases to this throat means it has
reached a sonic point. So, that is the sonic Mach number is reached at the throat.
Now a sonic flow, as I said that sonic flow cannot enter in a converging passage because
the flow is said to be choked. So, we have to attach a diverging section with same throat
on both sides. So, the diverging passage will have minimum area that is throat and the
when the sonic flows sees a diverging passage it further increases. So, at the end, at the
exit, we get the Mach number greater than one.
So, what does this mean that we started with inflow was subsonic and we get exit flow as
supersonic. So, this is a very important tool that say that a subsonic flow can be
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accelerated by using a converging diverging duct and so when I say, then it can be
accelerated to a supersonic flow.
And in reverse situation, when your inflow is supersonic and exit we can have a sub
sonic Mach number. So, what does this mean? When a supersonic flow enters a
converging passage; so, when it enters, the rule says that velocity must decrease. How
long it will decrease? It will decrease to a sonic point where M is equal to 1. Then after
that what will happen? It sees a diverging passage. So, the velocity continuously
decreases to desired subsonic Mach number.
So, this leads to this particular concept of supersonic nozzle. What it says? This
supersonic nozzle has a very good laboratory tool in subsonic wind tunnel. What for it is
used? It is used to accelerate the air and the how does it does?
That the flow passage that continuously accelerates gas from a subsonic to supersonic
value should comprise of a converging duct followed by a diverging sections and the
mass flow rate attains to a maximum value which is known as choking conditions. And
at this choking condition, the Mach number attains to sonic by satisfying this equations.
And such a converging diverging passage will say is a De Laval Nozzle and in fact, this
De Laval Nozzle we typically call it has a supersonic nozzle.
174
So, the supersonic nozzle flow means that a subsonic flow can be accelerated to a
supersonic value.
The reverse situation that occurs that means, in most of the wind tunnel applications,
when you first we increase the flow to a supersonic value, but we must slow down the
process with minimal loss; that means, when we release that gas to the exit atmosphere,
it should be such that it should encounter minimum loss. So, to have this minimum loss,
we cannot dump that high speed air just like into the atmosphere.
So, we have to decrease the velocity that is where the concept of diffuser comes in. So,
we call this has a concept of supersonic diffuser. So, what it does is? It just does the
exactly the opposite function of nozzle; that means, here the flow passage, the gas
continuously decelerates from its initial supersonic value to a subsonic value. And, it
comprises of converging duct followed by diverging sections.
So, I will read out a most efficiently in the way that the flow passage that continuously
decelerates the gas from initial supersonic flow to a subsonic value should comprise of
the converging duct followed by diverging sections.
So, in this process, the mass flow rate attains to a maximum value that is choking
condition at the throat and such a type of convergent divergent passage is known as
supersonic diffuser.
175
So, when I use a word supersonic diffuser, it means that my inflow condition is always
supersonic. When I say supersonic diffuser, your inflow condition is supersonic. So,
along the direction, the velocity must be subsonic.
So, with this I will conclude this talk for the today. So, in the subsequent analysis, we
will talk about the more details of the choking conditions which happens exactly at the
throat.
So, thank you.
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Module – 03
Lecture - 09
Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow - III
We are back again in the another module of this lecture that is in the same module 3, we
will be discussing about Quasi-One Dimensional Isentropic Flow.
And if we recall the previous lectures; so we have discussed on this topic about the effect
of area change on the flow properties. Then we introduced the concept of quasi one
dimensional flow and for this quasi one dimensional flow, we arrived at the various
governing equations that is mass, momentum and energy. Then we introduced the
concept of area change and that essentially talks about the nozzle and diffuser action.
Subsequently, the concept of supersonic nozzle and supersonic diffuser also introduced.
Now, in this module will now talk about the another lecture that is 3rd part of this lecture
and here, we shall discuss about important topics such as area Mach number relations.
Another important topic is choking conditions, so we will estimate the choking mass
flow rate for a convergent divergent duct. And apart from this which is the most
177
important segment of this isentropic flow, here we will discuss about the gas property
table. So, this gas property table will essentially tell us that how to refer gas tables for an
isentropic flow. We will talk about these things in the subsequent slides.
Now, if I just recall what has been discussed in the last module. So, we came with a
conclusion in the last module that a supersonic nozzle and diffuser is possible by using
two segment of a passage; that is the convergent passage and then we have a divergent
passage. And theoretically, we prove that it is possible to accelerate a subsonic flow
entering in a convergent passage and finally, getting a supersonic flow at the end of the
divergent section which is again attached to the convergent duct. And essentially, at a
minimum area that is the location of throat, we are going to get a sonic flow. And
similarly, in a same convergent divergent passage if our inflow is supersonic, then we
can decelerate the flow so that at the exit, we will be able to get a subsonic flow.
So, all this concepts were governed by this relations which is the Area Mach number
relation. Now, this area Mach number relations also is connected with respect to pressure
change that will talk about whether it is a nozzle action or it is a diffuser action.
178
Now, moving further we are now going to analyze the; the same continuity equations,
but with a different context. Now, what is that context is that basically if you look at this
convergent divergent passage; throat is the minimum area section.
So, when we really want to design a nozzle or diffuser; then we must take into account
this throat area or this minimum area. And that has to be taken has a reference conditions
because whether you go for a supersonic nozzle or diffuser; we have to come across a
minimum area.
So, with respect to this minimum area other locations like we can have a sections which
is at convergent part. So, basically we can have a cross section which is at a convergent
part and we also can have a cross sections which is at divergent part. So, what we are
trying to see is that; how to correlate any section X-X or Y-Y with respect to the
minimum area section. And this minimum area sections we represent as A* and any other
arbitrary sections; we represent as A.
So, if you look at the relation between cross sections between X-X and throat; then we
can say it is between A and A*. Similarly, if you look at the cross sections Y-Y and the
throat, then we also this part also we can put it as A.
So, area at that location is arbitrary; so correspondingly we get the mass flow rate uA at
that section. And with respect to throat, the mass flow rate is  u  A because at this
179
condition, you have sonic flow. So, by continuity equations; we can relate this two
expressions and further, we can rewrite this expressions as in this manner like
uA   u  A
 A      0  u 
 
       
 A    0    u 
Now, making it square we arrive at this particular expression, but here one thing to be
noted here, we have put u  as a  . So, we can replace this u  as a  ; at that point your u 
is happens to be sonic velocity.
2 2
 0 
2
    u 
2
 A  
      
A   0     u 
1
    1 2   1 
Now, we can recall our isentropic relations 0  1  M  . So, can be put
  2  
0
here and when you put M is equal to 1, this entire expression will be . So, this turns

1
    1   1
out to be 0    ; this we can get when we put M is equal to 1; so this is one
  2 
expression.
180
  1 2
 M
u
Another expression, we can also get between   M 
*  2 
a    1 2 
1   2  M 
   
So, this expression we get it as the formula which is known as characteristics Mach
number.
So, how do you get it? Because this concept tells that at any location when the flow is
reached to sonic velocity, then we call this as characteristics Mach number. Now, by
A
putting that expressions; we will arrive at the relation between ; that is A is any
A
location and A is the throat location.
A
So, that after simplifications, it turns out to be this particular expressions.
A
 1
1  2    1 2   1
2
 A
   2 1  M 
A  M   1  2 
So, what we can tell is that for any convergent divergent passage; the continuity equation
can be applied at any two arbitrary locations of the passage and one can apply this
equation for the throat and any point downstream or upstream of the flow.
So, I mean downstream means if you look at this side; this will be the divergent part and
this part will be convergent part and this A can refer to any two locations of this passage.
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A
Now, one of the important segment from this expression is that here we say ; we can
A
write as a function of Mach number. So, in one way of calculating this area ratio; that
means, with respect to this throat and with respect to any arbitrary area A, if you know
A
the Mach number; then it is easy to calculate by using the expressions. Because by
A
simplification by just putting the Mach number and the value of gamma for the gas, then
we can find out this area ratio. But the relation between the Mach number and area ratio
is implicit in nature means that if you know area ratio; then it is almost difficult task to
calculate Mach number. Because, the nature is not simple you have to use the some trial
and error concept to solve that equations.
Now, this is one part; second part of this expression is that one way of arriving at this
difficulty in calculating Mach number from area ratio; a plot is given or a graph can be
generated which is between this Mach number and area ratio which is shown in here. So,
what we can see here that; if I just put some standard number, what is the standard
number? We can have minimum area when A is equal to A*.
So, A goes to A*, that is the minimum conditions and that area ratio happens to be 1.0.
And when this is 1; obviously, your Mach number will be fixed at one and this particular
point on the curve; we can have, this is the Mach number. Now, then what we do? We
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increase the area, try to solve these equations. Now, when I increase this area; the curve
goes in this manner which is a kind of a elliptical in nature.
Now, when you say elliptical in nature and if I just draw a apex point; that is at this point
that is the apex point of this ellipse. Then, I can say there are two parts the first part is the
subsonic part and second part is the supersonic part.
So, what I can say is that; if you look at this plot, at any area ratio; if you put any fixed
area ratio and draw a vertical line; this line will intersect, this curve at two points that is
one in the subsonic domain, other would be in the supersonic domain.
A
So, what I can say? For a given area ratio , there are two possible solutions which one
A
is in the subsonic domain, other is in the supersonic domain. So, just putting this number;
if you put some realistic number, what I can say; this area ratio, we can say up to this
point may be 6, this point may be 8, this point may be 10 and this particular point may be
2, may be 4.
Here also Mach number, we can have around 4 and this Mach number may be 0.2, may
be 0.8. So, this will give a rough indication that how area ratio and Mach number is
related and using this curve, one can find out what is the requirement.
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So, here what we see that for a given area ratio, there are two possibilities; one is in the
subsonic, other is in supersonic. So, the subsonic solution goes to the bottom part of the
curve, supersonic solution goes for the top part of the curve.
Now, whether the flow will be subsonic or supersonic; that again depends on the nature
of pressure ratio that is maintained between the inlet and exit. So, that part, we will talk
separately when we bring the concept of pressure ratio into this analysis. So, at this stage
the very basic bottom line is fixed that the area ratio decides the Mach number.
Now, the another important segment of this convergent divergent passage is the choked
conditions. The choked condition is essentially decided by the fact that the flow is sonic
at the minimum area. So, when the flow is sonic at this minimum area, that is A  A ;
then we say it is a choked condition. So, when I say choked condition, this is possible for
whether your inflow is subsonic or whether the inflow is supersonic.
So, in the last two analysis, we say that when a subsonic flow enters in a convergent
divergent passage. At the beginning of the passage, its velocity increases because that is
a convergent duct, but one point it becomes maximum when it is maximum; that means,
it is at the sonic flow; that is velocity is maximum at this throat; the velocity has sonic at
the throat and that point the flow is choked.
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Now, if you see other situation also, when the Mach number is supersonic, the flow
decelerates in the same convergent passage and it again reaches to sonic. So, irrespective
of what flow condition it is entering; always a sonic flow is ensured at the throat.
So, while discussing about a converging diverging passage; or we can say convergent
divergent nozzle or convergent divergent diffuser, we have to ensure that we are
allowing some certain minimum mass flow rate that has to be entered into the passage.
To have this minimum mass flow rate, we must have a fixed area and that fixed area
should be logical in nature so that a slog of mass at least can enter into this passage. So,
this is one of the important design aspect where one has to calculate the choking mass
flow rate. When I say choking mass flow rate, quantitatively it is expressed m  u A .
Now, this particular expression can be written in this another fashion where what I did is,


instead of  we put 0 , A remains as it is, u* I have put as RT  . Now, in that
0
square root term; we have introduced a temperature T0 in the numerator as well as
denominator, so that these two terms gets canceled. And ultimately, if you simplify this;
we get, will get u A .
Now, why I am doing this? Then that is because we want to find out what is this ratio

because this ratios are known; what are this ratio? One ratio is which is known; that
0
1
 2  1
is in our earlier expression, we can say this is   . In the other ratio, that is
  1
T 2
 .
To   1
Now, when we put this two expressions there and here also as I mentioned; we replaced
this u   RT  .
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So, by putting this expressions; we can arrive at a working formula which is known as,
mass flow rate in the convergent divergent passage and that attains to a maximum value
at the minimum area location; that is throat. So, when I put this expression and finally,
after simplification we arrived at this particular relations.
1
  2  1
m  p0 A  
RT0    1 
So, if you look back this equations; we started with this particular expression and we
now arrived at this expression. Here, we have brought a term p0 and this p0 is nothing,
p0
but 0 RT0 . I will write in a other way like 0  ; that is when I put this expression
RT0
here and simplify this, we get a working relation of choked mass flow rate.
So, what is this physical significance of this expression here? That, normally when a
flow enters in a convergent divergent passage; so, it has to be correlated with respect to
some reservoir condition. And this reservoir conditions is nothing but your total pressure
or stagnation pressure, total temperature; that is stagnation temperature and total density
stagnation density.
Roughly, we do not calculate density; we specify in terms of pressure and temperature.

So, that is the relation the choke mass flow conditions is expressed in a working relation
186
form that involves p0 and T0. And rest of the part are known that is R is characteristic gas
constant and gamma is the specific heat ratio for the gas that is entering in the passage.
Now, we will move to the minimum area part; for minimum area part A* is known; so
which is minimum area location is known. Now, once I know this; then for air, if you put
R is equal to 287 Joule per kg Kelvin and gamma is equal to 1.4. We arrived at the
0.68
choking mass flow rate in a very simplified form that is m  p0 A
RT0
So, here what he says is that for a given reservoir conditions and if you know the
minimum area that flow has to pass, then we can find that what is the maximum flow
rate we can have. So, this is a very important working formula for this analysis.
So, now with this; we will now summarize this isentropic flow equations what we have
known so far. So, the first thing is that; this isentropic flow conditions what we discussed
here and with respect to quasi one dimensional analysis, we introduced a supersonic
nozzle and supersonic diffuser. Then for that equation, they are governed by this area
Mach number relations and area pressure relation and then it seems the entire flow
passage is analyzed in isentropic manner, these are the isentropic relations.
So, what it means that p0, T0 and ρ0; these are the reservoir conditions from which the
flow is initiated. And at any arbitrary locations; that is pressures are p, T and ρ; this at
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any arbitrary locations for which the conditions are p, T and ρ. And these are the
essentially the reservoir condition p0, T0 and ρ0; this are this location we say p, T and ρ.
So, when I say and this particular condition which is minimum area; that is star, that is
p*, T*, ρ*and this is at the area A*, the conditions are defined by these expressions; And
finally, when putting gamma to be 1.4; we get a fixed relations.
So, this is how the isentropic flow relations are calculated, but what we are going to
introduce here? A gas property table. So, gas property tables; if you look at this equation,
T0 p 
all this expressions are function of Mach number. So, if you see or 0 or 0 is also
T p 
a function of Mach number. So, if you know Mach number then we can generate a lot of
data just by changing this Mach number and keeping gamma to be 1.4. So, if you keep
doing it we can generate a gas table.
So, what it sees is that what I have introduced a concept which is called a gas table and
this data was taken from this book John Anderson, that is Modern Compressible Flow
and this is just an extract from this book; just to explain that how this gas tables are
referred.
So, what it says is that the parameters which is a Mach number, which is known to us
and if you know the Mach number, we can calculate the stagnation pressure to static
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pressure ratio; stagnation density to static density ratio and stagnation temperature to
static temperature ratio. So, instead of calculating it; if you do not want to calculate using
this expression; one can directly refer to the table and take the data from the table
directly from itself.
So, this is what we say the gas table for isentropic flow and in this gas table for
A A
isentropic flow, there is another parameter 
. So, as I mentioned; this  is a function
A A
of Mach number and as I can tell you that from this datasheet also, one can say that for a
A
given ; we can find two different solutions, one is in this subsonic region, other in the
A
supersonic region.
For instance, if you say as area ratio as may be 1.11; so for this area ratio, the Mach
number is in the subsonic range will be about 0.68. In fact, for the similar area ratio of
1.115, the Mach number turns out to be 1.4; which is in the supersonic region. In fact,
from the datasheet also; one can directly refer, instead of going for the implicit way of
calculating the Mach number from the area ratio. So, this is how the simplicity of gas
table that has been generated for isentropic flow.
189
So, with this I will just try to solve some sample problems in this case; like for example,
the first problem which is just now I explained that how Mach number has to be
calculated from the area ratio.
A
Now, for an area ratio of as 1.11; as one is subsonic, that is 0.68, M is supersonic
A
that is 1.4. So, this is how the table has to be referred for these things and in fact, this
table can be used for all possible area ratio that comes under subsonic or supersonic
domain.
The another simple problem that talks about a storage chamber is to be maintained at 5
bar and 20°C; that supplies high pressure air to a device. The air is found to be leaking
through a hole of 5 mm diameter. Calculate the mass flow rate of air leaking through the
small hole.
So, this particular problem refers to the fact that we have a storage tank that has 5 bar
pressure and temperature is 20°C and this temperature is 20°C; we can say it is a
stagnation. In fact, since it is a storage device; we can say stagnation pressure has to be
this. So, what it says is that; there happens to be a small hole somewhere in here; this
hole is happens to be 5 mm dia.
190
So, if you look at this system and assuming this atmosphere is to be 1 bar. So, taking this
small hole, we can say the flow is going to be choked. Why it is to be choked? Because
p0 T
you have to calculate what is the value of 
and what will be value of 0 .
p T
T* p*
So, putting these as atmospheric pressure; one can check that be 0.833 and
T0 p0
0.528. So, this is the conditions for M is equal to 1 and when this ratio is maintained, the
flow is choked; when the flow is choked, we can directly use this particular expression to
calculate mass flow rate.
 2
 5  101325 0.005 
0.68
So, you can calculate m  
287  298 4 
So, if you put this turns out to be about 1.4 kg/min. So, this says that how a leak in a
storage vessel can generate; that means, due to very large pressure difference; it can
generate a leak of 1.4 kg/min.
The third problem which I am talking about is that; how to refer a gas table? So, what
has been given that an airplane model is to be tested in a supersonic wind tunnel where at
any point in the model, the pressure is given as 0.9 bar, temperature is given as 250
Kelvin, Mach number is given as 1.5.
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p 0 T0
So, one way to calculate this problem, that we can directly get , as a function of
p T
Mach number; that is from isentropic relation that we have talked elaborately previously.
Now, what I am trying to say that same thing we going to do it using gas table. This is
one of the extract for the gas table where we say that if you fix this Mach number as 1.5,
p0 T
we can directly get this has 3.67; 0 1.45. So, this two numbers can be directly taken
p T
from this gas table.
Now, once I say this; then this will give you as what will be p0 and we know p 0.9, so we
can get p0 to be 3.3 bar. T0 would be; this is 1.45 multiplied by 250; so this is about to
362.5 Kelvin and then we also wanted to have characteristics pressure and temperatures.
 p  p p p
So, we also require p* ; we can write p     0 p ; so is 0.528, 0 is 3.67 and p
 p0  p p0 p
is about to 0.9 bar. So, if you multiply; we can get 1.74 bar.
T T T
Similarly, T     0 T ; so when I put this number, this is 0.833, this is 0 1.45 and
 T0  T T
temperature is about 250; when I put this number, we get 302K. Apart from this, we also
require the flow velocity; so the flow velocity u; we can write M times a; that is Mach
number times a. So, Mach number we know 1.5; a is RT ; so we know γ 1.4, R 287
J/kg-K.
So, when you put this expression here; we can get u to be about 475 m/s. So, this is how
from a given data; how we can calculate the characteristics condition and stagnation
conditions.
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So, this is all about the entire learning module for the quasi one dimensional flow. Now,
if I just want to recall that at the end of this model; what you should remember? That we
should be knowing, the Mollier diagram which is to be used for isentropic and adiabatic
process. A non isentropic process is normally referred as adiabatic process; here then we
have to know about what is the effect of area change on the flow velocity and a Mach
number, when there is a flow in a convergent divergent passage.
So, we also have a very important relation; we call as area, velocity, Mach number
relations or subsequently we have also have area ratio versus Mach number diagram; that
is from this diagram itself, one can find out implicitly Mach number from the area ratio.
And looking at this area ratio, we also elaborately analyzed; how a nozzle action and
diffusion action can be performed in a convergent divergent passage.
Then, we have the concept of supersonic nozzle and then we have a choking flow
conditions in a convergent divergent duct. And finally, I introduce the topic of gas tables
which; in which one can directly find the necessary values from the given data. So, with
this I come to the end of module 3, I hope; I have clarified most of your doubts.
Thank you.
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Module - 04
Lecture - 10
Normal Shock Waves-I
Welcome you again for this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow; we are in a new
module that is module 4 that is Normal Shock Waves. So, prior to this module we were
mainly concentrated on one dimensional flow and in particular the flow is isentropic.
So, we analysed how we are going to evaluate if a complete flow field is isentropic and
in this isentropic flow field we try to evaluate all the parameters, such as stagnation
pressure, static pressures, static temperatures and all of them are function of the flow
velocity or Mach number.
So, the next aspect that we are going to decide is the property change in a non-isentropic
medium. In fact, when we say isentropic flow its a kind of a ideal situations where we
want to find out the stagnation conditions from its corresponding static values. So, this
stagnation condition could be a pressure, could be temperature, could be density, could
be enthalpy. So, for any arbitrary flow field these stagnation properties are essentially the
characteristics when the flow is moved isentropically to rest.
194
So, now moving ahead if the medium is non-isentropic, what are the possible situations?
So, the possible methods to change the flow characteristics in one dimensional
compression medium are the formation of a normal shock. So, this is a adiabatic case,
but not isentropic.
Another way also in a one dimensional medium we can change the flow properties by
adding heat or taking away heat from the system. Again since heat is added or subtracted
then it becomes a non-adiabatic case.
Now, when we introduce a friction in a medium, how do you introduce a friction? We

can introduce a length. Length means when a flow is taking place in a one dimensional
duct; so, you can increase its length or decrease its length. So, that is what we say
addition or subtraction of length. Since we are talking about friction, this is also a non-
isentropic case.
So, in all subsequent situations we will analyse all these cases one by one and the first
analysis what we are going to discussed in this module is a normal shock situation. So,
prior to this lectures we are aware of the fact that how a sound wave is formed in a
medium. So, it is a very small pressure disturbance wave, these are basically very small
pressure waves.
Now, when the medium becomes stronger and stronger, how do you do? Then when we
increase the flow velocity or we increase the Mach number. So that means, you are
moving towards the supersonic speed. When we are moving towards the supersonic
speed at the close to the Mach 1 that means, we are the initiation of supersonic situation.
So, we can say that a Mach wave is generated. So, once and when the body moves still at
higher velocity, these Mach waves become stronger and stronger.
So, we start with this, when this Mach waves becomes stronger and stronger we define
this as a shockwave. So, this is the basic definition of a shockwave how it is formed in a
medium. So, in this lecture we will discuss about the shockwaves; how it is formed in a
one dimensional medium and then moving ahead we will talk about the fundamental
equations that is for normal shock.
195
Why we are saying it is a normal shock? Because under this situations we can say this
medium can be treated to be a one dimensional medium. So, we will talk about those
things one by one.
Now, let us see, what is a shock wave. So, physically the shock wave represents the
abrupt change in the flow properties such as pressure, temperature, density over a finite
thickness comparable with mean free path. So, if you see the mean free path of gas
molecules is very small and when we assume that within that amount of thickness if in a
flow field the properties are going to change, then it has to be a shock wave because
these are the instantaneous change.
And this shock wave is typically a thin region and you can visualise is to be about 10-7m
thickness. And, across this thickness we encounter instantaneous change in the flow
properties.
So, many mathematicians represent this kind of phenomena of shock wave formation as
a discontinuity in the medium. So, a function is continuous everywhere, but except at a
point. So, something of that sorts we say that such a phenomena we can represent as a
step or impulse or ramp or hat functions.
So, these are the terms that are used by mathematicians to talk about some kind of
mathematical background of shockwaves. So, in our philosophy what does this mean is
196
that let us look at this figure; so, what you are trying to see that, any parameter which is
going to change with respect to time. So, this time can be of day, it can be of hour, it can
be of second or minute and what we are looking at? We are looking at this time to be
very small as far as the human view is concerned.
So, if I talk a timescale of a millisecond or less. So, if any event is going to happen in
this small instant of time then; obviously within this timescale if there are drastic change
in the medium, then we call this as a formation of a instantaneous change in the medium.
And if you look at any property parameter which is changing with respect to this kind of
time step, then we can call this either as a step. So, a step means it is a instantaneous
change. By instantaneous change I mean looking at this figure, let us say I am talking
about a 0.2 milliseconds. So, at 0.2 milliseconds the property parameter happens to be 0,
but again at maybe very small instantaneous time, these property again suits up to a
value of magnitude of 5, but with a very short span of time and it retains that properties
continuously till the end of the event and in this case let us the event ends at 1
millisecond.
So, if this is the case we call this as a step response. So, instantly property change and it
remains with that number 5 as that for 1 seconds. Now, if I want to close that event at
some particular time like 0.8 milliseconds then that property starting from that
coordinates that is from 5 it has to come down instantaneously.
So, when I say come down instantaneously, this means the way it has risen its
magnitude; it has come down again to the same 0 value and again it remains as it is. So,
such a function it looks like a hat. So, it is a hat function. Now, let us say that although
we are going to that magnitude of 5 instantaneously, but in our case let us allow that to
reach that magnitude the phenomena takes certain amount of time. So, we call this as a
impulse.
So, for this event we are taking this response as a magnitude. So, it is responding to that
event as a slope; that means, we reached maybe to the same magnitude of property 5, but
we take about a timescale from 0.2 to 0.6 millisecond difference that is 0.4 millisecond
to reach that magnitude. And again with same way the value drops; that means, the
number that does not remain at that value with respect to rest of the time, but rather it
falls. So, we call this as a impulse. So, it is a like of a impulse.
197
Another way of looking at the event is that the event while rising it may take at some
fashion of rising let like in this case that is in the case of ramp. So, we say that we
reached with same magnitude parameter of 5, but within a time span of 0.1 milliseconds,
but not necessarily that with same time it will fall back, it may immediately fall back or
it may take a bit longer time. So, this particular event we call this as a ramp.
So, likewise the way we define the functions as step, ramp or impulse of or hat. So,
typically the phenomena of shockwave events are similar to of this nature. So, in the
bottom line we can say that during a shockwave phenomena the flow property changes
instantaneously and when they change instantaneously that is a drastic change in the
magnitude. So, since there is a drastic change in the magnitude, so entire event that has
to happen in a very small milliseconds.
So, now with this background let us see that why that phenomena is important to our
case. So, now, will talk about something called as super subsonic or supersonic events.
So, as we know earlier situations that in a subsonic flow field, the pressure disturbance in
the form of sound waves propagates everywhere in the mediums. And even the body is
moving, it is moving in such a manner that it can never overtake the path travelled by the
sound wave. So, that is the reason entire information about the presence of the body is
felt everywhere in the medium.
198
But when you move to the supersonic situations; that means, when your body is moving
at very high speed more than speed of sound then we will land off in a situation that the
information will not be shared into the medium. So, that is what we say that supersonic
flow never warns the medium about the presence of the body, because the sound waves
can no longer propagate upstream and because at any point of time the velocity that is V
is always greater than a.
But then if that is the case then how one has to know about the presence of the body. So,
for that situation what we say as a characteristics of a supersonic event. So, what we say
if such a situation arises; so, nature establishes a phenomena what we call as “shock
formation” process through which the supersonic flows adjust about the presence of the
body. So, this adjustment has to be done in a very small region and that is nothing but the
shockwave.
And hence the shockwave is a mechanism of instantaneous compression of the gas

within the thin regions. Why this is a compression? Because the body is moving at a very
high speed, all of a sudden this velocity has to be come down to a subsonic value,
because this event is only possible or formation of shockwave is only possible when a
body is moving in supersonic speed and when such a things happens, the Mach number
of the flow has to be subsonic all of a sudden. When these things happens, entire gas gets
squeezed in a very thin regions that is why the pressure suits up. And, when it is
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squeezed in these small thin regions and thereby the entire kinetic energy of the flow gets
converted into internal energy thereby temperature also rises.
So, that means, when temperature rises, your T2 will also be greater than T1, if this is the
temperature T1 before the shock. So, this is how the event of shockwave that takes in a
supersonic medium. So, typical examples in our day to day life we can say that in a
philosophical sense we can say accident is a kind of situation if there is a instantaneous
accident where there is a large amount of failure. So, you can say it is a philosophical
aspect of a shock wave.
And in fact, in our day to day life we also create explosion like burning firecracker and
in a many aerodynamic facilities that try to rupture a diaphragm instantaneously or we
can create a detonation waves. So, these are the day to day life we can create these
facilities in the laboratories and in fact, in coming to the real situations the motion of
missiles and space shuttles normally encounter this shockwave phenomena.
So, the shockwave is a very natural occurring event when anybody that travels at
supersonic speed.
So, this is how I have already explained that with respect to these characteristics of
shockwave event. It is the instantaneous compression and with this instantaneous
compression, the energy for the compression is derived through kinetic energy possessed
200
by the upstream of the flow and this leads to the internal energy increase and temperature
increase in the medium.
So, again what happens to entropy? So, while flowing through a shock wave, the gas
experiences a decrease in its available energy. So, thereby it leads to increase in the
entropy. So, it is a non - isentropic situations and the phenomena across a shock wave is
highly irreversible and non-isentropic.
Now, in our lectures, our sequence of view will be something like this. So, we can say
that this particular shockwave whenever it generates in a medium, it can be a stationary
shock.
So, with a stationary shock means I am saying that there is a shock wave sitting in a
medium, some flow is entering at some velocity and it is leaving at some velocity. This
is how we view by keeping the shockwave as stationary.
So, we call this as a moving shock. Now, when the shock wave is moving; that means,
your medium is stationary, but the wave is moving in the medium. So, accordingly we
use the terminology like ahead of the shock or before the shock, behind the shock or after
the shocks. So, when we say it is a stationary shock we normally refer what happens
before the shock and what happens after the shock.
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Now, when we say it is a moving shock when the shock wave is moving, this particular
gas is stationary then we will say that this particular region is behind the shock, because
shock has not cross this region. And this region which is the left hand side of the shock
wave we call this as a ahead of the shock because shock wave has already cross this
region. So, this is how we do this stationary shock and moving shock.
Now, when you say it is a normal shock. So, normal shock is a situation where we say it
is a one dimensional flow why we say, let us say when you are looking at a stationary
shock; that means, shockwave is standing in this way. So, what happens in a normal
shock the streamlines that comes are essentially perpendicular to this shock wave. So
that means, any point of time the streamlines form 90° with respect to shock wave.
So, what we can say we can imagine this to be a duct or imaginary duct where consisting
of large number of streamlines and all the streamlines are perpendicular to this shock
wave. So, this we call this as a normal shock and obviously, it is a one dimensional
phenomena
Now, in subsequent analysis will talk about a oblique shock, which is a two dimensional
phenomena. Now, you can imagine this shockwave can be inclined like I can say that I
can incline the shockwave when the streamline crosses this wave it tries to deflect. So,
such a things we call this as a oblique shock. So that means, when the shock wave is
normal to this streamlines it is a normal shock and it is the strongest one. As and when it
becomes inclined, so, it becomes a oblique shock. So, it is a two dimensional flow
phenomenon. So, we will discuss this in the all subsequent lectures.
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So, now let us see the next topic of this lecture that is formation of shockwave in one
dimensional medium. So, in previous to this, I elaborately told that how a sound wave is
generated in a medium. So, that point of time we had a very conceptual thermodynamic
systems like a piston cylinder device in which one side of the cylinder is open. So, we
will revisit the same example again, but in a different context.
So, in this context what we can say in the first figure what we see, we can say there is a
piston. So, this is the piston and this is the cylinder; its a long cylinder, but the end is
open. So, what we can say there is a gas in this medium any gas; so, since the gas is a
stagnant situations and is not moving. So, we say its condition as p0 and its gas velocity
is 0 and all the conditions let us say its temperature and velocity is 0.
Now, what you do is. So, you can say this gas may have different layers of gas; we can
imagine this gas to be arranged in layers that is there are infinite layers of the gas, I mean
it can be on either side of the piston. Now, what we do is, now in the next event that is
this is the initial situation; then once after that, the first initial time the piston of the tube
is given a steady velocity that is with no acceleration; that means towards right.
So, by looking at the steady velocity and no acceleration what I mean, if I try to plot
these velocity of the time plot for the piston. What I can view that initially it is 0. So, I
give this stepwise very small magnitude of discreet manner. So, if I want to change the
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velocity from 0 to certain finite value then I am looking at this to be happening in very
small steps.
So, what I do is, I give a very small and these steps we can say as small dV and at the
second instance I say it becomes 2dV and third instance it becomes 3dV and so on. So,
that means, now let us say when we are giving the first steady velocity dV to the piston.
So, obviously, when I give this velocity dV , the pistons tries to move at certain velocity.
So, as a results since it is a very small pressure wave disturbance, we can say it will
generate a sound wave or in this case let us put as a compression waves or very weak
compression wave and that is nothing but the pressure wave and that is generated in the
process and it moves a speed a1.
So, since this sound wave has already crossed this medium, this gas has also started
moving which is contained in this region. They started moving with same velocity dV
and when we have the same velocity, then the initial gas situation which is at p0 and
which was the at the initial state, now it has risen to a magnitude dp.
So, with this first wave the medium gets a pressure disturbance dp. So, this is how the
weakest wave that is going to have in the medium. Now, since its weakest wave we call
this as a sound wave that is quite obvious, but with same time instant if I just increase
this magnitude to another dV and we are looking at the next sequence of events.
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So, what do we do is here, the same piston we are looking at another time t  t1 . So, that
previously that time instant we say it is at t  t0 this is the time instant.
Now, what we are looking at this time instant as t  t1 . So, here the piston was given the
next subsequent velocity, piston is allowed to move with an additional increment of
velocity 2dV. So, by this time the first sound wave would have reached at this location.
If you look at the pressure versus x diagram, so, it would have reached some locations
beyond that we have velocity of the gas 0 and pressure is p0.
So, in this line we will say this line refers to p0 and this one, the gas has velocity dV and
the pressure has p1. And the second subsequent increment will make this gas velocity to
be 2dV. So, this region will see the next level of pressure increment and we say the
absolute pressure to be p2. So, what I can say that the jump in pressure from p0 to p2 has
happened in two steps, due to two step increment in the velocity to the piston.
And now same event when you look at different time instant t  t2 ; obviously, we will
see that the second wave is generated here that is a2 and this a2 will have higher velocity
than a1, why? Because when second wave is generated, by the time the first wave has
cross the medium, the temperature would have increased from its t1.
So, in other words what we say that second wave which is generated in the medium it is
moving to a elevated temperature. So, since the speed of the sound is dependent on the
temperature; that means, since a  RT and T2 greater than T1. So, we say a2 will be
higher than a1.
So, in other words what I am trying to say that when same two waves we are looking at
different time instant, we will see that the second wave will come closer to the first
wave, because it will try to overtake. And we will see this same event that is getting
squeezed in a small region.
So, we get this p2 gets squeezed in a small region. So, this is the first wave, this is the
second wave and here this side is V is equal to 0, it is p0 and this is T1 and this is dV and
this is 2dV. This is how you see. So, all these things, the second wave we will try to
overtake.
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So, likewise every in additional increment of velocity will lead to different sound waves
and all of them will try to move faster than the first wave. So, this essentially means,
now we will not use the word sound wave here because when you say the first wave it
could be a sound wave, but all subsequent waves will not use as the sound wave will call
this as a pressure wave because they are not weak. So, all this pressure waves their
moves faster than speed of sound. So, we call this as a pressure wave.
And very bottom line is that as you say there are any number of increments if you say
there are infinite number of increments of this velocity, we can say there are infinite
number of such pressure waves getting generated in the medium and every pressure
wave will have higher velocity than the first one. And with lapse of time they try to
merge in a very small region. So, this is the philosophy that happens.
Now, what we see is when you view this velocity increment in very small manner.
So, this is how the development of compression wave. So, in this way we call this as a
compression waves, because we are not using the word sound wave now, except for the
first one which is the first sound wave.
So, in this way in fact, whatever I discuss so far if you summarise them we can say that
all subsequent pressure waves through every additional increment of the velocity of the
piston, would have velocity higher than the previous ones.
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So, all the subsequent pressure waves through additional increment of the piston would
have speeds higher than the previous one. Eventually, all the pressure waves generated at
every instances of time are supposed to meet at one point. And the finite increment of the
piston to the right can be imagined to be large number of infinitesimal increments.
This steady gradual change in the velocity of the piston does not accelerate the piston,
because it is steady change in the velocity. So, change in the velocity between two
successive time step is very small. So, it essentially does not accelerate the piston.
Now, here most important things happens that when these waves will try to merge. So,
here instead of looking at this event we are now look at the situation in such a way that
we are going to accelerate the piston. So, when I am going to accelerate the piston; so, if
I plot the velocity and time; so, instead of giving this velocity increment in steps what I
am trying to give, I am giving a sharp shoot.
In other words entire steps now becomes a sharp shoot; that means, I squeeze this time t
tends to 0, so that I can get the same rise in velocity, but in a very short span of time. So,
in this case I will say instead of dV, it is a V . So, what I say here that instead of dV I
am giving V to the piston; that means, piston is given a finite value of velocity
instantly.
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So, when such a things happens we can say that whatever we discuss so far that there
will be series of waves that get generated subsequently. So, that means, these small small
waves now they keep generating in that small time instance.
So, I can say that, we will have a these pressure waves, we can have a first wave which is
getting generated. This is the first wave and this is the nth wave, this is the last wave. So,
there are n number of waves that tries to gets generated. Now, with this n number of
waves, if you look at the pressure in the medium so, this region we have gas stagnant gas
that is V is equal to 0 because the wave has not reached this region. And, all these
regions this gas has experienced the finite value of dV and it has seen the pressure pn.
So, through this process I can say that we can say this pressure pn that gets generated
with n number of waves and if you say the first wave and this is the nth wave and this
one we call as ‘head’ of the wave and this is what we say that is last wave we say ‘tail’ of
the wave. So, that means, all subsequent wave number 2, 3, 4 likewise there are nth
waves and all subsequent waves will have speed higher than the first one. That means,
nth wave will have speed obviously higher than the n-1th wave.
So, likewise the event you look is one time instance t1, when you see this event in the
next time instant, we can see the same phenomena; first wave and nth wave and they
tried to squeeze in a small region, I will say this as a x .
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So, this entire pressure from p0 to we say pn that happens in a very small thickness x
and we are looking this at an another time instance maybe I say t is equal to t2. So, with
the lapse of time, all the compression wave generated will try to eventually take over at
some point downstream. And through this propagation of compression waves, the flow
property information are shared. As and when these compression waves moves into the
medium the properties are shared, shared I mean that the pressure and temperature in the
medium gets changed.
So, this is how we see the sequence of event. So, in the sequence of event when I say
t  t1 , t  t2 and I will say this t is equal to at one particular important situation tn , where
location x is equal to xn. So, here I say this finite length x1 and this is a x2 and we say
here x tends to 0.
So, what happens here, wave number n eventually with respect to time and time t is
equal to tn, what will happen the nth wave will try to overtake. So, when the nth wave try
to overtake, it means nth wave has merged with n-1th wave then subsequent n-2 waves
and finally, second wave gets merged and finally, and in the end it will merge with the
first wave.
So, when such a things happens it may happen that the nth wave will try to overtake. So,
when we tries to overtake we can represent such a phenomena as a dotted line. So, that
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nth wave try to overtake the first wave so; that means, that will be this wave is at the top
and this first wave is getting lagged.
So, physically what it means that, in a given location of the flow field xn will have a
different properties which is not true. So, if you look at this particular phenomena
physically that does not true because at a given location and given time, the gas has
different values of properties. By different value properties means the first wave will
have assigned has one properties and nth wave will have another properties.
So, this is not true or not physical in nature. So, such a event will try to avoid such
things, because natural occurring phenomena will give a solution to it as a merger of
shock wave. So, this merger of shock wave and in this case it becomes a normal sock.
So, in other word it means there is no compression of waves as such now.
So, in these two situation there are infinite number of compression waves, but in this
situation there is no compression waves, because they all these compression waves has
merged to a shock wave. And since, it is a one dimensional medium we call this
particular shock wave as a normal shock.
So, this is how I tried to explain this particular figure and whatever has been written we
can say that at this stage, when there is a normal shock wave is formed its isentropic
assumption is no longer valid because viscous heat transfer effects cannot be neglected.
All the waves will try to ‘topple’ with one another, it means it will assign different values
of flow property at same time at a given location which is absurd situation in the
medium.
Now, hence the compression waves tend to overtake, this phenomena may viewed as a
merger of all compression waves instantly at a given location and the process becomes
infinitely ‘steep’. So, instead of the property change what that has supposed to happen
gradual manner, this gradual manner has now happens in a very steep manner; that
means, change is instantaneous and change in a very small thickness domain.
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So, this is how we say a shock wave is formed and the simplest form of a shock wave is
a normal shock, but it is very strong. So, coming back to our physical phenomena we say
a natural occurring process will tell us that a merger of all compression waves will lead
to a single wave at particular instant of time and we call this as a “shock wave” and
physically it has a thickness of in the order of 10-7 m which is almost is very less. And
mathematically it is represented as a, this is instantaneous change or discontinuity in the
medium with a limiting case when time tends to 0.
So, now bringing all this mathematic and physical nature we can now for our
compressible flow field what we can say, the flow properties undergoes a finite change.
There is a finite change obvious, but it is large, across a shockwave in a non- isentropic
manner. So, what we can view is a normal shock, the property change are finite, but very
large. For instant what you can say that for a standing normal shock like this, if I assign
the properties as p1, T1, ρ1, u1, stagnation pressure p01, stagnation temperature T01, then
what I am going to see.
So, this is a given condition the whatever I am going to see is that, pressure is going to
suit up; that means, static pressure is tremendously high, total pressure will drop likewise
and Mach number will become all of a sudden subsonic.
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So, this says that these change takes place and in this situation the process is happens in a
non-isentropic manner; that means, s2 must be greater than s1. If your entropy are
calculated we can say entropy it is a non-isentropic process entropy greater than s1.
So, as I discussed all these things that the weakest compression wave is a “sound wave”
that is what in the beginning I said that when you give a push to the piston, a sound wave
is generated. Now, when increment in the push is more and more, we try to increase
more changes in the medium.
And, at one point at time it becomes a strongest compression wave and that is we call
this as a shock wave. But since in a supersonic event, shockwave is a natural occurring
process, but its initiation; that means, when Mach number just tries to become slightly
higher than 1, it is seen as a Mach wave. So, “Mach wave” is initiation of the shock
wave.
Now, here we will talk about something on moving shock and stationary shock. I also
imagine that a shock front can move or shock front can be view as stagnant. So, in the
first figure what we are seeing in a one dimensional medium consisting of large number
of streamlines, we are saying that a shock front is moving, then when the shock front is
moving; so, your initial gas has no velocity here.
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So, we can say that when the shock front is moving in one directions, initial condition of
the medium is p1, ρ1, T1 and final condition of the medium is p2, ρ2, T2. And as I said
since in this medium the shock wave has not crossed; so, its a ahead of the shock. And in
this case the shockwave is already crossed; so, we say behind the shock.
So, likewise the similar way we can say pressure p, initial pressure let us say p1 and
initial pressure which becomes p2. So, this is how we view that property change across
the shock wave. Now, in this case the shock wave has not crossed. So, gas velocity u is
equal to 0 and here it has a finite value of u. So, this is a scenario when we have a
moving shock.
Now, in the same scenario we bring this shock stationery; we say it is a stationary
medium. So, why we do this, because let us say if at all we want to come across similar
pressure change across a normal shock. What do you do here is arrest the shock to
stationary; so, that means, there is no shock velocity; you allow the gas to pass through
the shock wave.
So, in other words what we are trying to say to come across similar jump that we had in
the moving shock, if you want to have in the same change in the stationary shock; then,
what would have been our scenario.
So, here the terminology that we use as before the shock and after the shock. So, before
the shock our case condition was this p1, ρ1, T1, but you allow the gas to move at u1 and
finally, we arrived this final velocity of the gas u2. So, this corresponds to a Mach
number M1 and this corresponds to a Mach number M2. So, this is after the shock.
Now, if same thing, if you want to see here, the pressure signal change will remain the
same, but what changes is the gas velocity. So, here what we have to do, since it is a
relative velocity, we were looking here in a laboratory frame for a moving shock, but
when we are looking in a laboratory frame as a stationary shock what we see here is gas
is moving. So, your initial velocity will now become u1 which is this one that
corresponds to Mach number M1 and the final velocity is u2. This is how the change that
happens here.
So, in our scenario we will only talk about a stationary shock situations and will try to
see what are the conditions before the shock and after the shock. So, this particular
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correlation was done so that in many practical problems we will try to see that moving
shock situations, but if you can bring them into a stationary shock situations the analysis
will become simpler.
So, that is what this judgement is made that a moving shock analysis how it is frame to a
stationary shock reference and with that respect how the change is going to happen. So,
with this logic we will move further only towards the stationary shock analysis.
To have this stationary shock analysis we will now talk about some fundamental
equations of normal shock in the similar way what we did earlier for an isentropic flow
in a one dimensional medium.
So, what we say, a “normal shock” is the one in which properties change drastically in
one direction. So, here we view this normal shockwave as a stream tube; as I mention its
a imaginary duct, we can assume to be a one dimensional duct which is imaginary duct
which means as if there is no boundary.
Although there is no physical boundary, but we can assume to be imaginary boundary

that enclose this normal shock and the streamlines that comes there are perpendicular to
this shock wave. So, obviously we call this as a “stream tube” and the stream lines are
parallel to each other, but they are normal to the shock wave. And this analysis was
consider in one dimensional flow framework with constant cross sectional area.
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Another kind of assumption that we make is that since we say there is no physical
boundaries. So, it is a imaginary duct. So, another assumption we can make there is no
frictional effect, because shear stress are absent and there is no boundary layer and the
configuration of the duct can be treated as a constant area duct. The shock thickness is
very small compared to the dimension of the stream tube; that means shock thickness is
very small with respect to stream tube dimension.
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And the flow process includes to be adiabatic; that means, if you say it is imaginary duct
there is no heat addition into the duct. And the flow process in the shock wave is
assumed to be steady, there is a steady flow and the all the properties conditions in the
region 1 and region 2 needs to be mapped.
So, basically this is the given problem that we have a standing normal shock and before
the shock we have the given conditions of static pressure and static conditions and
stagnation conditions, flow velocity. These are the given conditions and we were
supposed to find out the unknown conditions that what happens after this shock.
So, after the end of the analysis we will try to see that what is the relation between the
static pressure ratio before the shock and after the shock, static temperature ratio before
the shock and after the shock. And, that we are trying to correlate with information in the
velocity or flow Mach number that is before the shock and after the shock.
So, this is the entire philosophy of our study and finally, we will use the same one
dimensional framework equations that is continuity equation 1u1  2u2 , momentum
equation p1  1u12  p2  2u22 and since it is a constant area; so, there is no area term
here in this equation.
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And in fact, for the energy equation we use the same equation what we did for isentropic
flow that is total temperature for region 1 and region 2 and here we have to assume that
is q to be 0, because it is an adiabatic duct.
But here our philosophy is that we do not know the conditions p2 , but we also do not
know what are the conditions M2. In isentropic flow with known Mach number we can
correlate the property information at different locations in the flow field.
So, its adiabatic situation, there is no heat addition and apart from this we will use these
other relations that is p  RT , h  c pT . This is the calorically perfect gas, this is the
p
ideal gas equations and also use this term a 2   RT .

So, this is the speed of sound; obviously speed of sound is very important here, because
the Mach number is going to change. And in fact, we have to say except this thin
shockwave region all the flow fields are isentropic. So, with this we will conclude for
this lecture today.
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Module - 04
Lecture - 11
Normal Shock Waves- II
Welcome you again for this course that is Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are
in the 2nd lecture of the module 4 that is Normal Shock Waves.
So, if you look at the first lecture at this module; what we have discussed is about the
concept of shockwaves. Then in a one dimensional medium, we explained the formation
of the shock waves and how it propagates in the flow and also we gave the correlation
between a standing shock wave and a moving shock waves. Then, after that we framed
the fundamental equations of normal shock that can be applied in a flow field.
Now, moving further in this lecture, we will again discuss more about this normal shock
analysis and that starts from this fundamental equations. And, we try to derive a relations
known as Prandtl relations for a normal shock. In fact, this relations forms the
fundamental basics for all subsequent flow property calculations across the normal
shock; so all these things will be covered in this lecture.
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Now, just to brief about what we have framed the concept of normal shock. What we can
say is that; normal shock is a inevitable phenomena in a supersonic flow field and, it
occurs naturally by the merger of all compression waves in a very thin region. And, this
thin region is typically measured to be a size of 10-7m.
And, whatever property change that come across this thin region or the shock wave that
happens to be non isentropic; which means, entire flow field involving a normal shock
can be considered to be isentropic except this thin region.
So, in other words what it means to us; in our normal shock calculations, whenever we
want to apply the property relations across this normal shock, we cannot assume the
process to be isentropic. So, subsequently we say that this normal shock is a phenomena
in which property change drastically in one directions across a discontinuity region.
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Now, while dealing with the mathematical analysis, we have made certain assumptions.
So, the first assumption was treated to the fact that the normal shock we are that we are
considering each one dimensional in nature; that means, in this flow field we can say that
streamlines are perpendicular to the shockwave. Now, the flow process including the
shockwave can be considered to be adiabatic with no external work.
So, obviously, there is no external work and only there is a flow work that is involved
when it passes the shock wave and while talking about the adiabatic, what we can say
that when you deal with this normal shock; we can say the region in which this normal
shock wave is considered can be treated to be a duct consisting of large number of
streamlines and these streamline are parallel to each other. And, while dealing with the
streamlines you have to deal with the streamlines one before the shock also and also for
the after the shock.
So, the very basic problem that we are going to address through this continuity
momentum and energy equations are as follows like; what conditions we know is that the
given conditions, which we say that upstream of the flow that is ahead of the shock or
before the shock. So while dealing with what we do not know is the downstream
conditions, which are considered to be unknown conditions.
And, these inequality signs I have just put just to show you that certain conditions like all
static condition; static pressure, temperature, density, all these parameter increases,
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velocity drops, stagnation pressure drops, whereas the total temperature or stagnation
temperature remains constant. In fact, Mach number becomes suddenly subsonic.
So, what it means entire kinetic energy of the flow which was there in the upstream side
of this normal shock, all of them gets converted to internal energy, when this speed
drops. So, thereby these conditions get prevalent in the downstream conditions.
In fact, all these inequality signs, we can essentially prove by considering this continuity
momentum and energy equations. And, apart from these 3 equations you also have to
consider a calorically perfect gas for which we can ideally make the conditions for
enthalpy and we also know that equation of state for a gas. So, these relations we are
going to use for all subsequent analysis.
So, the first important analysis that we are going to discuss is the Prandtl relations. In
fact, this is one of the fundamental relations that forms the basics for all subsequent
property calculations before and after the shock wave.
1
So, here just to what this relation talks about is a  u1u2 , or M 2 
2
. What it
M 1
physically means that in a certain flow field with a standing normal shock, we say that in
the upstream side of the flow, the Mach number is M1 whereas in the downstream side of
the flow the Mach number is M2. In fact, later on we will say that M1 is always greater
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than 1 and M2 will be always less than 1, that can be proved from this; Prandtl relation as
well.
Now, just to explain about this equation what it essentially means is as follows. What we
are trying to say here, we introduce a parameter a*; a* means it is a condition that any
arbitrary flow field can be taken to star conditions where its velocity becomes a*.
So, for example, in the upstream side of the flow if your velocity of the flow is u1 and in
the downstream side of the flow, the velocity of the flow is u2. And, correspondingly the
speed of sound in the medium 1 or that is the upstream region 1 and downstream region
u1 u
2. So, we can say M 1  . Similarly, we can say M 2  2 .
a1 a2
Now, what we are trying to say that, since these are any arbitrary flow field situations.
So, we can bring these conditions to star condition. So, when I say star conditions. So,
here, the flow becomes a*; that means, the final velocity becomes Mach number 1 and
correspondingly when you say a*, we assign a temperature condition T*. So, we can
u1
define M 1* 
a1
So, this is how we can define where a1   RT1 and similarly for the downstream
conditions, we can also write a2   RT2 because the temperature conditions will be
u2
different. Similarly we say M 2*  . So, with this one can define the star conditions in
a2
this flow field.
Now, to start deriving this expressions what we can recall is that we start with continuity
equation. So, in the continuity equation we can write 1u1  2u2 and in the momentum
equation we can also write as p1  1u12  p2   2 u22 . So, we know both the equations
and now what you try to do, you try to find out what is p1  p 2 that is nothing, but
 2u22  1u12 .
p1  p2 1u12
So, now, divide both sides by p1. So, we can write   u2  u1  .
p1 p1
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p p a2
Then, you have to recall a 2  . So, we can say  . So, I can write in this
  
equation, this is one way. And, again the other form of equation what we can find from
p1 p
this momentum equation, we can also rewrite the fact that  2   u2  u1  .
1u1  2u2
How do you get it? So, in the momentum equations the left hand side you divide by 1u1
and the right hand side you divide by 2u2 . This is another expression that you get out of
it. So, we get one important equation this; other equation we can get out of this as like
p1 a12 a12 a2
 . So, we can say  2  u2  u1 . So, these are the 2 equations we get in the
   u1  u2
combined form of continuity and momentum equations.
So, we are now going to move further with these 2 equations.
So, this particular equation we derived and we also want to use the another form of
equation, that is alternate form of energy equation. So, if you recall this alternate form of
equation where did you get? In our isentropic flow situations, we derived the equation in
which we involved the speed of sound, the velocity of the flow and star conditions in one
form of these equations.
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   1  2    1  2
a2   a  u
 2   2 
Now, these 2 equations we are going to derive these relations. So, we know what is a and
this condition 1, this is the condition 2. So, this condition 1 for which we have speed of
sound a1 and velocity u1 and for condition 2 the speed of sound is a2 and velocity u2.
So, when I write these 2 equations for a1 and a2 what I can write is that.
   1  a2    1  2     1  a2    1  2 
    u1       u2   u2  u1
 2   u1  2 u1    2   u2  2 u2  
So, this equation can be simplified,
  1    1 
  u2  u1  a     u2  u1    u2  u1 
2

 2 u1u2   2 
So, overall we can say next expression this will get cancelled and after simplification we
can solve for a*. So, this will be
 2    1  2 u1u2 
equal to a2    .
 2    1 
So, this expression you can do by simplifying this. So, ultimately we get land off having
an expression a2  u1u2 .
u1 u2
Now, when I say this we can rewrite this equation as this will also implies 1.
a a
What it physically means; that, when we say a* here, we are defining these conditions,
bringing the flow from upstream and downstream both to a common condition a* and
when you define this a*, correspondingly we define T*, and when you say T* and Mach
u1 u
number M*, we say 
and Mach number in the other side we can say 2 .
a a
So, what we try to do is that across this thin region, we try to correlate the star conditions
of M1 and M2 and this star condition essentially reflect what are the upstream conditions
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for actual flow Mach number M1 and the what is the downstream condition of actual
flow Mach number M2.
Now, moving further from this analysis this can be related as M1 M 2  1 . So, this
fundamental equation’s now is called as Prandtl relations. So, this is one of the very
fundamental basics that how a Prandtl’s relation is derived.
Now, we will move further; what is the essential significance of this Prandtl relations?
So, the very basic philosophy that happens here is the fact that, we say here M 1 , we say
M 2 . Now, from the Mach number relations we knew that when M1 greater than 1, M 1
also greater than 1; means, when Mach number is supersonic the corresponding star
Mach number is also supersonic.
Now, from this Prandtl relation we say that, there are two possibilities one can have one
1 1
is we can write M 1  
, or M 2   . But, the very important question here is that M1
M2 M1
should be always greater than 1.
So, when M1 is greater than 1, this will also implies M2 should be less than 1. So, what it
says is that Mach number behind the normal shock is always subsonic. But, in this
Prandtl relation it does not talk about why the Mach number behind the normal shock is
always subsonic. But, question remains that can M1 less than 1 or can M1 is equal to 1.
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There are two other possibilities, when M1 less than 1; so this will also implies M2
should be greater than 1. But, the question remains this? In down the line will prove that
this will be an impossible situation. So, it cannot happen for some other thermodynamic
regions, which we will prove later.
The other possibilities could be M1 can be 1; so this also implies M2 will be also equal to
1. So, this is a situation that there is no change in the Mach number across the shock
wave. So, as if the shock wave does not exist. When such a thing is there, this will reflect
a situation that flow field is isentropic. So, this assumption of shock wave does not exist.
But, the very basic philosophy that I want to address here, we will say that M1 is always
greater than 1 and M2 is always less than 1 that is Mach number beyond a normal shock
is always subsonic.
So, in the previous relations the Prandtl number talks about the relation between M 1 and
M 2 . But, it does not talk about what is relation between M1 and M2. But, we know that
any arbitrary Mach number can be correspondingly connected to its star condition of
Mach number, that is through this expressions.
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  1 M 2
So, we can effectively write that M 2  . Now, if this relation we are
2     1 M 2
2

   1 M12
going to apply for condition M1. So, we can write that M . Similarly,
2     1 M12
1
2

   1 M 2 2
we can say M .
2     1 M 2 2
2
1
Since, we say M 1  . So, by putting these expressions here, we will arrive at the
M 2
relation between the Mach number between these. So, if you see that this relation will be
only true when your Mach number is supersonic for M1.
  1  2
1   M1
M2 
2  2 
  1 
 M 12   
 2 
The next expression that we are going to talk about is the static density and speed ratio.
So, now we are moving with the fact that, we are going to calculate the flow property
across a normal shock. So, for this flow property calculations the very basic relations that
you have to remember is the Prandtl relation. So, these Prandtl relations will say that
a2  u1u2 . So, this relation will be very vital for these calculations.
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And, in this case what we are trying to say that what is going to happen to the density
ratios. So, if I put the density terms as ρ1 and ρ2 and velocities are u1 and u2. So, from
u1  2
continuity equation, we can write 1u1  2u2 . So, we can say that is  ; so this
u2 1
relation first holds good.
2 u12
Now, let us see that what is u1 and u2. So, we can write this equation as  . So, I
1 u1u2
 2 u12
multiplied u1 in the numerator and denominator. So, this is written as  . So, we
1 a 2
u1
say this is M 12 . So, we say M 1  
. So, we also know that; when I say M 1 what is the
a
relation between M 1 and M.
   1 M1 2
So, we can rewrite this equation as 2  . So, this relation we get from M1
1 2     1 M 12
and M. So, between M1 and M, this is the relation exists. So, we can write this equation.
2 u
So, when I say , then I also can calculate what is 1 . So, this is what we do for
1 u2
density ratio and speed ratio across this normal shock.
228
Now, we will move to the conditions for static pressures. So, very basic things that we
want to say the static pressures are defined as p1 and p2, that is before the shock and after
p2
the shock. So, our basic philosophies that we want to find out the ratio of . So, this
p1
p2
we are trying to express in the form of M1, because you do not know the M2, but we
p1
know the flow Mach number and the upstream.
So, how we get this relations; to do that we have to recall these momentum equations
p2  p1 1u12  u2 
that we have already derived in one of the slides that is  1   . So, in
p1 p1  u1 
the last slide we derived this equations from the momentum equation and continuity
equations.
p
So, when I say this; so again I also told that we know the other relations like a 2  .

a2 p
So, we can say  .
 
p2  u 2  u 
Now, then what you do? We simplify this; so we say  1    12 1  2  . So, in
p1  a1  u1 
u1

  1 M12
earlier expressions we know . So, in the last slide we derived this
u2 2     1 M12
relation between the speed ratio as a function of Mach number.
p2  u2  
 1    12  1 
  1 M12  . So, here
2 
So, when I put this here, I can write

p1  a1   2     1 M1 
u1
M1  and, finally, we will land up an expression like
a1
p2 
 1   M1 1 
   1 M12 
2 
2
. So, this expression can be further simplified to reach

p1  2     1 M1 
p2
this fundamental relations between the static pressure ratio . So, this is how the
p1
relations are framed for static pressure.
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2
p2
p1
 1  M 2  1
 1 1
Now, then next point we are going to address is the static temperature and enthalpy. So,
here if I define this static temperature as T1 and T2 that is one is before the shock, other is
after the shock and static enthalpy h1  c pT1 and static enthalpy h2, after the shock will be
c pT2 . Also we have to write equation of state, that is we can write p   RT .
p1 p
So, we can write  2 , by satisfying this equation of state, one can write this
1T1  2T2
p1 p T  p   
relation  2 . Then, we can find out 2   2  1  ; so we get this equation.
1T1  2T2 T1  p1  2 
p2
Now, fortunately in the previous slides, we know what is the static pressure ratio as a
p1
function of M1, we also know static density ratio as a function of M1. So, when I put this
equation here in this relation, we arrived at the static temperature ratios, which is same as
the static enthalpy ratio. And, again this is the function of upstream Mach number M1
h2 T2  2   2     1 M1 
2
  1 
h1 T1    1
 1     1 M 2 
M 2
 1
 1 
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The next important condition that we are going to talk about is the stagnation conditions.
So, for stagnation conditions what I can say this is 1, this is 2. So, I define the stagnation
conditions like stagnation pressure ratio, stagnation temperature ratio, stagnation density
ratio.
So, when I say stagnation conditions then corresponding static pressure will be p1,
temperature will be T1 density will be ρ1. Stagnation pressure will be defined as p01 T01
and  01 . So, how do I calculate this ratio? These ratios are function of M1, so we already
know. We get it from isentropic relation right.
Now, correspondingly in similar way we say p2 T2 ρ2 that is after the shock, stagnation
values will be p02 , T02 ,  02 and all these terms are another function of M2 and, this
relation we will get it from through isentropic.
So, these has nothing to do with the shockwave and as I mentioned within the shockwave
the flow process is non isentropic. But, still we are able to manage this static pressure
p 2 T2 
ratio , and 2 . We derived this as some function of M1, these relations we
p1 T1 1
already derived in the earlier slides.
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p02
So, now if you look at this stagnation pressure ratio , I can write this as
p01
 p02  p2   p1 
     . So, all these number will get cancelled finally, I will land up in this
 p2  p1  p01 
stagnation pressure ratio. Same concept applies for stagnation temperatures as well as
stagnation density.
Now, the expression will be very big here, because first term in this refers to the
isentropic conditions that is condition 2. The last term refers to condition 1 only. And, in
between the middle term refers to the condition 1 and 2 and they are related through
function of M1.
So, all these things are known to us so we can essentially calculate this stagnation
pressure ratio after the shock.
There is another kind of relation that we are trying to get here, which is typically called
as Rayleigh Pitot tube equations. What is the very basic background; maybe some
lectures down the line we will come to know during the measurements in supersonic
flow.
We will show that a pitot tube is generally used to measure the stagnation pressure in a
flow field. So, when some pitot probe is placed in a supersonic flow field, we will have a
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bow shock sitting on the surface. So, this probe is typically a blunt shape nose; so we say
it is a probe.
So, there will be bow shock sitting on this, but what we look at along this axis; in this
domain if you put a sensor somewhere here and try to capture the flow information. So,
in this domain it is always assumed to have a normal shock. So, when I say normal
shock, I know the inflow condition is M1 as if a condition M2 happens to be here, in this
situation what we measure is after the shock.
So, what you typically measure downstream is p02 , that is stagnation pressure because
entire flow field comes to rest at this nose point. But, many a times we are known
conditions are p1 that is in the static flow field the conditions are known as p1. Now, the a
p02  p  p 
relation that is derived is and that is equal to  02  2  . So, all these conditions
p1  p2  p1 
again if I say p2 and p02 , then correspondingly it is related to Mach number M2.
So, when I say Mach number M2; so we know this particular relation is only function of
p2
Mach number; this particular relation that is function of Mach number in the
p1
p02
upstream. Whereas, is a function of Mach number in the downstream. And,
p2
moreover we know the, what is M1 and M2 through this relations.
And, ultimately we land up in a big expression like this that talks about ratio of
stagnation pressure after the shock to the static pressure before the shock. So, this is a
very vital as far as the experimental point of view, so we call this as a Rayleigh pitot tube
equation.
1
    1  2   1 
   M1 
 ; p02   1    2 M1      1 M1 
2    1
p02    1  2   2 
2 2
  M1 
p1  2  2 M 1    1    1   4 M1  2   1 
2 2
p1 

  1   1  
  
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Another important relation that we are going to talk about the stagnation temperatures.
So, we say the before the shock it is T01 , after the shock it is T02 . So, as I say that energy
u12 u2 u2
equation does not change; so I can write h1   h2  2 and we also know h   h0 .
2 2 2
So, we can write h02  h01 , we can say c pT02  c pT01 . Then this total temperature relation
we can say as T02  T01 , which means stagnation temperature does not change or is
constant across a stationary normal shock.
234
Then we are going to move a very important calculations that is entropy in the flow field.
So, as you know that across the shock wave, the entire flow field is non isentropic. So, if
I say absolute entropy before the shock is s1, if I say absolute entropy after the shock is s2
that is per unit mass. So, we can easily calculate what is happening
T  p 
s2  s1  c p ln  2   R ln  2  .
 T1   p1 
So, all the static property relations we know; so, we can directly calculate the entropy
change across the shock. And from this relation what we will see that because the
entropies related through second law of thermodynamics to define the directionality of a
system or of a thermodynamic process.
So, in this context what we will show here that, this relation will be only true when M1 is
more than 1. This will not be true when M1 is less than 1 because this entropy change
will be negative. So, as per the second law of thermodynamics, this entropy must
increase across this normal shock. So, s2  s1 should always be greater than 0. So, this
will be only true when M1 is greater than 1.
Hence, we say that Mach number is always supersonic before the shock and it has to be
subsonic after the shock.
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So, this is one working formula for entropy calculations, in many a times in normal
shock problems, normally this entropy change also calculated through another
expressions in terms of stagnation pressure. So, we define the stagnation pressure p01 1
and p02 and entropies as s1 and s2.
So, what we are trying to say is that, if you want to recall the same expression. We say
that only within this shock wave the process is non isotropic and all other regions the
flow field is isentropic. If, this is the case then what I can bring this particular condition 1
isentropically to rest.
So that I can define for the condition 1, this s1a which is nothing but s1 and
corresponding pressure p1a will be p01 , T1a will be T01 and, for this downstream side I
can say s2a will be s2 , p2a will be p02 , T2a will be T02 .
Now, if I want to calculate the entropy change that is s2a  s1a which is same as s2  s1 ,
but what we see in the right hand side of this expression. So, what I write is
T  p 
c p ln  2 a   R ln  2 a  .
 T1a   p1a 
So, if you see here, in the previous expression we say T02  T01 , we prove that this
particular total temperature does not change across a normal shock. So, having said this,
we can say first term of the right hand side expression will be 0.
So, the remaining term that the right hand side will contain the stagnation pressure ratio.
p 
So, ultimately we can write the s2  s1   R ln  02  . So, this is another expression and
 p01 
it is also convenient to calculate the entropy change across the shock wave. So, instead of
calculating the entropy change from the static pressure values, we can directly calculate
it from the stagnation pressure values.
236
So, this is what I just want to conclude in saying that, the fundamental expression from
p 
this we say that; entropy change s2  s1   R ln  02  and, it is a function of stagnation
 p01 
pressure ratio. Since s2 is always greater than s1; so this will also imply p02 must decrease
p01 . So, this is true when M1 is greater than 1.
Hence, this is very basic philosophy of Prandtl relation that Prandtl relation always holds
good and it has to be correlated in line with entropy change across the shock wave and
that entropy must increase across the normal shock. If such a situation is there, M1 must
be greater than 1 and the stagnation pressure will drop across a normal shock.
So, with this I will conclude this lecture for today. In the subsequent lectures we will
move further in other analysis of normal shock.
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Module - 04
Lecture - 12
Normal Shock Waves
Welcome you again to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in the
Module 4 - Normal Shock Waves.
So, previously we have gone through two lectures in this module, where we discussed
about the formation of shock waves, what is its importance, we discussed about the
fundamental equations, and we derived one important relations known as Prandtl
relations for the normal shock.
And based on these relations one can find out the flow property across a normal shock.
So, we will move further from this contents and today in this lecture we are going to
discussed some important inferences that we come across from this normal shock
analysis.
Now, apart from that we are trying to introduce a theorem which is known as Crocco’s
theorem which is a very vital and important theorem that relates the fluid kinematics
238
aspects with respect to thermodynamic relations that normally is encountered across a
normal shock. Of course, this Crocco’s theorem has nothing to do with normal shock
phenomena. Crocco’s theorem is independent in nature that correlates the fluid kinetic
concepts to thermodynamic concepts. And in our study that is in the normal shock
analysis, we will try to see how this theorem is useful to us to describe certain flow fields
across a normal shock.
Now, having said this we will now move to introduce a gas property table for normal
shock relations. So, previous lectures you derived the mathematical formulations of
different parameters for a normal shock, but many a times these parameters are difficult
to evaluate, and for which we have to refer to the property tables.
So, I will introduce this gas property table, how you are going to see the table to find out
different values. Then we will try to see that how that gas table can be used to solve
certain numerical examples. So, this is the broad outline for this lecture for today.
Just to give the brief insight what we have learnt in the previous class, I can say that a
normal shock is a very natural phenomena for a supersonic flow field in which all the
compression waves merge in a very thin region, and this thin region has a typical
dimension of 10-7 m.
239
And across this thin region all the flow properties before the shock and after the shock
needs to be correlated. So when you see this magnitude of this property, they jump in a
very steep manner or they jump drastically in one direction and across this discontinuity
region.
So, the given problem that we have is that we have a standing normal shock. So, the
conditions that are upstream conditions are known to us such as pressure, temperature,
density, velocity, Mach number, all stagnation properties they are known. And what are
the unknown condition is what happens after the shockwave. So, in our previous study,
we tried to derive the correlations between these properties value upstream and
downstream across this shock wave.
So, after doing so, we will try to find out; of course we have derived so many parameters
across the normal shocks. So, we will try to find out some important consequences. So,
with which I call as inferences, inferences number 1. So, first inferences that we can talk
about is limiting Mach number.
So, as you say see from this Prandtl relations which is the star conditions of M1 and M2
across a normal shock, they are inversely related. And from these relations, we can
actually find out the Mach number relations across the normal shock that is M2 and M1.
240
So, this is the given by these equations. Now, having said this we can say that how M2
will vary with respect to M1. So, this says that if your M1 is supersonic, M2 has to be
subsonic. So, it means that has to be subsonic, so that means, this is the first important
relations what we get but why M1 has to be supersonic that we will come back later when
you do the entropy analysis.
But the for the time being let us say that M1 is supersonic, now when M1 is supersonic
the minimum value of M1 should be 1. So, when it is M1 is 1, M2 is 1 which means there
is no shockwave. It is just a simple Mach wave or just a beginning of formation of shock
wave. So, effectively in the flow is there is no shock wave, entire flow condition is
isentropic.
So, this is one case that is what I can say the beginning condition of shock wave. So, we
say that this is the first limiting conditions. Now, second limiting conditions that how
long I can increase M1. So, if I go on increasing the M1, we will find there is a upper
limit of M2. So, M2 cannot be more than certain value.
So, this we can see from these equations. The relation between M2 and M1 can be also
1   1 
 
M 12  2 
written in this form that is M 2 
2
.
  1 
  2 
 2M 1 
Now, in this equation when I put the limiting condition, when M1 goes to infinity, means
this region, the upstream goes to infinity that means we are putting a limit that we keep
on increasing the Mach number on the upstream side. So, what happens in the
1
downstream if this particular term when at this condition we can say goes to 0.
M 12
1
So, when I say goes to 0 in the expression of this M2, we can say these two
M 12
particular term becomes 0. So, this leaves out the limiting case of M2 will be equal to
 1
. Now, when we put gamma is equal to 1.4 for air, so this value turns out to be
2
0.378. So, at this condition we say your M2 will be fixed by 0.378.
241
So, in other words, the M2 value cannot come below this number provided you are using
air that is first consequence, and that is the upper limit. Lower limit M1 can be 1, so M2
will be 1. So, this particular situation will tell let you know that the flow is isentropic,
and there is no shock wave. So, this is the first limiting case, this is the limiting case for
Mach number.
Then moving further, let us see what happens to static property ratio. By static property
p2 T
ratio I mean static pressure ratio static temperature ratio 2 , and static density ratio
p1 T1
2
. So, previously we have derived these relations across the normal shock, and all
1
these relations are nothing but the functions of M1. So, looking at this equation when
p2 T
what one can say that when M1 goes to infinity, the and 2 also goes to very high
p1 T1
value. So, there is no limiting case because this equation does not restrict these numbers.
But whereas, interesting phenomena will happen for the density; so when M1 goes to
1 1 
infinity, unfortunately this term goes to 0. So, in 2 goes to 0, the density ratio 2
M1 2
M1 1
 1
turns out to be . And for gamma is equal to 1.4, this ratio has to be 6.
 1
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2
So, here also I can say that M1 is equal to 1, M2 will be 1, but at the same time your
1
goes to 6 when M1 goes to infinity. So, irrespective of what value of pressure
temperature, the density ratio cannot be more than 6 for air that is irrespective of Mach
number.
And next we will move to the third inferences that is for the entropy conditions. So, in
the beginning, I told that we say that M1 is supersonic, now we will and try to find out
this answer why this M1 should be supersonic. So, these particular things can be
answered from this entropy analysis.
So, what we learnt so far that from Prandtl relation one can obtain Mach number
relations across a normal shocks. So, the conditions for subsonic and supersonic nature
of the flow across the normal shock is decided through entropy analysis. The static
pressure static temperature increases across the normal shock.
So, the entropy equation will demonstrate that the entropy change across a normal shock
is a function of Mach number. In fact, we derived this from our previous analysis. Then
we will try to invoke that what the second law of thermodynamics tells us. So, the
second law of thermodynamic tells us the important consequence that is directionality of
a flow. So, this flow will proceed in a direction in which the thermodynamic property
that is entropy should increase.
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So, now to show that why M1 cannot be subsonic, so first thing we have to see this
particular important equation, this is the very thermodynamic fundamental equations
how you want to calculate the entropy change between two states 1 and 2. Now, that is
T  p 
s2  s1  c p ln  2   R ln  2  .
 T1   p1 
Now, this is the broad analysis. Now, we try to use these equations for a shock wave. So,
we know this temperature ratio; we know the pressure ratios. So, when you put those
expressions which turns out to be this. Now, one thing important to be noted here that
when M1 is equal to 1, so s2  s1 . This is what we say that when M1 is equal to 1, M2 is
equal to 1, so this is s2  s1 , then this is the entire isentropic as if there is no shock wave.
And in this equation when you put M1 is greater than 1, we will find the s2  s1 . So, this
is the conditions for shock wave that we have been analyzing so far. So, that for which
we say that M1 will be always greater than 1 for which M2 should be less than 1. So,
these two relations holds good.
But if you see the third relations, what we find out that if M1 is less than 1, your
 s2  s1   0 . So, this does not follow the second law that entropy decreases in the
direction of the flow. So, this is a impossible situation as far as the second law of
thermodynamics is concerned. So, always we consider the relation which is written in the
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middle that is M1 must be greater than 1. And also we can say that for subsonic flow,
entropy decreases across a normal shock and hence shockwaves do not exist in the
subsonic flow.
And again moving further from another inferences 4. So, here we will talk about what
happens to the stagnation property ratio. So, one of the important relations from entropy
p 
change across a normal shock can be calculated as s2  s1   R ln  02  . So, p02 is
 p01 
nothing but the stagnation pressure after the shock, p01 is the stagnation pressure before
the shock.
So, we can say that this p02 is related is calculated from p2 and M2 and p01 is calculated
from p1 and M1. So, we can say that the entropy change is given by these relations. So,
this says that p02  p01 that means stagnation pressure always drops. Why it always
drops? Because in earlier analysis we have said that energy equation does not change.
So, total temperature or stagnation temperature remains constant.
So, having said this, and if you say the equation of state p  RT , and for this case if
you say p0  RT0 . So, if this equation has to be satisfied, then these two conditions
must valid. So, as this is equal; stagnation pressure should drop. So, stagnation density
also should drop.
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So, this is all about what we have studied from this analysis of normal shock and its
inferences. Now, we will move to a theorem which is known as Crocco’s theorem. Just
to start this. So, let us forget that we are dealing with a normal shock analysis, but what
we are dealing with just a fundamental theorem and that is applicable for all situations
that involves fluid kinematics and thermodynamics. And in particular we are trying to
apply this Crocco’s theorem for our compressible flow theory.
So, what does this theorem tells; it tells about the relation between a fluid vorticity with
respect to entropy change. So, when I say fluid vorticity, its a kinematic parameter and
when I say entropy its a thermodynamic parameter. Now, what it tells is that, so when I
say fluid kinematic parameters the common parameter that I should know is about this
angular velocity  , then velocity vector and another parameter what you will say
vorticity vector. So, vorticity vector is nothing but twice omega vector.
So, now we know that from fluid kinematics analysis, we can say that  
1
2
 
 V . So,
this is how these fluid kinematic parameters is defined. So, what we are trying to see
here is that Crocco’s theorem which is given by this particular expression,
V
 
V    V  h0  T s 
t
. So, this is a vector relation.
246
And to derive this equations, so let us start with the equations that we can recall this
equation called as Euler equation, but in vector form. So, when I write this Euler
V
equation in vector form, what I can write 
t
 
  V . V  p .
p  V 
So, what I can write is, we can find out a term

   
 V . V  . Then also we
 t 
have to recall a Tds relation that is the in vector form. So, one thing I need to emphasize
this Euler equation is a fluid parameter term, Tds relation is for the thermodynamic term.
p p
So, what I can write T s  h  . So, here we also know that from this Euler
 
V2 V2
equations. Also we know h0  h  that is static enthalpy plus is stagnation
2 2
enthalpy. So, from this we can find out what is h .
p
So, once you do that, so you have to do some mathematical jugglery. So, we put this

 V 2  V
in this, Tds relations. So, what I can write T s  h0       
 V . V . So, here
 2  t
you have to know certain mathematical relation what we call as vector identity that
relates between these two parameters.
V 2 
   
So, what do we write is     V . V  V    V . So, this is a mathematically
 2 
derived term. Now, when I put this vector identity equation for these two terms in this
V
equation, then we write this T s  h0 
t

 V   V . 
Now, after rearranging, one can obtain this particular relation written in the first
equation. So, if you look at this equation, it contains all these terms that relates one side
of this equation contains the kinematic parameter that is velocity vector; other side of the
equation contains the entropy term, temperature, and enthalpy term. Also there is another
V
parameter which is a unsteady parameter . So, this equation I can say it is for
t
unsteady flow. And when for a steady flow this term this term will vanish. So, this
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becomes steady flow. So, this is how the Crocco’s theorem equation are defined by these
two expression.
Now, let us see how this Crocco’s theorem is useful to us. So, now, let us say if we are
talking about a shock wave, and we are trying to correlate the fluid parameter with
respect to thermodynamic parameters. So, here we are talking about the h0 that is h0 ,
and that is nothing but   c pT0  . So, that does not change because total temperature
across a shock wave is remains constant. So, h0 is 0.
Now, what happens to s ? s2  s1 always greater than 0, so that means, entropy gradient

of entropy cannot be equal to 0. So, this says that your   V  cannot be equal to 0.
 
When   V cannot be equal to 0, this turns out to be  cannot be equal to 0 which
means that when I say thin region of the shock wave, the flow field in this thin region is
highly rotational, which means if you visualize the flow field we will find this fluid
elements try to have rotational vector in this thin region. So, across a normal shock, the
flow is highly rotational. This is one of the important inference that a shockwave analysis
gives to us.
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Now, whatever we have learnt so far we if we want to summarize normal shock

relations, we said about the Prandtl relations that relates between the shock Mach
number before the shock and after the shock. So, very basic bottom line is that if we have
a standing normal shock the conditions that are known to us is the upstream conditions,
all the flow parameters are known; the conditions that are not known to us as the all the
downstream parameters.
But what we know simply is the relation between Mach numbers M1 and M2 through
these Prandtl relations. Now, using these relations, one can find out all the static pressure
ratio, static density ratio, static temperature ratio. And if you see here, all this number
will increase. So, in fact, we also can have stagnation pressure ratio that drops; total
temperature is equal. So, in this way we can calculate.
So, one way of looking at this equation if you see, all these ratios are the functions of
Mach number and which is in the upstream regions, which is known to us. And every
time if we know the Mach number, every time it is almost a time consuming task to use
these equations to know the flow parameters.
So, one convenient way of looking at this approach would be create a database in which
we will vary M1, and try to find out how the ratios will be. So, in this way a table can be
prepared for a normal shock and we call this as a gas property table for all the normal
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shock relations. So, by that table, we will avoid the time consuming task of using
calculating the flow parameter using these equations.
Now, let us see how this table is the framed. So, for this table, I have taken this extract
from this reference book John D Anderson Modern Compressible Flow that is McGraw
Hill Publications. So, this is one source of extract what I have just taken. What it says is
that this has about 7 column of data. The first column belongs to the Mach number which
is upstream.
So, for the normal shock, the first column that talks about is M1 and the last column is
M2. So, across a normal shock, I know what is my value of M1, and correspondingly the
last column will talk about what will happen to the M2 conditions. Similarly, pressure
ratio, if I want to calculate if it is p1 and if it is p2. So, second column will give the
pressure ratio across the normal shock.
If your density is ρ1 and ρ2, the third column will talk about the density ratio which is the
function of Mach number. Fourth column will talk about the temperature ratio, T1 and
T2. Fifth column will talk about the stagnation pressure ratio. So, stagnation pressure
ratio, that means, for corresponding p1 and M1, we can define a stagnation pressure p01
and for M2 and p2, we can define the stagnation pressure p02. So, that ratio is given by
p02
this .
p01
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And also there is another relations once you have this p01, and we can also correlate with
p1; this is another important relations we call this as Rayleigh-Pitot equations. So, many
a times this ratio is also very important which we can directly find out from the gas table.
So, what I can we can see that there are three regime is just I have written. First regime is
you can say the first value that stands as M1 is 1 that is what we say and this M1 can goes
to infinity.
So, here it has been plotted about 17, Mach number of 17. And till now this is the
realistic number what we can say. So, the first part of this is can say it is a low
supersonic, middle one is in the range of maybe supersonic, the bottom one is very high
supersonic and we call this as hypersonic flow.
So, there are any number of intermediate data that can also be generated. So, this is really
just to give you a glimpses that how a gas property table looks like. Now, knowing on
this, we can just find out all the parameters.
So, with this, let me see demonstrate that how one is supposed to refer this gas property
tables. So, for that let us solve some numerical problems. The problem that is given to us
that we have a standing normal shock in a in the test section of a supersonic wind tunnel,
it has the parameter that is upstream for which the Mach number is 3.5, static pressure
ratio is 0.4 bar and static temperature is -70°C. So, we have to calculate the Mach
number, static pressure, static temperature, velocity downstream of the wave.
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So, if you want to solve this problem, so first thing we have to draw a very schematic
sketch that briefs about the problems. So, if you have a normal shock, what we know is
upstream which is M1 that is 3.5, static pressure p1 0.4 bar, static temperature is T1 that is
-70°C or we can say 203K.
What you do not know is M2, required to calculate what is p2, and T2 and u2. So, one way
to look at the problem is that you take all the standard relations, use your calculator and
M 2 p2 p
calculate all these parameters , , because M2 will be a function of M1, 2 will be
M 1 p1 p1
a function of M1, all these numbers are known to us.
But what I am trying to say is that how to use the gas dynamics table. This is one such
extracts from these gas dynamic table from the book, where I can get the information
about Mach number of 3.5. So, if you look at this the first row on these things says that
Mach number of 3.5, it talks about all the parameters. So, I can write this when M1 is
p2 T
equal to 3.5, then I can say is 14.12. 2 we say 3.315. We also require Mach
p1 T1
number. So, we can say M2 will be 0.4512.
p  p
So, we require p2. So, p2 can be written as  2  p1 . So, we know p1, we know 2 . So,
 p1  p1
T 
p2 can be calculated as 14.12 x 0.4. So, it is about 5.65 bar. Similarly, T2 will be  2  T1 .
 T1 
So, this will be if you calculate 3.315 x 203 = 673 Kelvin.
So, what is left out? We know M2, we got p2, we got T2, we want u2. So, u2  M 2a2 . So,
u2  M 2 RT2 . So, u2  0.4512 1.4  287  673 u2  235m / s . So, this is how we look
at this problem. So, we get all the parameters by using this table data.
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The second problem we will try to see in another way of looking at the problem. A blunt
nosed missiles flies at Mach 2.3, calculate the pressure and temperature at the nose of the
missile. So, in one of analysis is a blunt nosed missile. So, a blunt nosed missile is
something is represented in this manner, nose is a blunt. So, for a blunt nosed missile,
when it is flying at 2.3 Mach which will have a shock wave sitting onto this body at the
nose.
So, what we want to see is that are the nose of this, we can zoom this version we can
assume it to be a normal shock. So, when it is a normal shock, so upstream condition we
can say that as if a gas is moving or moving from upstream to downstream for which
your M1 will be 2.3. And if there are two situations it is asked; when for this M1 is equal
to 2.3, what we require is pressure and temperature at the nose.
So, at the nose of this, what we see here the flow happens to be almost remain stagnant
because if these flow comes at the this point, flow is almost stagnant, so that part will say
that on a blunt nose body at the nose of the missile will encounter a normal shock, and
whatever pressure and temperature that will be nothing but your stagnation pressure. So,
for that what we want to find out what is p02, what is T02.
So, here the confusion may arise what pressure we should find, static pressure or
stagnation pressure? But here your answer should be stagnation pressure because a blunt
nose missile always encounters stagnation pressure at the nose, because the flow tries to
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comes down to almost rest at that point. And second assumption what we are doing at the
nose portion, the shock wave will be close to a normal shock.
Now, this is the things we require. But what the condition that is given there are two
situations. So, we have to find out one at sea level conditions, other is at 18 kilometre
altitude. So, means that if a missile is flying at sea level what will be the p02 and T02? If
the missile is flying at 18 kilometre altitude, what will be this value?
So, for that will require we will require a sea level pressure; sea level pressure is
normally represented in a static value. So, I can say p1 to be 1 bar and T1 to be maybe
15°C or 288K. Similarly, from the data table, if you look at the property data altitude
versus pressure temperature, then we can find out that at an 18 kilometre altitude, the
pressure will be very low, 0.074 bar and temperature is about 218K.
So, there is a drop in static temperatures with altitude. So, to do that, at sea level situation
if you want to calculate, then what we can find out, the first relation that is we require we
know p1, we want p02. So, basically we have to refer this particular column of this table.
So, for this particular column and Mach 2.3, I have to refer this particular row.
p02
So, I can get this number to be we can say for M1 is equal to 2.3 will implies would
p1
be 7.294. So, from these things, one can evaluate what is at sea level we can say p02
would be 7.294 bar. And at 18 kilometer altitude, we can say p02 will be 7.294 x 0.074,
so this much bar. So, this is how we get pressure.
Now, to find temperature, what you require because what we can say temperature across
a normal shock do not change. So, I can say T02  T01 . But T01, I can find out that
T01  1 2
 1 M 1 , this we get from isentropic relations.
T1 2
So, for M1 is equal to 2.3, this ratio turns out to be 2.06. So, we can say T02 at sea level
would be or T01 would be 2.06 x 288 K that is at sea level. And at 18 kilometre altitude,
we can say T02 will be T01 is equal to 2.06 x 218 Kelvin. So, this analysis tells us that
when you go with altitude, the total the pressure drops.
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So, what you can imagine that that at sea level if your pressure is close to 7.3 bar, but it
drastically reduced to a very low pressure at that altitude. Since your drag will be less
and that is the reason one can fly at very high speed high Mach number in higher
altitude. In fact, temperature will also be less. This is all about the problem number 2.
And problem number 3, this is again a similar problem which he says that Pitot tube is
inserted in a supersonic flow and is measures 3 bar pressure while static pressure is 0.4
bar. We require Mach number and entropy change. Here the entire idea is mentioned that
Pitot pressure, the Pitot probe measures stagnation pressure.
So, across a Pitot pressure, there will be a close to a very normal shock. So, across the
normal shock the pressure is measured to be 3 bar that is p02, and the static pressure in
the flow field is 0.4 bar.
So, one should not confuse that this pressure is a static pressure that is 0.4 bar and when I
use the word Pitot probe, then I must use this as a stagnation pressure now which
stagnation pressure. So, this has to be stagnation pressure after this normal shock. So,
when I say after the normal shock, then it must be p02. So, when I say this, when I infer
p02
the data, then I can say I can easily calculate the ratio .
p1
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This ratio is about 7.5. So, to do that I have to refer this data, because I do not know the
Mach number, but Mach number you want to find out. So, from this table, we have to
p02
find out in this column of which data is close to 7.5. So, take the extract from that
p1
then this number turns out to be M1 is equal to point 2.35. So, this will tell M1 is 2.35.
So, when M1 is 2.35, what you require entropy change. So, entropy change will be
p 
s2  s1 , one can use simple relation s2  s1   R ln  02  . And for this Mach number of
 p01 
2.35, this ratio is 0.5615. s2  s1  287 ln  0.5615  . s2  s1  165.6 J/kgK
So, this is how we can find out the Mach number if Mach number is not given. This is
the essence. This is the most advantage part of the using data table, even though the
Mach number is not given, but still we can given the data of property data, we can also
calculate the Mach number. This is another way of visualizing the advantage of graphical
or a data table for property calculations.
So, in this way I have just given some sample example how to use the data table for a
normal shock applications and in fact one need not have to remember the big expressions
of flow equations, but one has to understand that such equation exists. And in fact, all
these data tables are derived from those relations. So, with this, I will conclude my
lectures for today.
Thank you very much for your attention.
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Module – 04
Lecture – 13
Normal Shock Waves- IV
Welcome to this course, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow; in the module 4 Normal

Shock Wave.
We covered in last 3 lectures the following topics. So, the topics of shock waves, its
formation in one dimensional medium. Fundamentals equations have been derived and
most importantly the relations that governs through Prandtl equation is also framed from
these fundamental equations.
Then, we move to the normal shock analysis and flow property calculations across the
normal shock, which uses this Prandtl equation. And, having said all this property
calculations, we move to a very important theorem called as Crocco’s Theorem. This
theorem talks about the fluid kinetics aspects with respect to thermodynamic concepts,
and that can be correlated for the normal shock.
257
Now, having said all these things, we tried to demonstrate the gas property tables. And,
this gas property tables was derived from the fundamental equations of normal shock
analysis that are used for flow property calculations. In fact, this gas property table can
be considered as a database or data set to find out the flow property that are prevailing
across a normal shock.
So, these are the very basic topics that were covered in this normal shock. Now, in this
lecture we will try to justify certain important facts with respect to the shockwaves as a
compression device. So, what we have seen here is that always there is a steep pressure
raise across a normal shock. So, the question arises can you think of the shockwave as a
mechanism to compress a gas? Is it will be effective?
So, all these things we will try to answer by considering the fundamental thermodynamic
aspects that is with respect to isentropic compressions versus shock wave compressions.
Now, when you deal with this isentropic compressions, normally there are standard
thermodynamic relations that are available, but we do not know the thermodynamic
background although we found out the flow property, but we do not know the
thermodynamic background.
So, for that a relation which is derived which is called as Hugoniot relations and in fact,
these forms the basics of thermodynamic concepts that happens the pressure rise across a
shock wave. And, using this relation one can find out that how a shock wave
compression mechanism can be understood thermodynamically.
So, before you move to this shock wave analysis of compression. So, let me give some
very basic background of thermodynamic analysis of a compression process.
258
We all know from the beginning of thermodynamics course, we used to have a very
simple concept of using a figure considering a piston cylinder device in which gas is
contained. and when the gas is supposed to be compressed, the piston has to move
towards the dead end of the cylinder. If, the gas has to expand the piston has to move
away from the dead end.
So, this is the way we can make this gas to compress or expand. Now, in fact, what we
can say is that the gas which is there in this cylinder as change in the specific volume or
density when the pistons moves in and out from the dead end of the cylinder.
So, we view this method to be compression or expansion. And, in fact, many a times we
can also make this system as and while motion of the piston is regulated in the cylinder,
we can say there is a work transfer in terms of PDV work.
And, other analysis we could perform that one can add heat into this gas and thereby see
what happens to the piston movement. So, there are multiple ways one can handle this
particular thermodynamic aspects of this piston motion inside the cylinder. So, such a
process are generally given a names, those names we can call this as a constant pressure
process or isobaric process, constant volume process (isochoric process), constant
temperature process (isothermal process), constant entropy process (isentropic process).
259
And, all these four processes can be thought of occurring in a very steady state manner
and in a very small or we can say in a very quasi static manner. So, that the process can
be thought of happening in a reversible way, but other process that may not be a
reversible, we call this as adiabatic process where there is no heat additions; that means,
this cylinder does not encounter any heat interaction.
So, this is how we handle this motion of the piston inside the gas accordingly we assign
different thermodynamic processes. Now, when all these thought processes we call them
as a polytropic processes. So, when I say polytropic processes and if we try to plot the
pressure volume diagram. So, normally we call this as a p-v diagram; pressure and
specific volume diagram.
So, this process we say it is occurring in a polytropic manner, where p  n  C . So,

following these equations the pressure volume relation is considered. Now, let us see that
what does this mean, now when n is equal to 1? So, when n is equal to 0. So, it is like p
is pressure is equal to constant. So, there is no change in the pressure.
So, we cannot recognize this to be a compression process. But, apart from n is equal to 0
for all other values of n, we can say that when there is a decrease in the specific volume
the pressure always increases.
So, now the value of n essentially decides, the how a process can occur in a very slowest
possible manner? When we are occurring the process in the slowest possible manner,
then it will be very quasi static in nature and the conditions of maintaining the reversible
nature will be assured.
So, as and when we move n towards up the process occurs in a very slow manner. So, let
us say when n is equal to a 1. So, this process is p n is p   C , and this relation is true
for isothermal process and let us say in a constant pressure process, we can say it is n is
equal to 0. In fact, it is no longer a compression process. And, in a constant volume
process that is the other limit where this compression process happens to be vertical very
steep manner.
So, it is a constant volume process. So, here n goes to infinity. But, any other value of n
makes this curve to be steep. Now, let us say that when we are undertaking a
compression process for a certain change in the pressures. So, if say p1 initial state and p2
260
and if at all I want to do this compression process, then if I start from n is equal to 1
means isothermal process.
So, if the initial state we can start from 1 and final state starts ends at 2. So, I can go in a
slowest manner that is n in a isothermal process. Similarly, keeping increasing n further
the curve becomes steep. But, what the basic condition is that? The work transfer which
is essentially quantified that area under the diagram comes down if the curve becomes
steeps. Now, in particular when we have a constant entropy process, which is isentropic.
So, there it is nothing but the reversible adiabatic process.
So, there n becomes gamma that is specific heat ratio. So, somewhere for air this
becomes 1.4, somewhere we can have another curve which is just close to n is equal to 1.
So, this we can say n is equal to gamma. So, normally we can say roughly an isentropic
process will be somewhere in this manner. But, when we say another process which is
called adiabatic? So, this need not be have to be reversible in nature.
So, although we can say is equal to gamma is equal to 1.4 for the process is irreversible
whereas, this is a constant entropy process, this is reversible in nature, which means
while going from 1 to 2, I can come along the same path while in return with very
minimal loss. So, this is how we view this compression mechanism in a p v diagram.
So, with this background let us see that, how I can incorporate a shockwave as a
compression device. Does any of the relation suits to me or not?
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To do this analysis let us see that when we undertake a compression in a shock waves.
So, we say there is a standing normal shock. So, across a shock wave the Mach number
drops, but your static pressure p2 always rises, but in a very steep manner. Now, one
angle we can give to this particular problem and obviously this process cannot be
considered as any of the quasi static process, because this jump is very instantaneous or
very steep. And, this happens in a very shortest time.
So, none of the quasi static process will follow. Then, even it cannot be also considered
as an isentropic, because entropy always increases across the shock wave. But, one more
realistic way of looking at this problem, because when you derive this normal shock
relations, we can say there is an imaginary duct consisting of stream line, but that duct is
adiabatic duct.
Adiabatic duct means there is no heat interaction into this medium. So, to some extent
the process will be an adiabatic process. But, although process is adiabatic, whether we
have to really dependent on the specific heat ratio gamma or not, that become still a
question mark; so, all these analysis we are trying to see that if we can give a
thermodynamic meaning to this compression process.
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So, such a thermodynamic meaning we can keep through an relation what we call as
Hugoniot relation. So, what it says is that till this point of time, we always talk about
normal shock from its analysis, the relations, flow property calculations. But, the time
being let us see only thermodynamic aspects of increase in the pressure and whether we
can say that this increase in the pressure can have any thermodynamic link.
So, this is the entire motive of this analysis and so, what we say here is that changes
across a normal shock can be independently assessed purely on thermodynamic aspects
that is without involvement of any reference velocity or Mach number. Because, in all
earlier analysis we used to say for m for different values of Mach number, these are the
p2 T2
property ratio , and so on.
p1 T1
But, here we will say that without involvement any velocity or Mach number how we
can give a meaningful thought and that equation is known as Hugoniot Equations. And,
these Hugoniot equations can be derived from the basic governing equations for one-
dimensional flow prevailing in a adiabatic duct.
So, this equation has a great resemblance to the “First law of Thermodynamics for an
Adiabatic Process”. That is what the process or mechanism of shockwave; since, we
followed to a some extent we say that it is a adiabatic duct because there is no heat
transfer involved.
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So, with these logics we can say the process is in adiabatic nature and when Hugoniot
equation is formed we can say that it has a definite link to the first law of
thermodynamics.
So, to do that to do this analysis; so, let us revisit the governing equations of normal
shock, which is continuity, momentum and energy equations. So, continuity equations
we say it is 1u1  2u2 momentum equations is p1  1u12  p2  2u22 . And, energy
p1 u12 p u2
equation we are writing in this form that is e1    e2  2  2 .
1 2 2 2
Why you bring this internal energy concept here? Because in the beginning of analysis of
normal shock, we define that entire flow kinetic energy due to high speed nature
immediately, because what we told that after this normal shock, the flow becomes
suddenly subsonic from it is supersonic value. So, whatever kinetic energy of the flow it
has in the upstream, all of them gets converted to internal energy thereby increasing it is
temperatures.
So, what we say is for this condition 1 and 2; p1 and T1 and here p2  p1 and T2  T1 ; so,
for internal energy e1 and e2. So, normally this e1  c T1 and e2  c T2 . So, there is a rise
in the internal energy. So, that is what these equations are reframed in this manner.
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So, now let us relook into these equations, but in a different context. So, from continuity
   
equation one can rewrite u2  u1  1  or u1  u2  2  . So, now we take only this
 2   1 
expressions and substitute in momentum equation. So, these we get from continuity and
we substitute that thing in momentum equation.
So, when I substitute this in momentum equations, that is u 2 in the right hand side. So,
2
  
we get p1   u  p2  2  u1 1  . So, we simplify these equations and solve for u12 . So,
2
 2 
1 1
how do you do? So, you can bring this particular term to the other side
u1212
like  u  2
2
 p2  p1 .
2 2
1 1
  
So, 1u12 1  1   p2  p1 . So, ultimately we can write this equation as
 2 
 p  p1  2 
u12   2   . So, this is what we get from momentum equation.
 2  1  1 
Similarly, when you put this u1 in the momentum equations left hand side, then we can
 p  p1  1 
also get u 1, u22   2 2 2
  . So, now we have 2 expression u1 and u2 . So, now,
 2  1  2 
you substitute u12 and u22 in energy equation.
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So, when you do that we arrive at these particular expressions. And, we do and simplify
then we arrive at this particular expressions.
 p  p1   p2  p1   1 1 
e2  e1   2   1  2      
 2   2   1 2 
What it says is that the left hand side of this expression it is e2  e1 , which we say is that
change in internal energy. So, change in the internal energy across the shock wave. That
 p  p1 
is equal to the  2   1  2  . Now, expressing this specific volume into density
 2 
1 1
one can write  . So, this is how we say we can write this particular expression?
1 2
Now, if you give a little bit of thought assuming that in normal sequence, when you
calculate the average pressure normally you add up all the pressures and divided by the
total numbers of terms we are going to add. So, here there are two pressures. So, we
represent this as  pavg  ,  because the density increases, the specific volume
drops that is why minus. So, across this the shock wave we say there is a step change in
internal energy.
Now, this is what we see across the shock wave. Now, let us say see the First law of
Thermodynamics. So, in a first law of thermodynamics in a differential form we see we
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write de  dq  pd  . Now, in a situation when the process is an adiabatic process this
term we can neglect. So, that we can see de   pd  .
Now, if you look at these two equations. So, this is for a differential form of internal
energy. And, we see that there is a great resemblance between these two terms. Of
course, the only difference that we have here is that here the change is a very finite, but
this change we represent in a differential form.
So, that is what it is written here that it has a great resemblance for first law of
thermodynamics for an adiabatic process that is the change in internal energy is equal to
change in this specific volume multiplied by mean pressure across the shock wave.
In fact, this relation is true for all the thermodynamic processes and that holds good
across a normal shock. Since we did all these things from these basic fundamental
equation, it is true for all types of gases, real gases, chemical reacting gas, perfect gas as
well.
So, this is again another way of interpreting this Hugoniot Equations. So, basically we
framed this equations from our analysis that is change in internal energy and it is
represented through this Hugoniot equations.
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Now, in this equation we will try to see that these relations when you do it for perfect
gas. When you recall that for a perfect gas and calorically perfect gas we can write
R p
e  cT , c   and T  .
 1 R
Now, when you put all these relations, the Hugoniot equation turns out to be a pressure
volume relations between two thermodynamic states.
   1  1
1
p2    1  2

p1    1  1
  1   
  2
So, here are two thermodynamic states are 1 and 2, like the pressure ratio across this we
are now representing specific volume, like here if I say p1, pressure is p2, corresponding
1
specific volume is 1 and in fact that is nothing but . And, its corresponding specific
1
1
volume after this normal shock would be .
2
So, what it says is that, the presser ratio are now expressed in terms of specific volumes
for a calorically perfect gas. So, that is what I can say that Hugoniot equation represented
as pressure volume relation for a normal shock. More specific it will be pressure specific
volume relation across a normal shock.
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So, now let us see how this Hugoniot relations has a great significance for our
understanding? So, for that we will now talk about its inferences. What does it signifies
to us? So, if we recall this particular equation in a very generic way of thermodynamic
analysis one property can be represented to any other independent parameters.
For example, I can say internal energy as a function of pressure and specific volume. So,
this is as per the thumb rule of any thermodynamic property can be represented in other
two independent parameters. And, in this case your change in the internal energy is
related to pressure and specific volume, through this Hugoniot relation.
So, in other words I can say that from using this equation I can express this
p2  f  p1 , 1 , 2 , u1  . And, the how this functional relations forms; one of the
functional relation is this u12 expressed into as a function of p1 and p2. So, this functional
relation can be exactly defined by this Hugoniot equations.
So, from this one can find out what is the pressure p2  f  p1 , 1 , 2 , u1  . So, what it
physically means to us like that suppose you have the given conditions or known
condition are p1 , 1 and u1 . This is normally known, that is upstream condition and
downstream condition, we can say that we can calculate p2, but what condition you
require? If you know one of the particular conditions 2 , then in fact, we will just for the
time being we will not talk about the Mach number.
So, instead of Mach number if you know only the specific volume in the downstream
condition, then one can correlate p2 with the knowledge of p1 , 1 , 2 , u1 . So, this is also
a similar context; in earlier situation we were talking in terms of Mach number, here we
are not talking in terms of Mach number rather we talk about with another known
parameter and in this case is this specific volume.
So, this gives a curve which is known as Hugoniot curve. So, what it means is that at
equilibrium conditions the property value of thermodynamic state can be expressed as a
function of other state variables. And, in this case for a given upstream conditions for a
normal shock that of pressure, specific volume, velocity. The Hugoniot equation that is
this gives the relation for downstream parameters of pressure and specific volume. So,
downstream parameter of pressure and specific volume can be found out.
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So, one can generate a plot known as Hugoniot curve and this curve is nothing but the
locus of all possible pressure and specific conditions across a normal shock. So, means if
you know these known conditions one can generate a lot of data by just imposing some
numbers to this. And, all of them will decide about the possible flow conditions across a
normal shock. And, in fact, the depending on the strength of the normal shocks these
numbers will vary.
So; that means, this locus of all possible pressure and specific conditions of normal
shock various strength can be found out for one specific upstream values.
So, to start this, one can say that one can draw an Hugoniot curve of like this in a
pressure specific volume diagram. So, for different values of p1 , 1 one can find out all
possible numbers. Now, when I say so, next question arises, where is this initial point?
So, if you look at the initial points, the initial point should be corresponds to 0 entropy,
as if the flow was isentropic. So, s2 was is equal to s1; that means, initially if you start
from this particular point; so, initial point p1 and p2 as if compression process is just
initiated.
Now, if I want to think about bring the non isentropic nature through a shock wave, then
I can say the point 2 will proceed along this curve in this directions. Now, when I move
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this direction, I can bring this process through a Hugoniot curve. So, I can say 2 can lie
here, 2 can lie here, 2 point can lie here. So, any point we can draw this.
So, all these point is nothing but all possible conditions of a normal shocks. In fact, we
can start a point somewhere here let us say 1`. So, correspondingly this point can be a 2`
or this point can be 2``. So, likewise all possible conditions one can generate. So, point 2
will move towards left. Why left because the pressure should increase and corresponding
y axis will talk about what pressure we are supposed to get.
So, on this Hugoniot curve we can say any 2 points on this Hugoniot curve will talk
about the pressure jumps across a normal shock. So, this is how it is explained that, the
locus of all possible physical states occur only in the upper branch of the Hugoniot curve
in which initial Mach number is either larger or equal to unit
So, this direction of movement is not possible because it will lead to an expansion not a
compression. So, it will be impossible situation and shock wave will not occur. So, that
means, in shockwaves flow can occur that are initially supersonic. So, all these points
will lie in the supersonic region.
Now, to bring more clarity into this that, how exactly I locate the point 2 on this curve.
2
p  p1 u 
So, let us revisit this equations of Hugoniot relation that is 2    1  . So, if you
2  1  1 
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look at this normal shockwave, what does this normally mean u1 and ρ1 is the nothing but
1
the velocity and density that is nothing, but .
1
So, it is a mass flux. I can say rho I can say ρu is equal to constant that is 1u1  C . So, I
can say this as mass flux per unit area. Because, we can say it is a per unit area. So,
u1
which means that or in other words I can write this is nothing but .
1
So, this is also represented in this as mass flux per unit area. So, now this gives a logical
meaning that the right hand side of this equation is the nothing but the mass flux per unit
area which is normally known for a normal shock. And, left hand side of this equation is
nothing but slope along this curve.
So, means that if you know the mass flux per unit area, then you also know the slope. So,
one can calculate the slope and this negative slope will take you from point 1 to 2. So, in
other words what it means, for a given condition 1, which is located here if I know this
2
u 
particular number  1  and by taking this negative slope, if I draw a line then it will
 1 
cut this point at point 2.
2
u 
So, this particular slope is nothing but  1  . So, I have to put minus because we are
 1 
moving towards the negative specific volume directions. And, if for another situation of
u1
, if I can draw another line from this point which may take me to another point of 2`
1
for different values of u1 and 1 . So, likewise any number of states that is possible for
given state one.
So, for a given upstream conditions different states of 2, 2`, 2`` is possible. So that
means, the straight line can be drawn that will intersect the Hugoniot at some point 2.
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So, now when I join this line 1 and 2 in this Hugoniot curve. So, this line is known as
Rayleigh line. Because, it is drawn for a particular mass flux. And, in fact, I told that the
downward slope of the Rayleigh line is not possible, because we cannot go below this
line.
So; that means, if I start from the point 1 I should proceed in this directions, upward
directions; downward slope is not possible. In this way we can say all thermodynamic
states across a shockwave can be located graphically on a Hugoniot curve.
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So, having giving a name as Hugoniot curve or simply H curve, we are now able to see
that whether I can compare this particular shock based compression to an isentropic
compression. So, for an isentropic compression I can say this process is reversible
adiabatic. So, we can say it is we can say p    C or p1 1  p2 2  .
So, I say it is a reversible adiabatic process. And, this is nothing but we say H Hugoniot
equation. So, this is what we say, an isentropic process is governed quantitatively and the
Hugoniot equation governs the shock wave compression quantitatively. So, when I
compare both these two, these two equations, I can judge the effectiveness of shock
wave compression, with respect to isentropic compression.
So, to do that one interesting thing what we can say that we can bring a concept as shock
wave as a compression device. So, what I did is in the same Hugoniot curve, I
superimpose this isentropic curve; that means, when I am starting from same point 1 and
I try to go on a Hugoniot curve that is dotted line, and from same point I also can start
my compression journey in the isentropic curve.
So, let us see how I can do that? So, what you see is that then the initial phase, you will
see that both the dotted line and solid line they are more or less same. Now, one you
once you proceed further I mean once the specific volume decreases at a faster rate, then
we see that the gap is becomes higher and higher. So, for instance, if at all my point 2
lies here; I would have reached a pressure p2, if I go on a Hugoniot curve.
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So, compression that means, p on a Hugoniot curve would have been p2  p1 ; that
means, pressure rise on Hugoniot curve will be that is on the H curve would have been
p2  p1 . But, for same specific volume, if I would rather choose an isentropic curve, then
I would have landed up at point 2`.
So, my p would have been p2  p1 . So, this is how we say it is an isentropic curve.
Obviously, we say that p  p , which means that isentropic curve gives a less
compression for a same specific volume change than the Hugoniot curve.
In fact, this gap will become more and more if you climb on a Hugoniot curve, or in
other words at higher value of specific volume rise, the Hugoniot curve climbs over the
isentropic curve. So, this is the key point of the Hugoniot curve analysis that says that a
shockwave can be a thought of a compression device.
So, this is how I have explained so far that how a shockwave as a compression device
can be interpreted? I mentioned that with decrease in the specific volume rise in pressure
in isentropic curve takes place in a reversible manner where pressure rises instantly on a
Hugoniot curve. With decrease in the specific volume the Hugoniot curve climbs above
the isentropic curve; that means, it generate a high pressure.
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The same thing I have explained here. And, this is how the isentropic curve is governed
p    C whereas, the pressure rise across a shockwave is governed through Hugoniot
equation.
So, one can make summary of this analysis that why a shock wave compression is a
effective method. So, one of the key point is that for a given decrease in this specific
volume, that is 2  1 , the shock wave creates higher pressure rise increase than the
isentropic compression.
So, this is one of the catch point, but there are some side effect is that the shock wave
compression is less efficient than isentropic compression, because we have seen that it is
a non isentropic process. So, it involves increase in the entropy on loss of the total
pressures, which we already view that across a shock wave total pressure drops.
So, this is also a negative side of the shockwave compression, but many a times the
quantum of jump that we get through shockwave compression is such a significant that it
gives a new thought as a mechanism of compression device.
In fact, this particular concept has created the evolution of next generation of high speed
flights, which we normally call them as ramjet or scramjet engines. And, these engines in
fact, have very minimal use of rotating or mechanical components.
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So, entire compression process in this engine is mostly governed through shock based
compressions. And, these shock based compression does not require any mechanical or
turbo machine or rotating components.
Many a times what happens that, when you travel faster, the structural limit of
mechanical components, the thermodynamic limit of mechanical component does not
allow to move faster. But, here it is not that aspect rather the engines can be thought of to
be controlled through shock based compression process.
So, this is how the shock based compression has a great resemblance or significance for
new generation evolution of flights.
So, with this I conclude this module that is on normal shockwaves. So, in this module the
some of these learning components are listed here. So, at the end of the model one
should understands the phenomenal effect of normal shock, its fundamental equations.
The relations that, governs the normal shock, how the property flow properties calculated
across normal shock?
Apart from this we bring out two important concepts in this normal shock analysis that is
Crocco’s Theorem that talks about fluid kinematics that means fluid flow across a
normal shock is highly rotational. And, also this Hugoniot curve that talks about that
shock wave as a effective compression mechanism.
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Now, apart from that we demonstrated a gas property table for normal shock relations.
So, at the end of this module one should understand all these learning components and
brush up his knowledge whether all these components are learnt properly or not. So, with
this I will conclude for this lecture.
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Module - 05
Lecture - 14
Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks- I
I welcome you all for this course again. This course is on Fundamentals of Compressible
Flow, in the last few lectures we covered up to module 4. Now, we are in the module 5,
in which we will start a new topic that is Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks.
In all previous modules if I just give you a glimpse of that, then what I can say is that we
have understood about a compressible flow and how a subsonic flow is different from a
supersonic flow, how the formation of sound waves and shock waves comes into
existence. And whatever we covered so far it was based on the analysis with respect to
one dimensional framework.
Now, we will move to tell about the dimensionality of this flow, we will bring another
dimension into the system. So, what we are going to discuss on expansion waves and
oblique shocks, those are in two dimensional in nature.
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So, in this first lecture, I will introduce what is an oblique shock and how it is different
from a normal shock or what is the resemblance between a normal shock and oblique
shock. Then like in other sections, here also we have to derive the fundamental equations
for oblique shocks. Using those equations, we are going to find out the oblique shock
relations that essentially correlates between the flow properties across an oblique shock.
Now, since we have brought another dimension into the system like we are moving away
from one dimensional system. So, in that aspects, since the oblique shock is analyzed in
two dimensional systems; so we have to bring out another concept that is called θ-β-M
relations. The terminology I will explain later, but in this terminology what I can say, θ is
your flow deflection angle, β will be the shock wave angle and M is the Mach number of
the flow. In fact, this is one of the vital relations that is mandatory requirement for
oblique shock analysis.
Now, let me start this topic. So, like in other situations, we have introduced the topic and
something of that short if I just repeat those things what I can say; like in the beginning
of our course discussion, we started the distinction between a subsonic flow and
supersonic flow. And the subsonic flows are characterized when the velocity of the gas
or body is less than the speed of the sound whereas the supersonic flow we say that
velocity of the body is higher than the speed of sound.
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Now, when I say speed of sound, this is the minimum or slowest possible pressure wave
that is generated in a medium and it carries the entire information of the flow. So, based
on these we say that, when we are in the subsonic regime, all the information about the
medium is said everywhere. But such a privilege you do not have in a supersonic flow,
because the body itself moves at very high speed and this location of the body is always
away from the sonic circle.
So, the information is never propagated outside the sonic circle. So, based on that, we
defined a cone which is called as Mach cone and it makes an angle Mach angle that
is m . In fact, this part we have discussed exhaustibly; but what the very basic point is or
catchy point is that this is the Mach wave and that gives the initiation of an oblique shock
formation.
So, for example, if your speed is such that the pressure disturbances create waves which
are stronger than Mach waves, then it creates a oblique shock. And here now our analysis
or treatment of oblique shock will be a two dimensional phenomena, because there is a
need of additional geometric parameters. So, in this case we will define another angle
which is called as shock angle, that is the requirement here and this shock angle is
always higher than this Mach angle m . So, we will discuss those things later.
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Now, just to give a brief a distinction between a normal shock and oblique shocks; what I
can say is that, normal shock waves are special case of oblique shocks family in which
stream lines are perpendicular to the shock waves. In general, the shock wave initiation
start with a Mach wave which is a two dimensional phenomena. And one particular
situation, the shock wave is normal to the flow; that means the direction of the stream
line and the shock waves, they are perpendicular to each other.
So, it is one particular instant we say that the analysis we did through a normal shock
analysis, and in fact these are straight. So, normal shock is a special case for oblique
shock. So, in natural, actually oblique shocks are formed and in certain situations the
flow conditions are such that, it is as if the shock wave is normal to the flow. So, that
particular treatment we call this as a normal shock, but all other situations you treat it as
a oblique shock.
A strong oblique shock is typically considered as a normal shock and the weakest
possible oblique shock could be a Mach wave. So, it means that when the Mach wave
becomes strong, it starts forming oblique shocks and if strength of the oblique shock
increases, then it becomes a normal shock.
So, the normal shock waves are straight; the direction of the flow is straight before and
after the shocks. But the oblique shocks are straight, but inclined to an angle to the
upstream of the flow. That means, if you say this is the shock waves and this is the flow
directions upstream; the shock wave is sitting at an angle β, so you call this as a shock
wave angle. And had there been a Mach wave, there would have been a Mach angle
 1 
defined by mu M that is nothing, but m is equal to sin 1  .
M 
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So, I also mentioned that the normal shocks are treated as one dimensional, whereas
oblique shock analyzed in two dimensional flow fields. So, across an oblique shock, the
shock Mach number decreases. So, what you see in a oblique shock; so, if you have an
oblique shock, the Mach number after the shock wave decreases; but whereas in this
case, the Mach number always remains subsonic. So, not necessarily in an oblique shock,
Mach number will be subsonic; but this Mach number value will be less than the
upstream Mach number.
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The most important phenomena of an oblique shock is that, this is a mechanism across
which the flow can turn. So, what happens in a normal shock, flow does not turn;
because this streamlines before the shock and after the shock they are perpendicular to
each other, so they do not turn.
But in a oblique shock; that means, if you want to turn the flow in certain conditions and
we have to think about an oblique shock that can turn to a particular angle to the flow.
So, this is an another significant features of an oblique shocks, these are naturally
occurring phenomena in a supersonic flow when the flow has to turn towards the main
bulk of the flow. So, means, if we refer to this figure, there is an oblique shock sitting on
to this; the flow Mach number is M that is upstream of the flow and at the upstream the
flow is almost parallel to the horizontal.
But what happens across this shock wave, the flow gets turn. Why it is turn? Because
such is the correlation between Mach number, β and θ is such that the flow has to turn to
an angle. So, that is known as flow deflection angle θ. And this shock wave is making an
angle β with horizontal.
So, β is your shock wave angle, M is your upstream Mach number and θ is the flow
deflection angle. So, now next point is that it turns such that the flow turns towards itself;
which means that initially the flow direction was horizontal and again the flow gets
deflected after the shock in such a way that its main bulk or main part of the flow turns
towards the main flow path or what you say towards itself.
And in fact when you analyze this oblique shocks, the flow deflection is not only limited
to one particular stream line. In fact, it also applies for all this stream lines across the
oblique shocks that means the entire slug of mass gets turned towards itself.
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Now, we are going to analyze the fundamental equations for an oblique shock. So, to
study this fundamental equations of oblique shock what we can say, we have to consider
an oblique shock; this oblique shock is sitting at an angle β with respect to horizontal.
And this is one particular streamlines which has a Mach number M1, velocity V1 and it
after it crosses the oblique shock, the flow turns; that means stream line turns to an angle
θ.
So, when it turns the final Mach number, we can write as M2 and the flow velocity
becomes V2. So, what I can say is that we want to analyze this particular information.
Since we bring this concept of θ here and this stream lines are not in same directions as
that of normal shock. So, what you have to analyze; the streamline profiles with respect
to their component analysis.
So, what I can say is that this velocity component which is the absolute velocity has two
parts; one is perpendicular to this flow what I can say it is u1 and other part is parallel to
this shock wave. One is the perpendicular to the shock wave; other is the parallel to the
shock wave that is v1. So, this I assign as region 1, this I assign as region 2. So, similarly
for this case also, we can say one has to be perpendicular that is u2; other would be
parallel that is v2.
So, when I say this. So, I can frame this equations like V 2  u 2  v2 . So, these are the
components that are perpendicular to the shock wave and parallel to the shock wave. So,
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one can write down this equation for region 1 and region 2, so that we can find out
V12  V22   u12  v12    u22  v22  . So, later on we will show that the components v1 and v2
will be equal for this oblique shock situation.
In fact, that means in other words the tangential components do not contribute anything
for the analysis point of view. Once after doing this; similarly corresponding to the
velocity if you have Mach number M1, we can also write is normal Mach number
M n1 and we can also write tangential Mach number M t1 . Similarly for Mach number M2,
we can write normal Mach number component M n 2 , tangential Mach number
component M t 2
So, these terminology you were going to use exhaustibly for this analysis. And in fact,
when you say this is θ and this particular angle would be β; so what I can say is the
difference between this particular angle will be β-θ. So, these are the certain geometrical
information. If this angle is β, I can also say it is also this particular angle will be β and
this particular angle will be also β. All these information are simply the geometrical
representation or geometrical correlations based on which one can frame.
Then we will start the equation analysis one by one. So, as we do it for all other
situations, the first equation that is the continuity analysis. So, when I say continuity
analysis, it talks about the total mass flow rate remains constant. So, here we can say that
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the entire shock wave we can imagine to be an imaginary adiabatic duct containing the
streamlines, and both inflow and outflow have equal area that can be analyzed in this
framework as shown in this figure.
So, when we see this one particular view; if you say that this is the passage of the flow or
upon particular plane and in this particular plane, the flow comes and turns across an
oblique shock. Now, I can say that looking at this figure we can see the flow encounters
almost six faces A, B, C, D, E, F. And with respect to flow direction, the face A and face
D are perpendicular and with respect to flow direction the face B, C, E and F are parallel
So, when I say the parallel components with respect to velocity vector, their dot product
will be zero. So, in other words what I can say, the component of velocity that are
parallel to this face has no role; because they do not contribute anything to the continuity
equations, but those components that are perpendicular to this face, they only contribute
in the continuity equations.
So, the continuity equation is written only for one normal component like 1u1 , and since
area remains same in both region 1 and region 2. So, this gets canceled. So, the
continuity equation that remains is 1u1  2u2 . And with same nomenclature, I have I
have written all those terminology in this fashion.
So, this is the first fundamental equations that we get from the continuity equations. In
fact, this particular equation we shall be using it in for all subsequent situations.
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Now, moving to these momentum equations; since it is also a vector, so we also can say,
there will be two components; one is tangential components, other will be normal
components.
And from this analysis what I can say that, looking at the tangential component like v1
and Mt1; that is both for region 1 and region 2, they are equal and opposite. Because, why
equal? Because already you know that the mass flow 1u1 and 2u2 they are same; so that
means v1  v2 ,
So, v1 and v2 they are equal. So,  1u1  v1    2u2  v2 . Since 1u1 and 2u2 are same from
the continuity equations; so you can say v1  v2 . So, in other words we can say tangential
component of flow velocity does not change across this oblique shock; but what changes
is the normal component. So, when the normal component has same expression as that of
normal shock. So, what I can say, if I assume this to be a normal shock; then
correspondingly the flow should see is the Mn1 and u1.
So, these are the two normal components that the flow should see. And similarly that is
before the shock, and for the after the shock, the flow that will see as normal shock is u2
and Mn2. So, as if we can say this is an oblique shock; but it is seeing a component of the
main flow which is perpendicular to it.
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So, in other words what we can analyze that as if this oblique shock can be treated to be
normal shock with respect to a effective Mach number Mn1 and upstream and effective
Mach number Mn2 downstream. So, this analysis is to be used as if it is a normal shock
situations.
Again moving further, we can go to the energy equations that is for the completeness.
So, and it is the same form that the form as that of expression for the normal shock; why?
V12 V22
Because if you recall our energy equation that is h1   h2  . So, you can find out
2 2
u22  u12
h1 and h2; but h1  h2  .
2
So, why you say this? Because the we all already proved that, the V 2  u 2  v2 and we
know that the tangential component do not change, that is v1  v2 . So, V22  V12  u22  u12 .
So, if you look at this particular equation, this is nothing, but the same equation as you
did it for energy equation for normal shock. So, only thing that we have to take the
component of flow velocity.
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Now after saying this, so we have analyzed continuity equation, momentum equation and
energy equations. So, as I mentioned that we are only looking at effective Mach number
Mn1 and Mn2 now; treat this particular oblique shock as a normal shock, in which it sees
an effective Mach number Mn1 upstream and it sees effective Mach number Mn2
downstream.
But then what is that Mn1? So, Mn1 and M1 can be related through a shock angle β. So,
from this geometry of the figure what I can say; if I say this angle is β, I can say this is
also β and from the geometrical analogy we can say, this angle will be also β.
M n1
So, what we can say? sin   . Similarly this angle would be β that is shock wave
M1
angle, the flow deflection angle is θ; but difference in these two angle will be β-θ. So,
M n2
sin       .
M2
So, this particular lesson is very vital in this oblique shock analysis. Why? Because in a
given problem, you will be given a obsolete Mach number M1; but you also need to
know β and θ, so that we can get the normal components Mn1 and Mn2. Once we know
this normal component Mn1 and Mn2; so this oblique shock is treated as if it behaves a
normal shock. And entire analysis were subjected to the fact that it sees there is an
effective Mach number Mn, Mn which is normal to the shock wave.
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So, when we do this, then we can rewrite all the property relations; property relation I
can say, pressure p1, pressure p2, density 1 , density 2 , temperature T1 , temperature T2 ,
entropy s1, entropy s2. In fact, I also can say p01, T01,  01 ; also you can have p02, T02 and
02 . So, all these properties can be entirely calculated based on the fact that as if this is
treated as a normal shock with shock Mach number Mn1 before the shock and Mn2 after
the shock.
 2 p2
So, if you look at these relations , ; what it carries is the Mn1, instead of M1. So, in
1 p1
earlier normal shock relations, these were replaced with M1; but here it is replaced with
Mn1, and this Mn1 is we can find out from M1 using the shock angle.
2   1 M n1 ; p2  1  2 M 2  1
2

1 2     1 M n12 p1

  1 n1

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Now, the question that remains again that, we require Mn1; but to calculate Mn1, we need
to have the Mach number M1, β that is the requirement at the region 1, upstream of the
flow and to get one of the information; to get M2, we also require θ. So, without the
knowledge of this θ, β and M1; we cannot find out all this properties. So, our main
philosophy that we have to find out Mn1, then only we can compute all the property ratio.
To do that, one important relation that was normally derives; we call this as θ-β-M
relation. To analyze this θ-β-M relation, what I can say the terminologies like we have to
say that oblique shock wave angle is beta, flow deflection angle is theta and upstream
region your Mach number is M1. So, with this terminology we have to find out. So, the
changes of an oblique shock depends on two parameters, that is upstream Mach number
and flow deflection angle.
So, we need these two information. So, this particular relation that is
 M 2 sin 2   1 
tan   2cot   2 1  . So, this is this relation is known as θ-β-M
 M 1    cos 2    2 
relations. Let us see how we can derive this relation. So, to derive this relations, we have
to again recall our analysis, geometric analysis; if this angle is β and this angle is θ, then
we can say this angle will be β-θ. Now again if this angle is β, I can say this angle will be
β and this angle will be β.
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u1 u2
So, what I can write that, tan   . And tan       . Then we can find out, what
1 2
tan      tan      u2
is the ? So,  , since we have proved that v1 is equal to v2.
tan  tan  u1
u2
Now, when I say continuity equation, I can write 1u1  2u2 . Now, we require , so I
u1
u2 1 
can write  . Now, this 1 is nothing but densities across the shock wave 1 and 2,
u1  2 2
and if you treat this as a normal shock, so as if the component of Mn1 comes into picture.
1 2     1 M n1
2
So, by doing normal shock analysis; so, what I can write this  . Now
2   1 M n12
we know what is M1, M n1  M1 sin  .
u2 1
So, we know all these equations, we know  . So, once we put this, this particular
u1  2
equation in this main expression; then what I can write
tan      2     1 M 12 sin 2 
 .
tan    1 M12 sin 2 
So, then we have to expand this, do trigonometric simplification; of this equation we will
take you to this particular expression which is nothing but the θ-β-M relations. So, what
this relation says that, the tanθ which is the flow deflection and β is your shock wave
angle and M1 is the upstream.
So, one of the parameter is required. So, any two of the parameter will tell you what is
the shock wave angle. In general in generic flow field, normally your M1 is given, that is
inflows Mach number is given and we say that flow deflection is angle is given; because
why we say that normally a oblique shock is generated by putting a surface such that it
the flow gets deflected through an angle. So, in a given situation, normally M1 and θ are
given. So, using this expression, you can calculate what is β.
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Now, this is how I can summarize that, how do you treat this oblique shock analysis. So,
first thing is that, θ-β-M relation in addition to this normal component calculation will
take you to all the flow parameter estimation across a oblique shock.
So, the standard procedure is like this; in a normal situation you will be giving M1 and
we will be given the flow deflection angle. So, from M1 and flow deflection angle, one
can calculate this shock wave angle β. Once the shock wave angle is known the normal
component of the flow Mach numbers are known Mn1.
So, when Mn1 is known. So, correspondingly prandtl relations we can say, because this is
normal correspondingly component Mn2 is also known. So, we know Mn1 and Mn2, then
we can find out M2, we can also find out M2 from Mn2.
2
So, flow Mach number at the downstream is known. All other property relations ,
1
p2 T
and 2 , they are now governed with effective normal component of the flow Mach
p1 T1
number that is with Mn1. So, this is how all the flow properties are controlled across an
oblique shock.
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The next important topic is a term which we call as a pressure coefficients. So, as I
mentioned in my previous lecture that a normal shock is treated as a compression device;
because the static pressure always rises. And in fact across an oblique shock, the static
pressure also rises.
So, if you look at a situation where we use a word which is called as free stream. Free
stream means, a stream of flow which is moving at certain velocity and those are denoted
by a putting a subscript as infinity. So, if I say free stream Mach number; so I can say
M  . So, free stream means, if a body is travelling at certain altitude of pressure
temperature; this is the corresponding altitude condition that will decide what pressure
and what temperature it is going to encounter.
So, correspondingly we can say that if your body is moving at that certain speed, we can
say its free Mach number is M  . And we will try to see that for a given free stream
conditions; if a flow has to undertake an oblique shock or across a normal shock, how
much pressure is going to change?
So, the efficiency of pressure jump across a normal shock or oblique shock is judged
through a non dimensional parameter known as pressure coefficient. So, it is defined as
the ratio of pressure rise across the shock wave to the dynamic free stream pressure. So,
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here I define this term as C p . So, this is not specific heat, C p that is pressure coefficient
p  p .
So, p is your pressure after the shock, whether it is a oblique shock or it is a normal
shock; p is the pressure corresponding to the free stream conditions, whether it is a
oblique shock or normal shock, q is known as this dynamic free stream pressure. And
1
this dynamic free stream pressure we normally write as, q  V2 that is due to the
2
velocity.
Now, this is how the pressure coefficient is defined. Now many situation what happens,
all this parameters are not known; we are basically known with the flow free stream
Mach number and pressure. So, you want to compute the pressure coefficient. So, we can
write this q as this. We can now represent this q infinity as a function of M  .
How do you do this? So, what I can write is that, from this basic definition of q , we can
1 p 
write q     V2 . So, multiply on both side numerator and denominator as
2   p 
 
 
 p  V2 
 p ; then what I can write q  .
2    p  
 
    
 p
Now, we can recall a2  , that is speed of sound at this location. So, when I put it.

 p V2   p 2
So, I can write q   2  , and that is nothing, but q  M  . Now, when I put
2  a  2
this particular expression in from the main expression; so, I can rewrite
p  p
Cp  .
  p  2
  M
 2 
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2  p 
So, if we can simplify this, I can C p  2 
 1 . So, this is a expression we can
 M   p 
now use for calculating pressure rise across a normal shock. In fact, this is an efficient
term that are routinely used for normal shock as well as oblique shock analysis. And in
fact, it talks about the effectiveness of pressure rise across a normal shock in some
situations.
Now to some of what we have analyzed so far; I can say that the flow property across
normal shock and oblique shock, to some extent they are same and in certain situation
they are different.
So, what it means is that, when I say oblique shock; we require the additional
information of β and θ because this flow field is a two dimension in nature. Now, when
you say the strength of the oblique shock, it is mostly decided by the fact that what is the
shock wave angle?
Now, one particular instant if I say β is zero, so there is no shock wave or the minimum
value of β is a Mach wave. So, β starts with the Mach wave. So, what I can say, this may
be the minimum value and it cannot be zero; but β can be as high as possible. So, it is
π/2. So, when β greater than m , we call this as an oblique shock and when beta is π/2,
we call this as a normal shock.
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Now, looking at the strength of the flow properties, we know that irrespective of the fact
whether it is a oblique shock or normal shock, Mach number is always supersonic. But
downstream of the flow in an oblique shock, Mach number is not necessarily to be
subsonic; whereas in a normal shock, it is always subsonic. This is the first basic
difference between these two.
And regarding property values like static pressure, static temperature, static density; both
oblique shock and normal shock, they increase. But the rise or strength is higher for a
normal shock; because oblique shock becomes stronger and stronger when β values goes
to 90° or towards the normal shock. But, the strength of a normal shock is always higher
than that of oblique shock; but the occurrence of a normal shock is very limited in a
actual flow situations.
In most of the flow situation, it occurs with an oblique shock only. And in fact, in the
actual flow field, we will find the normal shock is a very specific region where the flow
field can be treated to be a normal shock. So, with this I will conclude for this lecture
today.
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Module - 05
Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks
Lecture – 15
Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks- II
Welcome you to this course again, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in the
Module 5; the topic of this module is Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks.
So, in the first lecture of this module, we discussed about the oblique shocks, its
fundamental equations; one of the important relations known as θ-β-M equation. Then,
we derived the property relations for the oblique shock.
So, now moving in this lecture 2, we will address again the property relations, but in a
different context. And most importantly, we will discuss about a curve which is very
common in oblique shock situations which is known as θ-β-M curve. After having that,
we will try to solve some numerical problems. This is all about this content of this
lecture.
Now, just to brief about what we have learnt from this last lecture of this module, though
our main focus was on oblique shock.
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Now, when a oblique shock is formed? The first question arises that, when a supersonic
flow encounters a compression corner and this particular compression corner what you
can see in this figure is a type of concave corner which is inclined by an angle θ. So, I
can say that this corner is oriented by an angle θ. So, when a supersonic flow sees this
compression corner an oblique shock wave is formed.
Now, across this oblique shock when it crosses, the general tendency would be that the
flow will turn by a certain angle. And, in this case since the corner is inclined at an angle
θ, the flow will also turn by same angle θ so that the streamlines in the downstream will
be parallel to this corner.
Then a shock wave angle is formed that is known as β. Now, across this oblique shock,
we have shown that all the static properties in the downstream they increases, but the
Mach number decreases. In fact, we also told that when the shock wave angle becomes
90°, that particular situation becomes a special case where we say it is a normal shock.
So, oblique shock becomes a normal shock, when this shock wave angle β becomes 90°.
And this is the situation and when the shock wave becomes a normal shock, again the all
the static properties increases; but, most importantly the Mach number becomes
subsonic, that is M2 is less than 1 for a given supersonic flow in the upstream condition.
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So, now with this oblique shock situations; like if your shock wave is angle is β, the flow
deflection angle is θ and upstream Mach number is M1; then, we derived in the last
lecture some the fundamental equations and the summary of those fundamental equations
are given here. So, what we have shown here is that, across an oblique shock, it is the
normal component of the Mach number that becomes vital for flow property
calculations.
So, in the upstream condition 1, if your Mach number is M1, the normal component of
Mach number will be Mn1; if your downstream condition 2, if your Mach number is M2,
then the normal component of Mach number is Mn2. And, when I say these two are
normal components; so this oblique shock can be effectively treated to be a normal shock
for upstream Mach number of Mn1 and downstream Mach number of Mn2.
When we say this two parameters are fixed, then all property ratios like density ratio,
pressure ratio and temperature ratio, they can be evaluated based on the normal shock
Mach number Mn1. And then these normal shock Mach numbers can be further related to
main flow Mach number, like Mn1 can be related to M1; by this equation that is
M n1  M1 sin  for which we require this shock wave angle β. Similarly for the
downstream situation, the normal component of Mach number Mn2 is related to M2; that
M n2
is M 2  .
sin     
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So, we must know the flow deflection angle θ and β for calculation of M2, Mn2, Mn1. So,
to do these things, we have this trigonometric relations, which is known as θ-β-M
equation. So, this equation will tell you that for a given flow deflection angle and
upstream Mach number what will be the shock wave angle β.
 M 2 sin 2   1 
tan   2cot   2 1 
 M1    cos 2   2 
Now, let us talk about something more about this θ-β-M relations. So, now if you look at
this equations, one can easily say that there are two approaches to solve this equations;
the first one is that if you know M1, if you know β, then a direct relations can be used, so
that you can calculate θ; that is from this equations.
So, θ is nothing but a typically geometrical parameter which is a compression corner

needs to have. For a example, if you have a concave corner, then θ is typically this angle.
And in fact, this oblique shock which sits on here has to turn and the free stream flow
when it crosses this oblique shock, it has to turn by an angle θ.
So, which is same as that of geometric parameters. So, the flow deflection angle is
normally same as the geometric shape of this concave corner in which it is oriented.
Thus, in many practical situations, the θ is a typically a known parameter and upstream
flow Mach number is also a given parameter.
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Now, if you say that, if you know M1 and θ and look at that equations; it looks like an
implicit nature, you require a trial and error approach to solve for β. In fact, this becomes
a tedious approach.
So, what has been done is that, a series of curves that are obtained for different values of
theta and different values of Mach number. So, different curves can be plotted; so, which
you call this has a θ-β-M curve. So, what we can say is that the θ-β-M curve is nothing
but the graphical representation of this θ-β-M equation. How that equation will look like?
So, this equation will look like in this form.
 M12 sin 2   1 
tan   2cot   2 
 M1    cos 2   2 
So, if you look at this curve, x axis of the curve represents the flow deflection angle θ,
while y axis of the curve represents the shock wave angle β. So, this is the θ and in this
equation, right hand side of the equation contains β and left hand side of the equation
contains θ. Now, what the relation has been drawn is that, for a given Mach number say,
let us say M1. Let us say, in this case we have taken for the curve a, first curve M is equal
to 2. So, M1 is equal to 2; when you vary θ, then you can get the value of β. So, if you go
along this curve M1, we can say that across the M1 curve where M1 is equal to 2, every
point your θ value changes. For different values of θ, we can get series of values of β.
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Similarly, we can do for other Mach numbers as well. So, in this plot we have plotted it
up to Mach number 8; the last plot that is curve f is for M is equal to 8. And, the other
curves like curve b is 2.5, then Mach number 3; if curve d is the Mach number 4 and then
curve e is Mach number 5 and curve f is Mach number 8. So, if you go along these
directions, effectively your Mach number increases.
But, what interestingly you can see that, one interesting inference that you can get from
here that for a given Mach number we cannot arbitrarily increase the θ values. For
instance, if you do it, there will not be any solutions possible through this equations. So,
in other words what we say that when your θ value goes beyond a maximum value, there
is no oblique shock solution is possible.
For example, if I say that same curve for M1 is equal to 2 and if I choose θ as 25°; I
would not find any value of β, because it has cross this maximum value of θ. But the
same 25° angle will have a solutions for Mach number of 2.5.
So, if this curve is for M is equal to 2.5; but same 25°, we can say there are possible
solutions of oblique shocks. But, for Mach number of 2, 25° deflection angle will not
have an oblique shocks solutions; this one of the important inferences that we can get; or
in other words, there is a maximum possible angle beyond which the oblique shock
solution is not possible and those points are denoted for each Mach number as a1, b1, c1,
d1, e1 and f1.
So, these are the points of a1, b1, c1, d1, e1 and f1 represents the point of or location of
maximum flow deflection angle, location of maximum θ known as θmax. So, this is one of
the important inference that we can get. Now, when I say this; what its effectively mean
to us?
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So, what it means to us? So, again we refer the same curve, so I will say that, the first
inference that we are going to say is that; we are going across different Mach numbers
ranging from 2 to 8, for a given upstream Mach number there is a maximum flow
deflection angle that is a1, b1, c1, d1, e1 and f1.
Now, this maximum flow deflection angle is decided by θ-β equations. But, in general
not necessarily your physical compression corner or physical concave corner will have a
deflection angle less than θ. Now, what will happen if the deflection angle is greater than
θmax? So, for example, if you say that Mach number of 2 and let us choose a value of our
physical geometry theta or a compression corner which is 25°.
Now, if I look at this figure for this 25° at Mach 2, no solution is possible. So, when
there is no oblique shock solution is possible; what will physically means to us that the
oblique shock will not be attached to this surface, rather it will stand at certain distance
and this particular distance is known as standoff distance. And in fact, this nature of the
shock wave will be no longer a oblique shock, it is a shape of a bow shock.
So, this will be another characteristics of shock wave, which is neither a normal shock
nor a oblique shock. So, it is a kind of a bow shape. So, it is a bow shock or in terms of
oblique shock terminology, we call it as a strong shock; but, this characteristics is that it
does not get attach to this surface. So, likewise if an oblique shock has to be there, then it
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would have been in this shape and it would have been attach to this surface at this corner,
which is not possible in this case.
So, in this case for Mach number of 2 will have a detach shock as shown in this figure.
So, that is what I have written here for a physical geometry having a deflection angle
higher than the maximum value, there is no oblique shock solution for a straight oblique
shock. The shock wave will be curved. So, instead of straight, the shock wave will now
be curved and it is detached. So, it is commonly known as a bow shock and treated as a
strong normal shock. This is the first important inference we get.
Now, moving further, will the next important inference that, now if I say that if the shock
wave is attached, so that means for if your θ is less than θmax. So, instead of choosing
25°, if I choose a 20° for same Mach number of 2; I will have two shock points on this
curve, θ-β-M curve. And, for each point I can find out one β value. I can say βmax or I can
say βstrong and this value I will say βweak.
And, for this 20°; so correspondingly β will be across about may be 53° that is weak
value and strong value could be about 72°. So, from this curve we can directly obtain.
So, we say that there are two solutions of shock wave angle for a given upstream Mach
number and flow deflection angle.
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Now, if it is a attached shock situation, then there are two possibilities we can; let us say
in this case, when your M1 is 2, I found out theta as 20° and βweak will be roughly about
53° and βstrong will be about 72°. So, this I can say, these are the values for β, strong and
weak solution for Mach number of 2.
So, higher shock angle represents strong shock, the lower value of shock angle represents
the weak shock. But, in fact in a natural occurring processes, a weak shock solution is
mostly preferred; because the strong shock solution is not is essentially driven by some
back pressure mechanism and it is not natural occurring process.
So, for example, what do we mean by natural occurring process? That means, when
some object is flying at supersonic velocity and if an oblique shock solution needs to be
formed, then it is suppose to be weak in nature. The strong shock is not a general
occurring phenomena, rather it is driven through some back pressure mechanism. So, this
will be covered subsequently, under what circumstances we can have a strong shock.
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So, when it is a weak shock and it is an attach shock. So, let us say in the previous case
when your theta was 20°, Mach number M1 is 2 and we had the weak shock angle will be
about 53°.
So, this is how a typical example what I can give for Mach number of 2. So, what we can
say; for this situation if it is a weak shock, now if I want to calculate M2 is less than M1.
When I say M2 is less than M1, then I am in the lower half of the curve. So, if I say that is
θmax, point a1 refers to be θmax and when you take this 52°, we are basically in the lower
half of this particular θ-β-M curve for M is equal to 2.
And, when we were in the lower half of this curve, we say you have M2 is less than M1;
but had you been in the upper half of the curve where for same M1, we have βweak 53°
and βstrong about 72 degree. So, if you choose a solution of βstrong, then had this been a
strong shock; downstream Mach number would have been less than 1.
So, when it is a weak shock, we say a weak shock solution for which β is 53°; when it is
a strong shock, it is β is 72°. And, in this case your Mach number would be subsonic. So,
this is how we say that, strong shock solution will always give a subsonic Mach number
after the shock. And, what will happen that in a given curve, if I move from strong shock
solution moving right towards maximum theta deflection angle and when I am moving
from weak shock region and moving towards θmax, when I am in the strong shock region
and moving towards θmax.
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Trying to say that, the weak shock solution will give you a move towards the stronger
and strong shock solution will give toward this weaker. But, in most of the situations, in
a naturally occurring process, when a weak shock solution becomes stronger and
stronger; so, it moves towards the strong shock solutions.
In other words what I can say, the attached shock which is a weak in nature will try to
get detached from this point. So, that means the Mach number which was supposed to be
supersonic tries to become subsonic. So, that means when you are moving towards right,
I am essentially trying to say that I am moving towards strong shock region. And, while
moving towards strong shock solution, the downstream Mach number tries to become
subsonic.
So, so there is a intermediate point which is known as transition phase, that is point a2,
b2, c2, d2, e2 and f2; these points represents the points at which the downstream Mach
number M2 approaches to subsonic value; that means, if I chose any point beyond a2 for
M is equal to 2, then I will land off a subsonic region. And, almost at one particular
point, when I am moving from a low supersonic Mach number to subsonic Mach
number, at one particular point the flow tries to be sonic.
So, this points a2, b2, c2 all these things are the sonic points. So, this is what it has been
written here. During transition phase, the Mach number is exactly sonic at one particular
point and this one particular point will be different for different Mach number. So, in this
case it is a2; the second Mach number for point 2.5, M1 is equal to 2.5, it will be point b2;
likewise for other Mach number.
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So this is how we say that what will happen when we are in this domain. But, let us see
that for a given Mach number, what are the upper limits and lower limits? So, first upper
limit I can say, when we say it is a strong shock; the strong shock becomes a normal
shock when β is equal to 90°, we say it is a normal shock.
So, if we look at this particular plot, what will see that, all the curves merge to 90° point
at this, all the points tries to merge or converge to a particular point; that means, at this
point all the curves merge to a normal shock. But, this is not so in the lower limit of
those curves, if we look at the lower limit of this curve.
So, if this is for M1 is equal to 2, and this is for M1 is equal to 8; if you say lower limit of
this curve, the shock wave angle is about 30° for M1 is equal to 2. Whereas, the lower
limit curve of M1 as 8 is close to about 8°; how do you get it? Because these are nothing
but that a weak shock becomes a Mach wave at θ goes to 0.
So, here it becomes a strong shock when θ goes to 0. So, at θ=0, there are two possible of
strong solutions; one is β 90 degree that refers to normal shock and for other cases the
limit is the θ 0, it is the a limit which is a Mach wave and that angle is known as Mach
 1 
angle. And, this is we know from this expression, that is m  sin 1   . So, oblique
 M1 
shock becomes a Mach wave.
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The next important inference that we can say is that, for a fixed deflection angle as the
free stream Mach number decreases from high to low supersonic value. So, for a given
deflection angle θ let us say 20°; if I am moving from high supersonic, that is if I am
moving from M is equal to 8 to M is equal to 2, what we see in the weak shock region,
your shock wave angle increases. So, in the weak shock region, the shock wave angle
increases.
But, if I am moving towards the maximum θ deflection angle for this M1 is equal to 2
and beyond which there is no solutions possible for M1 is equal to 2. But, it is for the rest
of the Mach numbers there are possible oblique shock situations.
For a fixed deflection angle there is a Mach number below which no solution is possible,
it refers the maximum θ deflection angles. And, when we are in the domain of θ less than
θmax will have attach shock; when we are above that θ greater than θmax will have a
detach shock.
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So, in other words what I have shown here is that from this θ-β-M curve, we can say
using this relation, what parameters that controls? Whether a oblique shock will be a
Mach wave or oblique shock will have a strong shock solution or oblique shock will
have a weak shock solution that is mostly decided the parameter which is normal
component of the Mach number.
So, looking at this equation what we can say that, the strength of an oblique shock is
higher if the normal shock Mach number strength is more. When the normal shock Mach
number is more; then obviously, the downstream Mach number Mn2 will be all become
subsonic.
When it becomes subsonic, so it is a strong shock; when it is supersonic, it need not be a

strong shock, it will be a weak shock. And, Mn1 can be increased by two ways; one is by
increasing the M1 or increasing the β, increasing the β we do not have control, but to
increase β we have to go for higher flow deflection angle.
So, whatever I discussed, it has been summarized here; but, as a rule of thumb what you
can say, as the flow deflection angle increases keeping upstream Mach number constant,
the shock wave angle increases. If the upstream Mach number increases keeping the flow
deflection angle constant, then shock wave angle decreases. In one case we are keeping
Mach number constant, in other case we are keeping flow deflection angle constant. And
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accordingly we can say that, we can vary the shock wave angle, whether you can
increase or decrease.
So, this is the another example what I am trying to give that, whatever I have
summarized that in most of this supersonic objects or you can say missile of this
particular shape; so you can say it is a missile, missile shape object. Now, when this
missile shape object travels at a high altitude, at different altitudes it moves in different
flow regimes.
So, in fact for this particular shape, there is a certain deflection angle θ. And, when it is
moving at different velocities, what may have is at some situations, some flow conditions
upstream and downstream the shock wave may be a detached one or shock wave may be
a attached one.
For example, I can say that, let us say it we starts with Mach number of M1 is equal to
1.05; and under those conditions and for this θ a we can have a detach shock. But, not
necessarily that this shock wave will always be detached; but, if I increase this Mach
number to be 1.45, it tries to get attach to the body.
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So, likewise initially another situation may be, it may be initially attached, then move to
a detached one; which means, that not necessarily that always will have only attach
shock or only detach shock in a flow changing environment. By controlling the Mach
number, we can say that we can either move from attach shock solution to a detach shock
solution or we can go from detach shock solution to a attach shock solution, just by
controlling the Mach number and θ. So, this observations of oblique shock properties
gives a very vital understanding about the flow behavior in a supersonic objects.
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Now, I will try to demonstrate the gas shock property tables that are to be used for
oblique shock relations. So, here the property table that you see here is for a normal
shock relations. But, as I mentioned while looking at this particular table, you should
look at this particular M1; instead of looking at the Mach number M1, we have to look at
this as Mn1. So, as I said that, it is the normal shock Mach number that is important to see
the property table.
First thing is that, for a given upstream Mach number M1 and flow deflection θ; we can
find out value of β using this particular θ-β curve. Once you know β, then we can find
out Mn1 and then you refer this table Mn1, where you will land off. And correspondingly,
the property values ratios can be denoted and here also instead of M2, we have to say the
effective number will be Mn2.
Now, when I say Mn2; so for a given M1 when I find Mn2, I know β and θ. So, I can also
calculate M2. So, this is how your approach should be how to combinely look into the θ-
β-M curve and this normal shock property table to find out the oblique shock property
relations for static pressure, temperature, density, and stagnation pressures.
Now, with this will try to solve some numerical problems. So, whatever I have analyzed
this far. So, here just to say these things; so, first problem it is talks about a supersonic
stream of Mach number 3 pressure 0.9 bar and 20°C.
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So, first solution for this would be, you have to draw the physical geometry. So, you
when you draw this physical geometry, first see that it is a compression corner, a
supersonic flow has to turn a shape. So, the angle is given as 20°. So, you know M1, we
do not know M2; we do not we need to find out V2, T2, ρ2, P02 and so on, T02. All
upstream numbers are known P1 0.9 bar, T1 20°C that is 293K.
So, first thing we need to find out is that, obviously since you know this; we also require
stagnation properties for this Mach number. And so, Mach number is given as 3; for
given Mach number and p1 and T1, we can use the isentropic property table to find out
p01; p01 as 33 bar and T01 as 820K.
So, instead of using isentropic property table, we can also find out from this relation

p01    1 2   1 T   1 2 
 1  M1  . And similarly, for 01  1  M1  .
p1  2  T1  2 
So, either you use isentropic property table or use this relations, we can estimate this. So,
by this we can say all upstream parameters for region 1 is known. So, we need to find out
the downstream numbers. To approach would be something like that. So, first thing we
need to know, we have θ 20°, we have M1 3.
So, M1 3 means, you have to go for this curve c and θ 20°. So, this will give you β as
close to 37° from this curve; once I say β 37°, I can find out Mn1 that is M1 sin  .
So, Mn1 would be 1.82. Now, when I know Mn1, you take this normal shock table. So,
this is some extract data I have taken from normal shock table. So, close to 1.82, we can
note down the properties values; the properties values would be like Mn2 0.6121; then,
p2 T p
is 3.698, 2 1.547, 02 0.8038. So, once we know this ratios then we can easily
p1 T1 p01
compute as p2 as 3.32 bar, T2 would be 453K. So, you take this ratio, you know upstream
number and p02 2.65 bar.
M n2
Now, what is remaining is M2. So, M2 can be calculate as . So, β is known, θ
sin     
is known, Mn2 is known; so, you can find out M2 as 2.1. So, what you see is that, initial
M1 was 3; so Mach number is still supersonic across this oblique shock.
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So, in the next problem is that, in the same question 1, if the deflection is angle is
increase to 30°, we have to calculate the same properties value. When θ goes to 30° and
your M1 is 3. So, this will turn out to be β from this curve. So, here we have to refer 30°
and M1 3; curve c.
So, β would be 52°. When I say β is 52°, we have to repeat the same process. But the
other ratios we can have, like will have p1 as same as 0.9 bar, T1 as which was this 293K.
So, same as for question 1 data, then T01 as 820K, p01 as 33 bar. So, in these oblique
shock, here this angle is 30°, this β is now 52° and this region 1 and we want to find out
region 2.
So, having said this; so, we have to repeat the same process means, first we have to find
out Mn1 is M1 sin  that is 2.36. So, you have to use per normal shock table may be
closed to a value of 2.35, I can note down this number.
p2 T p
So, you can say as 6.276, 2 1.993, 02 0.5615; then, this will lead you and you will
p1 T1 p01
M n2
have Mn2 0.5286. So, thus you can find out M2 to be . So, M2 would be 1.41;
sin     
likewise, we can say p2 would be 5.65 bar, we know this T2 would be 1.993*293, so
584K, p02 would be 0.5615*33 will be about 18.53 bar. So, likewise we can solve this
particular problems.
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So, in this question what we have shown is that, flow deflection angle increases but, your
Mach number now becomes 1.41. So, in previous question the Mach number M2 was
2.1; so, Mach number gets decreased if the flow deflection angle increases.
The next question is that, we are keeping this in the question 1; if the free stream Mach
number is increased to 5. So, the question remains same, what you have, the question 1
remains same with a only difference that is there; instead of Mach number 3, I have
increase this to 5, but theta becomes same angle as 20°.
So, when I change the, we have to find the condition 2. Now, for same p1 was 0.9 bar, T1
was 293K; since, the Mach number was increased, so p01 will also be increased. So,
similarly way we can calculate p011 is 476 bar. So, you just imagine that from 33 bar, it
has to increase to 476 bar when Mach number is increased; stagnation temperature
becomes 1758K.
So, this is the property conditions in the region 1. So, we require to find out β. So,
solution process goes in similar manner. So, here we have to see for curve b that is Mach
number 5 and θ as 20°. So, somewhere you will have landed off β.
So, M1 is 5, θ is 20°; this will give you β value from this θ-β-M curve is as 30°. So, when
I know β, I can find Mn1 is M1 sin  , that number would be 2.5. And, for this 2.5 Mn1; if
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p2
I look for the normal shock table, I will say Mn2 as 0.513 and becomes 7.125,
p1
T2 p
becomes 2.137 and 02 would be 0.499. Then, once I put this, then we have to find
T1 p01
M n2
out M2 is .
sin     
So, this turns out to be M2 2.95. What we see is that, when your M1 is increased, your
downstream Mach number also increases. So, we all know upstream parameters of this
value, we know this ratios; then, you can say p2 as 6.41 bar, T2 as 626K and p02 as 237.5
bar. But, what we see here, what remains again same in all these three problems; your
T01 would be T02; in fact, this is the conditions that remain constant.
In fact, all the previous problem also T02 would be T01 820K; in this case it was 820.
And, in the first question also T01 was also 820 Kelvin. So, total temperature does not
change as it is in the case of normal shock. So, this is how you have to refer this normal
shock table as well as θ-β-M curve to calculate the property for oblique shocks. So, with
this I will conclude the topic of oblique shock.
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Fundamental of Compressible Flow
Module – 05
Lecture - 16
Expansion Waves and Oblique Shocks- III
Welcome to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow, we are in module 5 that is

Expansion Waves and Oblique Shock Waves.
So, in the previous lectures in this module that is 1 and 2 we have exhaustively covered
the oblique shock, its fundamental equations. Then we derived a relations known as θ-β-
M relations and based on this θ-β-M relations, a curve was generated which is the array
of all such curves for different Mach number and flow deflection angle.
This curve helps us to find graphically the information about the oblique shocks and
shock wave angle and moreover, this curve is also very vital in estimating the flow
properties across the oblique shocks. And now today we are going to discuss about
something just opposite to that of oblique shocks that is known as expansion waves.
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So, while analyzing the oblique shocks we say that when a supersonic flow encounters a
compression coroner, flow gets deflected towards itself. And in this way the flow
becomes compressed and its all other properties like pressure, temperature etc increases.
Now can we have another situations where instead of getting the flow compressed, can
the flow expand? So, in such a situation we cannot call this as oblique shocks rather we
will tell it as expansion waves.
So, in this particular lecture we will talk in details about the concept of expansion waves,
how it forms? Then in particular we will discuss about a very specific expansion wave
that is Prandtl - Meyer expansion wave or many a time it is called as centered expansion.
Then for this Prandtl - Meyer expansion waves, we try to derive the fundamental
equations and moving further we will discuss about the property tables for the Prandtl -
Meyer expansion function and Mach angle. And subsequently we will try to solve some
problems based on this Prandtl - Meyer expansion wave.
Now, to just to give glimpses of what we have covered till this point of time, we know it
is a sound wave, it is a pressure wave and it compresses the medium. The main intention
of the sound wave is that it propagates the flow information; it shares the flow
information. Now when these pressure waves become stronger and stronger that is
possible only when your gas velocity or flight body moves at higher speed than the
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sound waves. So, these pressure waves become stronger and they try to form a Mach
wave.
Now with further intensity of increase in the pressure waves, all these formation of Mach
waves that are getting generated through this body moving at supersonic speed, they try
to merge as a shock wave and that shock wave we call as a oblique shock wave.
Now the strength of the oblique shock wave is based on the shock wave angle, now when
the shock wave angle is 90° means that the streamlines and the shock waves they are
perpendicular to each other. So, in that situation oblique shock becomes a normal shock.
Now in all these example we say that all these waves are nothing but the pressure waves
and that compresses the medium.
So, this is what we have discussed so far. So, infinitesimally small pressure disturbance
is known as “acoustic or sound waves” and through these sound waves a sonic circle is
generated and through this “sonic circle” flow information is shared.
Now a “Mach wave” is formed when the pressure disturbance envelope is formed
through straight lines that are tangent to the family of sonic circles; when these Mach
waves become stronger the “oblique shock wave” is formed.
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And this is a situation when a supersonic flow encounters a compression corner and the
entire flow or main bulk of the flow turns towards itself. And the strength of the oblique
shock when increases it becomes a “normal shock.”
So, in all possible cases, it is the medium that gets compressed. Now, for a supersonic
flow that has to expand then there is a provision that we can allow the flow to pass
through a “convex corner.”
So, how is it done we can refer this particular figure; as we say that, in this particular
example what has been seen shown here that a expansion corner is created. What does
this mean? Means there are essentially there are two surfaces and these two surfaces are
meeting at a point A. So, the supersonic flow passes through this surfaces which is
horizontal that is the upstream of flow, region 1 and this flow has to turn through an
angle θ downwards.
So, in other words the streamlines that has to be in the region 2 must be parallel to this
second surface. That means, in other words the flow has to turn an angle θ and which is
away from the main bulk of the flow; that means, had this flow what had been
undertaken, it would have gone through in this path. So, in this process of turning, the
flow was turn to an angle θ and across this θ angle the streamlines are now parallel to the
second surface.
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Now if we look at this particular events. So, in between this turning process we can view
this fact that flow has expanded, because it is seeing a larger area and it is the flow is
turning away from itself. And when you view this we can say there are series of
expansion waves that gets generated from the point A. Now looking at the streamlines let
us say a streamline the first streamline and this is second streamline.
So, for the first streamline, it has to cover a distance in a curved manner and for the
second streamline, this flow has to turn also in a curved fashion. And, in this process the
distance traveled by second stream line, it covers a larger distance. The streamline 1 has
a has to cover a smaller distance likewise if you look at another stream lines maybe
somewhere 3 down the far away from this it has to cover a much larger distance.
So, in other words what we can say that at the end of this turning process all the
streamlines in the downstream side are always parallel to this second surface. But one
interesting thing that happens, the streamline which is just close to the point A has a
discontinuity in the medium. So, the flow is as if that streamline does not undergo the
turning; which is near to the wall whereas, all other stream lines turns in a smooth
manner.
The smaller the distance of the streamline from the wall, smaller is the turning distance;
larger is the streamline away from the wall larger is the turning distance. This is how the
philosophy of expansion waves happens. And in this process all the flow properties
change smoothly through an expansion fan except at the point of origin. So, in this case
the point of origin is A.
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Now, to evaluate this particular concept of expansion process we will now discuss about
the formation of expansion waves and likewise in previous cases what we do is that we
take a piston cylinder device in which a gas is kept. So, in this case also we will say there
is a gas which is kept in a piston cylinder medium.
Now while talking about these compression mechanisms we say that piston was given a
push towards right, but in this case we will say that push piston is given a push so that a
small velocity dV is generated and towards right. So, that means when the gas is at initial
position its initial pressure was p0 and when a piston is given a push towards left the gas
is now seeing a larger volume.
So, thereby its tries to expand, when it expands it comes down to the pressure let us say
p1. So, from this initial pressure p0 gas gets expanded and in this process what happens is
that when the push was given a sound wave is generated that moves a speed a1.
Now, in the next instance, we give another incremental in velocity so, then this dV
becomes 2dV. So, increase the velocity by 2dV. So, thereby we will have the first sound
waves as it is and second sound wave will also get generated a2 as it is. So, now we are
looking at this particular event at t is equal to t1, in the earlier event t is equal to t0 and in
this process also what happens, the gas also sees a larger volume.
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So, thereby its pressure changes from initial pressure p0 to when the first sound wave is
generated through it gets the differential pressure dp and for the another differential
pressure dp is also generated. And finally, the same pressure p2 is formed. In fact, in this
case also the pressure difference is dp. So, likewise the gas is now expanded to a larger
volume.
Now, in this process also there are lot of expansion waves that would have been
generated in addition to the sound waves and if you look at this particular event at time is
equal to t3. Then, this location of sound wave would have been different and we will
have this pressure p2 and through this process there are many such expansion wave that
would have get generated.
But most important point in this situation is that when you look at the first sound wave
that speed is a1 and when you look at the second sound wave a2, here a2 is less than a1;
that means, strength of the second sound wave is less than the strength of first sound
wave. Why? Because since the medium gets expanded; temperature is less that is
because a2 is nothing but RT2 and a1 is RT1 . So, T2 is less than T1.
So, since T2 is less than T1 because the gas gets cooled through this expansion process;
so; obviously, the speed of sound waves of the second sound wave is less than the first
sound wave. So, since this is the case though the expansion waves that gets generated
through this subsequent sound waves, they move at slower rate.
So, in none of the at any cost, the subsequent sound waves cannot overtake the first
wave. Whereas, this was the opposite case when the second in a compression medium
when the second pressure waves try to overtake the first pressure wave.
So, in this expansion process if I can say the in this process if there are infinite number of
sound waves or in other words I will say expansion waves gets generated. So, this is the
first expansion wave, second expansion wave, third expansion wave, fourth expansion
wave and these expansion waves moves towards left as the piston is given a velocity dV
and this expansion waves they try to spread. So, they cannot overtake each other.
So, this will be 1 2 3 4. So, in none of the situations, the expansion wave 4 will overtake
the expansion wave 1. So, they try to spread and this first wave is nothing, but we call
this as a head of the wave and last one will be tail of the wave. So, this is how the
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concept of expansion waves is introduced in a piston cylinder device and that is one
dimensional in nature.
So, whatever I told if I summarize that the second additional increment in the velocity to
the piston to the left would render the second sound wave to the right. The speed of
second sound wave is always less than the speed of first sound waves, because the
second sound wave is entering to an expansion medium which is relatively cooler. In this
way all subsequent sound waves generated through every additional increment in the
velocity to the left, would have speeds less than that of previous one.
This brings a consequence that all the expansion waves, due to the sound waves they
move in the direction of the piston movement and they are in the series of waves. And
the first wave in this series is called as “head” and the last one is termed as the “tail” of
the wave. And; obviously, the “tail” of the wave has less speed than the “head” of the
wave. So, that means, tail of the tail of the wave cannot overtake the head of the wave.
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So, this is how the concept of expansion wave is introduced in the one dimensional
medium, but; however, in reality normally the formation of this expansion wave is two
dimensional in nature. So, as I showed it in the first example that there are two surfaces 1
and 2 they are inclined at angle θ and the supersonic flow tries to encounter into these
two surfaces. So, when it encounters, the streamlines gets deflected and when they get
deflected they always try to be in parallel to both the surfaces.
So, in the first instance the stream lines are parallel to the surface 1, in the second
instance the streamlines are parallel to the surface 2. And in this process what happens;
the Mach number increases, but the static pressure temperature and density drops. But
however, the change that occurs is very gradual and why it is gradual because they try to
spread and medium is not disturbed.
So, such a process we can view it to be the property change in an isentropic manner, but
one important thing is that whether we say that the smooth pattern of this turning is not
true at the center A, because at that point of time the changes are discontinuous.
So, in all every instances the flow properties are isentropic, hence the isentropic relations
or equations holds good; that means, for the region for the region 1 and region 2. So, we


p1  T1   1  1 
say     .
p2  T2   2 
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Now, when I say; the two situations M1 and M2; so the properties in the region 1 are
function of M1 through this isentropic relation properties, in the region 2 are function of
M2. Now our main task is to find out after this turning what will be the Mach number
M2.
Since we say that the flow turns smoothly across an expansion wave. So, we can say that
medium can be treated to be an isotropic medium.
So, we say that a class of two dimensional waves can be defined in a supersonic flow
that has opposite effects to the oblique shocks. And, across this expansion wave the
Mach number increases through the turning and this turning process is such that the flow
turns away from the main bulk flow. So, if you say the main bulk of the flows is going in
this direction, the entire bulk of the flow gets turned away towards this second surface.
And such a process is defined through infinite continuous waves and known as ‘head’
and ‘tail.’ So, the first expansion process starts as head of the wave and last one we say
tail of the wave. So, when I say head, the flow has initiated turn and the last expansion
wave that is at the tail, the flow has completed the entire turning process.
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Now, having said this we will now define a special class of expansion wave known as
Prandtl - Meyer expansion waves. So, these Prandtl - Meyer expansion waves are the a
class of waves where we call this as a expansion fan and here the head and tail of the
wave are defined through a Mach line. Or in other words we can say these are the waves
that generated from a center point and there are infinite waves and all these infinite
waves are known as Mach waves.
Now when I say Mach waves; the head and tail are now defined by a line which is
known as rearward Mach line and forward Mach line. When I say this forward Mach
line, this forward Mach line is defined through a Mach angle  m1  sin 1  1  . So, the
 M1 
location of this forward Mach line is initiated from the horizontal at angle  m1 and that is
defined by sin 1  1  . This is what they call as forward Mach line.

 M1 
And the rearward Mach line; that means, at that Mach line the flow has completed the
turning. So, when we say completed the turning that Mach line will be decided by the
Mach number corresponding to condition 2 that is M2. So, that Mach line makes an angle
 m 2 from the second surface. So, if this is the surface first surface and this is the second
surface; for the forward Mach line this angle we say  m1 and for the rearward Mach line
this angle is  m 2 and in this process the flow has turned through an angle θ.
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And since this is how I have explained all these things, the expansion waves takes place
through continuous succession of Mach waves. So, there is no change in the entropy of
the flow across each Mach waves and we say all these are Mach waves.
So, through this turning process there is no change in the entropy. And what is the net
effect? The net effect is the only Mach number increase while the static flow properties
such as pressure temperature density, they drop; whereas, stagnation properties also do
not change means total conditions p01 and p02 are same T01 and T02 are same.
In other words, even within this region also no change in stagnation properties p0 and T0;
whereas, this was the not the case when the supersonic flow encounters a oblique shock,
the total pressure drops although temperature does not change, but the total pressure
drops. But in a Prandtl - Meyer expansion the stagnation properties do not change and in
other words the entire flow field is isentropic in nature.
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Now we will move to the fundamental equations for Prandtl - Meyer expansion waves.
So, to start with the fundamental equation of Prandtl - Meyer expansion waves what we
are going to see is that as I mentioned that the event of supersonic flow in an expansion
process occurs through series of infinite Mach waves, we will take one such Mach
waves.
So, here in the this figure we can say it is one of the Mach waves and this θ, the entire
flow deflections we have defined that streamline as if it has undergone a very small
deflection dθ. And through this deflection, the flow velocity instead of V it is get
increased by V + dV in one such Mach waves. Likewise one can say that if I integrate
this θ over this angle, then I can eventually obtain the final velocity in the region 2. So,
to do that analysis we started one particular expansion waves or Mach wave. Now let us
understand this figure.
So, as I mentioned that across this Mach wave the velocity vector become V + dV and
this Mach wave makes an angle  m that is the Mach angle this angle is the flow deflection
angle and we can drop a perpendicular from this streamline vector V + dV on to this
Mach wave.
So, once you drop a perpendicular to it, we will have all these geometrical information in
place. So, now, I can say that we have a triangle that consist of ABC that consists of the
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velocity vector V and V + dV and we use the law of sine. So, we can write for the
triangle ABC.
V  dV
So, law of sine tells that I can write , then the right hand side of this equation will
V
 
sin   m 
 2 
have the angle corresponding angles that is or in other words for this
 
sin   m  d 
2 
particular triangle once we know all geometrical angles, we can use the law of sine in
this manner.
 
sin    m 
V  dV 2 
So, this is how it is written here  . So, this equation gets now
V  
sin    m  d 
2 
simplified, the numerator becomes cos m ; denominator one can expand

cos m cos d  sin  m sin d . So, this can be expanded in this form.
Then one thing we needs to note here that in this term sin d when θ tends to 0, sin d we
can write as d . So, that we can write this. Now from this equation if you divide sin  in
1
this numerator and denominator we get . So, the equation becomes
1  d tan m
dV 1
1  .
V 1  d tan m
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So, here this particular expression, we have to use some mathematical trick or expansion
1
series, which means any equation , where x less than 1 in an expansion series, we
1 x
1
can write  1  x  x 2  ....... . So, here replace x as d tan m . So, when I replace this
1 x
so I can write 1  d tan  m  ... . So, since d is small. So, this means higher order series
are neglected.
dV  dV V 
So, in other words we can write that 1   1  d tan m . So, we get d  . Now,
V tan m
1
we also know that sin   m   . So, we can find out tan m ; will be M 2  1 . So, these are
M
the trigonometric information we can put.
dV
So, we get now d  M 2  1 . So, here the question still it is not known is what is
V
dV dV
? Although, we know the Mach number, but you do not know the , to do this we
V V
have to recall that we have to represent this velocity in the form of Mach number.
So, V  M a you take logarithm of that. So, we get ln V  ln M  ln a , from this equation we
dV dM da
can find out   . So, that means the dθ equation we introduce one more term
V M a
dM da da
, but still it is not clear what is . So, we have to bring this as a function of M,
M a a
because all our information are related to the upstream flow Mach number.
T0   1  2
But surprisingly, since entire process is isentropic we have one relation  1  M
T  2 
T0 a02
and this  2 because a  RT . So, these equations now is replaced with this. So,
T a
a02
we can write a 2  .
  1  2
1  M
 2 
We have to now differentiate this equation so that a0 will get canceled. So, it is it will be
now replaced as a function of Mach number.
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1
da   1    1 2  dM
   M 1  2 M 
a  2    M
dM da 
So, what you do now, in this main equation which is d  M 2  1   . So, we are
 M a 
da dM
now in a position that we know , we also know ; when you replace this θ we arrive
a M
at this particular equations.
dV dM
So, putting as a function of , then we can replace that equation and now we can
V M
integrate that equations from θ1 to θ2. So, θ1 to θ2 in our case is nothing but our initial
angle is 0. So, many a times θ1 is equal to you can say it is 0. So, you can go up to θ2. So,
we get a integral of this equations.
2 M2
M 2  1 dM
 d   2  0    1 2 M
1 M1 1  M
2
So, this particular integral has a meaning to it and we give a meaning to this equation as
  M  ,   M  is known as Prandtl - Meyer function. And in fact, this function is a angle
and this angle we can find out as a function of Mach number and in fact, this function is
an integral and this integral has a value as given by this expression.
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M 2  1 dM   1 1   1 2
 M   
 1 2 M
  M  
 1
tan
 1
 M  1  tan 1 M 2  1
1 M
2
So, knowing this particular Prandtl - Meyer function at a given Mach number we can
2
evaluate the  d   2  0    M 2    M 1  because we are taking integral from M1 to
1
M2. So, finally, we arrived that the supersonic flow when gets deflected through an angle
θ, that θ is nothing but the difference in Prandtl - Meyer function corresponding to their
respective Mach numbers.
So, this is the very important summary that we can find out that the flow deflection angle
is a function of Prandtl - Meyer functions. Thus, the entire information or entire
deflection is now left with evaluation of these particular integral and let us see how we
are going to find out. So, although this expression is a big expression and it is a function
of Mach number, but it is difficult to evaluate through manually.
So, we take the help of a table which is known as property table that defines the Prandtl -
Meyer function and Mach angle property table. So, what we see this table like, this is
similar to all other tables we have talked about for normal shock, for isentropic table and
here this is meant for the Prandtl - Meyer functions. Here there are three columns, the
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first column denotes the Mach number, second function denotes the Prandtl - Meyer
function, third column denotes the Mach angle. So, this value of µ or are in degree.
What we have seen here you can say there are three regimes I have put one is low
supersonic, second category is maybe supersonic in the range of 4 to 4.5 and this is
hypersonic. All these extracts are taken from this book John D. Anderson, Modern
Compressible Flow with Historical Prospective McGraw Hill. So, this is some extract, I
have just taken some snapshot of the some extract of this data.
And what it says is that now to solve this particular problem what your approach should
be is that for a given flow information we know the upstream conditions M1, when you
know M1, we know θ then we can find out. correspondingly its Prandtl - Meyer functions
we know the Prandtl - Meyer function, m ; we know the θ.
So, once we know m1 and θ, m 2 can be found out once you have m 2 ; this m 2 will tell
you the corresponding value of Mach number, new Mach number which is in the down
streams. So, the M2 is now known. So, once we know Mach number at M1 and M2 all
other isentropic equations can be used.
So, this is how the summary of the flow property evaluation across a Prandtl - Meyer
expansion waves. So, first, you obtain the Prandtl - Meyer function for a given upstream
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Mach number. Calculate the Prandtl - Meyer function in downstream with the help of
flow deflection angle and upstream Prandtl - Meyer function.
Then find out the free stream Mach number from the property table with respect to
downstream Mach number. And once you know all the upstream Mach number and
downstream Mach number, we can say the properties are related respectively because
you know M1 and M2, we also know T1. So, we can find T2 similarly we can find out p2.
So, this is how the properties are evaluated.
Now, whatever basic things if I just have to summarize that how we are going to use this
property table, I have framed a problem which is for a supersonic stream when it
encounters a compression corner.
So, the problem is defined that, a supersonic stream with Mach number of 1.5 initial
pressure 0.9 bar and temperature 20°C, it is deflected through an expansion corner by an
angle 20°. Calculate the forward and rearward Mach angle, pressure, temperature, Mach
number and stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure after the deflections.
So, the solution process for this can have the following aspects. So, first we have to draw
that what is the actual flow phenomena that is happening. So, here we can say it is a
expansion corner. So, we can draw a schematic diagram of a expansion corner with an
angle 20° which is known. And since it is a expansion corner this supersonic flow has
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initial value M1 which is 1.5 when it sees this expansion corner it has to undergo a
centered expansion or through Prandtl - Meyer expansion.
So, we can have a rearward Mach line and we will have a forward Mach line. So, these
angles can be defined as m1 and this angle can be defined as m 2 , this m 2 will be
function of M2. So, once it undergoes this deflection, the downstream stream line
becomes parallel to this second surface. So, we have M2. So, this is the problem; in
addition to this, other parameters given that is p1 as 0.9 bar and T1 as 20°C. So, since we
know this Mach number and the pressure information; so, one can find out the stagnation

   1  2   1
pressure also is equal to p01  p1 1   M  .
  2  
  1  2 
Similarly we can find out T01  T1 1    M  . So, putting gamma 1.4 and M1 is equal
  2  
to 1.5; p01 can be evaluated as 3.3 bar, T01 will be evaluated as 425 K. So, what we
require now is condition at 2, to do that let us start with the solution.
So, to start the solution what we now require to refer Prandtl - Meyer table. So, we know
M1 as 1.5. So, when I say refer this particular table with M1 as 1.5, I can say   M 1  that
is Prandtl - Meyer function. For this Mach number M1 is 11.91 and for the Mach angle
that is m1 that is the forward Mach angle now becomes 41.81.
Now we know θ as 20°. So, we can write   M 2  that is Prandtl - Meyer function
corresponding to Mach number M2 would be θ+  M 1  . So, when I do this. So, we will
have another value of Prandtl - Meyer function that is 31.91°. So, I have to refer this
particular table again for this Prandtl - Meyer functions.
So, I have to refer to a value close to this 31.91° in this particular table. So, a close
number that is seen here is 31.73, I can take this value. So, this will imply Mach number
as 2.2, when I say Mach number as 2.2, this will also m 2 that is rearward Mach angle
becomes 27.02°. So, we know forward Mach angle and rearward Mach angle. So, what is
not known to us.
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
p02     1  2   1
Now, once you know M2. So, we can evaluate  1  M2  ,
p2   2  
T02     1  2 
 1  M 2  . So, from this we can find out p02 since we know M2. So, this
T2   2  
T02
number would be 10.81. So, will be 1.974.
T2
So, since p02  p01 that is 3.3 bar. So, this will give you form this p2 as 0.3 bar;
T02  T01  425 K. So, this will give you T2 as about 215.3 K. So, we get all the
information. So, we know p2 pressure, temperature, Mach number, we have stagnation
pressure, p2, T2, p02, T02 forward and Mach angle m1 and m 2 .
So, this is how we get all the information when the supersonic flow gets deflected by an
angle θ2. I think with this I am able to explain how we are going to look the property
table of Prandtl - Meyer expansion. With this I will conclude my lecture for this module
5.
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Module - 06
Lecture - 17
Interaction of Shocks and Expansion Waves
Welcome to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in a new module 6,

the title of this module is Interaction of Shocks and Expansion Waves.
So, in this lecture of this module, we will talk about some physical phenomena in which
we can see the encounter between shock waves and expansion waves. So, we call it as a
shock wave and expansion wave Interactions.
Then, we will to analyze this shock wave and expansion wave interactions. We will try
to revisit the flow in a variable duct and in particular, we will be explaining the fact with
respect to isentropic flow. After this, we will discuss about the very important topics in
the compressible flow which is known as nozzle.
So, in this category, we will discuss about isentropic supersonic nozzle flow and also, we
will discuss about isentropic subsonic nozzle flow. In fact, nozzle is one of the integral
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components that accelerates the flow and this is a very important device in which flow
can be accelerated to any Mach number values.
Now, apart from that, all these were treated in a isentropic ways; but we will relax this
isentropic analysis and we will talk about an adiabatic flow in the nozzle, means what
happens if the flow is no longer isentropic. So, this is the brief introduction about this
particular lectures.
So, the first topic that we are going to discuss is the interaction of shocks and expansion
waves. What does this mean? Just to give a brief overview, till this point of time, we
know that an oblique shock is formed whenever a supersonic flow encounters a concave
corner or it is a compressive corner.
Now, this supersonic flow is diverted or the flow is deflected after encountering this
oblique shocks. Now, when it diverges path, it makes a flow deflection at angle θ and for
that θ angle and that supersonic flow at the inlet, there will be an oblique shock sitting at
this compressive corner.
So, this shock wave angel, we call this as a β. So, this is how a oblique shock is formed
in a two-dimensional plane. Now, when the shock wave becomes stronger and stronger,
we call it as a normal shock and this two-dimensional flow field can be relooked into
one-dimensional flow.
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And when it is a normal shock, after this normal shock, the flow becomes highly
subsonic. So, this is how the oblique shock and normal shock is defined. Now, with this
philosophy we define the concept of attached shock and detached shocks.
So, for a given flow deflection angle flow across a wedge, we will have an attached
shock and when the supersonic flow gets deflected across this shockwave. Now, if the
flow does not see sufficient angle for which the oblique shocks solution is not possible,
the shock wave is no longer attached.
So, it becomes a detached shocks. So, this is what we call this has a flow over an wedge
and moving further, when you are going for a realistic applications like the flow field
over an aircraft, so this is a schematic sketch that the flow field over an aircraft, we can
have a curved shock.
So, why it is a curved shock? Because the surface, the aircraft surface is no longer as a
straight line as you view in the case of wedge. So, we will have a shape that changes
continuously on the surface. So, based on that, we may have a attached shock, we may
have a detached shock.
So, many a times, since the flow fields are always continuously changes across this
curved shock, so we say instead of attached shock, we say it is a curved shock because
the surface of the geometry changes continuously; whereas, in the case of wedge the
surface is maintained at a fixed angle θ, which is not the case when it is for a surface
which changes continuously in its geometry.
So, also the other name that is given for a detached shock is bow shock. Before I go for
this, now if the same supersonic flow, if it encounters an expansion corner or a convex
corner, the flow gets deflected in a exactly reverse manner. So, where in which the flow
try to expands that is Mach number increases.
When the flow tries to expands, we will have a series of expansion fan generated from
the center point. So, the very basic philosophy between the oblique shock and expansion
fan is that in both the cases flow gets deflected. But in oblique shock the flow gets
deflected towards the main flow; but in a expansion fan, the flow deflects away from the
main bulk of the flow. So, this is the basic difference.
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Now, what may happen in a realistic situation is that this kind of shock waves and
expansion waves, normal shock, attached shock, detached shock, they can be formed
externally on the surface of the body or this kind of things can also happen in an internal
flow. And while doing so, the shape and geometric of the bodies is such that like in this
particular case, if you look at this particular point, for the main flow, this point is a
compression corner.
But however, with respect to this point, if you chose another point in on the surface, it is
a expansion because the surface is such that with respect to this point, the flow
experiences an expansion at this point. Likewise, it will keep on happening and with
relative to this point, all the properties that are going to change decrease with respect to
this particular point at the nose.
Similarly, here also the main flow here tries to gets deflect in the same fashion as with
respect to surface of the body. So, at any point the flow tries to be parallel to that point
and many times, when it is at this particular corner, the flow depending on the upstream
and downstream conditions.
So, we say if this is upstream and this is downstream condition. We may arrive at the
point as an expansion point or a compression point. So, likewise one may have physical
solid boundary or you may have a free boundary. Free boundary is something like that
when the flow comes out from this vicinity, it sees a complete boundary which is divided
from the main flow by ambient conditions.
Like for example, if you can distinguish between this phase and this phase, we may have
a ambient conditions which is for this boundary and in this particular vicinity, the flow
will be entirely governed by the downstream condition of the properties.
Similarly, here also this is one such case, what I can say that one can have a free
boundary or one can have a solid boundary and in some instances, we will say that we
can have an incident shock or a reflected shock. So, incident shock means that this
oblique shock is forming in one compressive corner like this.
Suppose, we will have a analogous compressive corner on the upper surface, then we
will have another shock which is can come from the upper surface. So, such a case we
can have a incident shock and we can have a reflected shock.
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Likewise, down the line we will define some concept like slip line and back pressure in
which we are trying to see that whenever the oblique shocks and expansion waves
interact, the flow conditions are generally governed by the back pressure and in order to
maintain the pressure equalization across a imaginary line, we call it as a slip line. So,
those particular concept will be discussed.
Now, to give some practical utility or applications for this case, I will try to explain some
kind of applications in which we will use two types of internal flow; one is flow in a
supersonic nozzle and flow in a supersonic diffuser and where we find them? So, the
nozzle and diffuser, they are integral part of the compressible flow devices during
experimental conditions.
So, one can find a nozzle, many of us are aware that we have a rocket nozzle, the flow
from the exhaust which is nothing but the fuel and air when it mixed in a combustion
chamber, they try to expands through a nozzle and we call this as a exhaust nozzle and
this exhaust nozzle, the flow inside this nozzle we can say it as a internal flow.
Now, when the flow comes out, we may have a imaginary boundary which is called as
free boundary and this gas that goes as a exhaust. So, this flow expands. Now, during
this expansion process, we may have oblique shock, expansion waves and they try to
interact. Now, when they try to interact in this process, an imaginary boundary line is
formed which is known as slip line across which the flow properties match.
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These flow properties I mean mainly pressure equalizes. So, this particular things is a
very complicated phenomena, which we are not going to deal in this particular course.
But what we will be going to deal is that what happens when there is a flow inside the
nozzle. This is one application. Another typical application, we come across is a
Supersonic wind tunnel.
So, in a supersonic wind tunnel, the schematic diagram says that we have a main
reservoir. There will be a nozzle; there is a test section; there is a diffuser and exhaust.
So, these are the components involved in a supersonic wind tunnel. So, what happens
from the reservoir; that means, where the flow is stagnant, but we have a very high
pressure and temperature source.
So, when we allow that flow to pass through a nozzle, they try to expand. So, while
expansion, we get a desired Mach number in the test sections. Now, and in this process,
since we have a very high pressure stream in the reservoir and you are allowing it to a
small passage. So, we may come across different types of features like we may have a
normal shock, we may have oblique shock, if you do not maintain appropriate
downstream condition.
So, in our philosophy, we can say this is the region 1 and this is the region 2. So, in this
region 1 and 2, there may be the formation of oblique shocks; there may be formation of
expansion wave; there may be formation of normal shock and many times the flow that
tries to see there are two types of wall; one is this internal wall, so that means, what we
are showing is that the flow encounters the entire vicinity of the wall.
And whenever there is a oblique shock or normal shock formation, they try to reflect and
all such interactions could be possible, if the appropriate conditions between 1 and 2 are
not maintained. So, for this type of philosophy and in fact, a very good supersonic wind
tunnel design requires that it should be completely shock free. Shock free means there
should not be any shock wave in its path because its shock wave, loses in the total
pressure; there will be loss in total pressure.
So, means that when we take the gas from the reservoir, our responsibility is that we
should also make the gas to go out of atmosphere with almost zero velocity or like a
stagnant gas. So, this is how a very good supersonic wind tunnel philosophy requires that
we device adequate components so that we will make this device completely shock free.
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So, in this case it is a kind of an internal flow. In this case, we can have a internal flow
and as well as the external flow. So, the importance of shocks and expansion waves can
be realized only in this kind of applications; but however, we will speak to our basic
definition that we will talk about two specific important devices which we call as a
nozzle and diffuser in this particular lecture.
So, before we start the nozzle and diffuser, we will just revisit some fundamental
concepts of isentropic flow through variable area duct. In fact, we have discussed this
particular topics, mostly in one of our module that is quasi one-dimensional flow.
So, I will just take out some important points from those module. So, there what we have
discussed about a flow path that involves a converging and diverging area where area is a
function of x. So, it is no longer a constant area. So, area is a function of x. So, x is the
direction in which the flow is taking place.
So, this particular concept, we call this as a quasi one-dimensional flow and the main
intention for this that when you deal with quasi one-dimensional flow, if you take any
cross section, whatever properties you define, they are mostly same across that cross
section.
So, that is the concept of quasi one-dimensional flow and in fact, we dealt with the
isentropic flow in a variable area duct system. So, just to summarize some of the salient
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features, I can read out as a duct system having convergent divergent passage is studied
through quasi one-dimensional analysis.
So, in that analysis, it was found that one can accelerate or decelerate a supersonic flow
through a converging convergent divergent passage by maintaining appropriate pressure
difference in the upstream and downstream and such a device or passage, we call this as
a either a nozzle or a diffuser.
Now, when you talk about a nozzle action, the flow is accelerated with a drop in the
pressure; while the flow decelerates with increase in the pressure for a diffuser action.
So, this important consequence of this nozzle and diffuser actions makes us to built a
laboratory tool or experimental tool that can accelerate and decelerate the flow in a
compressible medium.
Now, when you deal with this variable area passage, irrespective of the fact whether your
inflow is subsonic or inflow is supersonic and when it enters in a converging diverging
passage, it sees a location where the area is minimum, which is known as throat.
So, at the throat, the area is minimum. So, in fact, we did through quasi dimensional
analysis about the calculation of upstream pressure and temperatures, flow properties,
flow Mach number for this convergent divergent passage.
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Now, these are the summary of table, what we get that irrespective of the fact whether
the flow is subsonic or supersonic, the flow encounters a minimum area that is throat and
one can bring a subsonic flow to a supersonic flow and also, one can bring a supersonic
flow to a subsonic flow.
So, this is a nozzle and this is a diffuser. Now, irrespective of the fact whether is a nozzle
or a diffuser and what happens when we look at this particular throat area. And this is
known as area at the throat which is the minimum at this location and for this if the flow
condition is such that we get sonic flow, then the minimum area we represent as A*.
So, if you get a sonic flow, we get a minimum area as A* and for a given nozzle, one can
find out area Mach number relations. This area means, any arbitrary area to this throat
area that gives you the area ratio and Mach number relation. Now, the flow field is
entirely isentropic, it is governed by this isentropic relations that is ratio of stagnation
temperature to static temperature, stagnation pressure to static pressure, stagnation
density to static density.
And once the flow is choked or at the throat, we call this as a choked mass flow rate m  .
So, this can be calculated from the reservoir conditions. Here, the reservoir conditions
are typically we say p0 and T0 and one can evaluate this mass flow rate that is happening
at this particular area known as throat.
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Now with this background, let us see that how we can achieve a supersonic flow in a
nozzle having the process to be isentropic means we are talking about isentropic
supersonic nozzle flow in a variable passage. So, if you look at this particular figure, so
what has been done is that we have created a passage which looks like a nozzle. It has a
converging section which is located in the left hand side of this line and other side, we
say it is a diverging. So, we have a converging section as well as diverging section.
Now, while you while designing this converging and diverging session, they are attached
with a area which is minimum and known as the throat area. In fact, in most of the
situation, its not an attachment; its a continuous passage which is maintained for the flow
internally.
Now, the converging part is designed such a way that entry of the converging part that is
inlet area to this minimum area goes to infinity is very high. That means, flow is coming
from a reservoir which is maintained at condition of stagnation pressure p0 and T0 .
Now, what we are going to do is that we are going to say that this particular nozzle, we
want to achieve a supersonic flow. So, for a supersonic flow, that means, at the exit we
are going to achieve a supersonic Mach number of Me. Now, to get the supersonic Mach
number of Me and we know that at any location to the throat area ratio is related with
respect to Mach number.
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For example, this particular equation talks about area ratio and Mach number relations.
Here, A stands for any arbitrary area; that means, it may be at the converging section or
diverging section. So, it is a function of x and A* is the area which is at the throat. So,
this particular relation will tell you that if you want to get a supersonic flow, then we can
based on the Mach number, we may trace a path how the Mach number can vary along x.
So, with this area relation, one may fix the Mach number Me which is this value at this
location x. So that means, at this location, I am expecting a Mach number of Me and with
this Mach number of Me, I can get the shape of this converging and diverging passage.
The main issue is that for this slug of mass to accelerate, we need a pressure difference.
So, for this things, we have to look into the fact that we must maintain a pressure ratio
between the exit and the reservoir such that flow should happen.
So, in this case, we should maintain a pressure ratio pe, we should maintain a value pe
such that we get this Mach number Me. So, this follows the relation that one can get the
pe
exit pressure, like here we can have , one can write from this equation as function of
p0
Mach number from using this equations.
So, to achieve this Mach number, we must have a pressure value pe at the exit as shown
in this figure and similarly, for temperature we may have the temperature Te that needs to
be maintained at the exit so that we can get the desired Mach number.
So, this makes a conclusion that to achieve a supersonic flow at the exit, we must follow
area Mach number relations and we must maintain a desired pressure ratio and this value
is very unique, since we are using this for isentropic relations. And this value is fixed
value and any pressure which is below pe will always give a desired Mach number Me.
So, it means that if the pressure is maintained below this pe value, your Mach number
will also get Me. Also, suppose for example, this Mach number at the exit is a function of
pe A
two parameters; one is , other is  So, both way, we can achieve this.
p0 A
Now, to achieve this Me, we need to have this both the conditions to be satisfied and any
if any of this condition is not satisfied, we were not able to get a Mach number Me; that
means, we will not get an isentropic solutions. So, this is how the basic philosophy of a
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isentropic supersonic nozzle flow. So, whatever I have explained, if I can summarize
them, then I can readout them as follows.
We are considering a converging diverging nozzle, which has area ratio very large; that
Ai
means . The gas enters from a reservoir with certain value of pressure and
A
temperature and since it has a very high value, the inlet has almost stagnant gas.
The pressure difference you have to maintain in order to accelerate this slug of mass
through this passage. The exit boundary condition that is pe is such that the nozzle
expands the flow to a supersonic value that means we are allowing this area Ratio and
Mach number relation to get satisfied.
Now, in the process of the flow from converging passage to the throat, the flow
encounters a minimum area that is throat and at this point, the flow is sonic. Now, when
the flow is sonic and it sees a adequate pressure difference at the exit, the flow tries to
expand further because it sees both the conditions are satisfied; that means it is a
diverging passage as well as this is a adequate value of exit pressure so that it can
expand.
So, this is the critical point that whether we want to accelerate the flow or not, this
depends on the exit pressure. So, in the diverging portion the sonic flow sees a diverging
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passage to expand further. Hence, the final Mach number is fixed by the area ratio
between the exit and throat of the nozzle.
So, this is the only one possible solution for the supersonic flow at the exit. So, the very
basic bottom line is that to get Me supersonic at the exit, we must satisfy two conditions
Ae p

and second thing is that e . If you satisfy both, it is possible to have isentropic
A p0
solutions in this manner.
Now, any value pe which is less than pe or any value of A which is equal to Ae, will give
you the Mach number Me. So, this is the inferences from the isentropic supersonic flow.
Now, why we say it is a isentropic supersonic flow? Because the entire flow, we do not
see any shock waves in its path. So, it is a shock free. So, it is a completely shock free
with supersonic Mach number at the exit and similarly, the pressure should drop
temperature is also drops. All these numbers relations are fixed for this isentropic
supersonic flow.
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Now, let us see that if we do not have a supersonic flow what are the other possibilities.
So, we said that the Mach number Me is a function of two parameters; one is area ratio
and exit pressure, this two conditions are satisfied. But still if this two conditions are
satisfied, we say we can achieve a supersonic solution.
Now, let us see that we gave this area ratio to get this Mach number; but we do not
maintain this pressure ratio, but still the flow will be isentropic, but it would not be
supersonic at the exit. So, this is what the real challenge that for a slug of mass to
accelerate a flow in a passage, we need a pressure difference. So, if the pressure
difference is not maintained, the flow cannot be accelerated.
So, for this situation, what we are analyzing that if you do not maintain this pressure
ratio, what is going to happen? So, we land of a solution for which the Mach number is
subsonic. So, we call this as a isentropic subsonic nozzle flow. So, here also, you have a
Ai
similar passage, same nozzle with very high value of area ratio at the inlet goes to
A
infinity with same reservoir having pressure p0 and T0 with minimum area At.
Here, we have exit area Ae and exit pressure pe. If we maintain the adequate value of pe,
then we will get a Mach number Me. Now, if you do not maintain pe; then, what will
happen? Then, one can have a actual value of p which is may be higher than pe or one
can have value of p which is lower than pe.
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So, under those circumstances, what are the possible solution that we can land on? Now,
just to start with if at all you want to use it as a convergent divergent passage or nozzle
flow, so the flow to happen, we must maintain a very small difference; that means, we
should have pe should be slightly less than p0 or we must maintain a pressure difference
p0 - pe which is Δpe which is very small.
So, initially you start with a very small pressure difference, so a slug of mass will try to
enter. Now, if you increase this pressure difference; so, obviously you are going to
accelerate the flow. Now, if you keep on increasing the pressure difference, we will have
a different Mach number at the exit.
So, entire flow is isentropic, but we will not get a supersonic Mach number Me, we will
get some other Mach number. So, this is the philosophy or concept of an isentropic sub
subsonic nozzle flow. So, we define a term which is exit pressure and that is introduced
to control the downstream condition of the nozzle exit.
So, if this is your nozzle exit, we say it is a exit. So, exit means its it has a corresponding
pressure pe The upstream pressure is still stagnation pressure p0. So, this is a situation
that when you are expanding the flow from a reservoir to a control pressure condition in
a converging diverging passage.
Now for a small pressure difference, the gas will be accelerated marginally for which the
local Mach number increases marginally; that means, for a small pressure difference Δp,
we may get some Mach number, we may say Me1. If you increase further for one value of
Δp1, we get Me1; another value of Δp2, we will get slightly higher Mach number Me2
which increases likewise another value of Δp3, we will get another Mach number Me3.
So, as and when you increase this pressure difference, the Mach number is going to
increase; but the flow is no longer sonic. But one important point is although you
increase this Mach number, but the flow is no longer sonic.
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So, this is shown here that we are using the same nozzle, we are trying to plot the flow
passage; flow is along the x direction that is along the direction of the flow, how the
pe1
pressure ratio and Mach number varies along x. So, for a small pressure ratio , we
p0
get a Mach number Me1.
This Mach number further increases when we maintain a higher pressure ratio; and when
the pressure difference decreases, the Mach number further increases.
What you see here that even though we have a minimum area, but for the situation 1 and
2, we do not have a sonic flow at the throat. So, the concept of area ratio Mach number
relation does not sounds good here, rather you have to use the simple continuity
equations, the flow across any cross section to find out the flow rate or mass flow rate.
But what will happen is that for one particular case that is case 3, when you have a
substantial higher value of pressure ratio and this pressure ratio happens to be 0.528 that
is the isentropic relation number, if this ratio is maintained; then, we may land of a Mach
number of 1 at the throat. But this same pressure ratio does not carry this flow all though
we get a sonic flow, this sonic flow does not see sufficient pressure difference in the
downstream to expand further.
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So, the Mach number further drops because it does not see the required pressure
difference. The Mach number in the diverging section also drops. Although Mach
number in the converging section increases, Mach number in the diverging passage falls
down because it does not see the pressure difference.
So, this is the philosophy that if you do not maintain the pressure ratio, we will have this
solution. So, in fact in the entire situation, the flow is isentropic; but there an infinite
number of solutions or there infinite number of possibilities of Mach number at the exit.
On all these Mach numbers are subsonic. Hence, we call this as a subsonic nozzle flow.
So, this is what I have summarized here, the decrease in the exit pressure will accelerate
the gas in the converging portion. Thus, the variation of local Mach number and static
pressure will be larger.
At one instant, the exit pressure is such that flow is sonic at the throat and area Mach
number relation can be applied. But this exit pressure ratio is not sufficient to expand the
sonic flow further. Hence, the local Mach number in the diverging portion drops and the
static pressure increases.
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So, if this is the case that one particular Mach number Me3, if you can just plot. Now,
when we say Mach number is sonic at the throat, when we have Mach number M goes to
Me3 and pressure is at pe3, then we can get M is equal to 1 at A* and that situation the
flow we will define as m  that is choked mass flow rate. And for this pe3 and all other
pressure value, say that we have pe1, we have pe2 that any intermediate point flow is not
choked at all. So, when we have a choked flow rate, then we can directly use this
particular relations.
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So, if you just summarize both isentropic flow in the nozzle; in one case, we have a
subsonic nozzle flow; other case, we have a supersonic nozzle flow. When we have a
supersonic nozzle flow, we will have only one possible solutions for a given Mach
number, following the area ratio Mach number relations provided adequate pressure ratio
pe is maintained and we have Me and we have Te and they use this expressions to fix the
value at the exit.
But if you do not have this isentropic supersonic solutions or you do not maintain both
area ratio or pressure, then we may land of infinite number of possible subsonic solutions
having Mach number Me1, Me2 and Me3 at the exit. So, likewise there may be many
possibilities we may have infinite subsonic solutions. But one very basic bottom line is in
the both the situations the flow is isentropic is in nature.
So, if you summarize these things, so a subsonic flow in a convergent divergent nozzle is
governed by the pressure ratio at the exit and inlet of the passage; area ratio Mach
number relation has no role in the flow solutions, rather we have to use simple continuity
equations. The flow is mostly subsonic and there are infinite number of isentropic
solutions and the mass flow rate through the nozzle will increase if the exit pressure
decreases and this can be calculated simply by continuity equations.
The flow is no longer sonic at the throat, even it encounters a minimum area. Not
necessarily it needs to be sonic, but when exact pressure ratio is maintained, the final
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Mach number is fixed by the area ratio between the exit and the throat of the nozzle and
this is the only one supersonic solutions at the exit and for the supersonic solution, the
mass flow rate is fixed by choked condition; that means, flow is choked at the throat.
Now, we will move to the next class of nozzle flow which is a adiabatic nozzle flow. So,
in this case, we are going to relax that if we do not have an isentropic process that is
happening inside the nozzle, we will have a non-isentropic process and in particular,
such kind of application when we deal with nozzle flow, a realistic way of defining the
thermodynamic process is adiabatic in nature.
In fact, we do not allow any heat to be get added when the flow is taking place in a
variable passage. So, we call this as a adiabatic type nozzle flow. So, when you deal with
this kind of things, there may be a possibilities of generation of oblique shocks and
expansion waves, we will see how they are going to happen and we will introduce a term
which is called as a back pressure and this back pressure is introduced to control the
pressure at the exit.
So, it is a independent mechanism in which we physically control this flow so that the
way we want the flow to happen, we can have it. For example, if you want to have a
oblique shock, then you can have it; if you want to have a normal shock in the nozzle, we
can have it; but in all this process, the flow is no longer isentropic.
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So, that is what with the concept of back pressure is introduced. Now, in the process
when you have a normal shock and expansion wave that forms in the inside the nozzle,
they may interact.
So, there are the possibilities that they can incident on a solid boundary; that means,
inside surface of the nozzle or it may be a free boundary, when the flow comes out of the
nozzle, it does not see any physical existence of the boundary rather it sees a ambient
conditions. So, we call this ambient conditions which can be treated as a imaginary
boundary called as free boundary.
So, there may have reflections of compression waves, expansion wave and many
possible complex flow phenomena and in this process also, there will be an imaginary
line which is known as slip lines across which two conditions are satisfied; that means,
the pressures must be same and the velocities are in the same direction.
That means, whenever there is a flow for which there will be possible interaction of two
shock waves, but after the shock wave, they should go in one particular directions.
For example, if you have two oblique shocks; then, the flow is encountering. But this
oblique shock will deflect the flow in one direction, this flow may deflect in another
direction and what may happen in such a way that we may have a slip line and the flow
tries to be parallel to this streamline.
So, this slip line for which the pressures must match; that means, across this slip line the
pressure of the upper part of this flow and pressure in the lower part of the flow should
match and the velocities must be in the same direction.
This is how I am trying to explain. So, this may happen in this kind of situations, but all
this things are very complicated; but I will try to explain that mainly how a normal shock
and oblique shock or expansion waves are formed in case of an adiabatic nozzle flow.
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So, the first thing that we are going to see that in a adiabatic nozzle flow, how a normal
shock can be formed. Now, here we can say that for this particular nozzle, same nozzle
with reservoir conditions p0 and T0 and this exit pressure is pe and this exit pressure is
fixed by supersonic number.
So, this is taken as the reference. Now, if a normal shock is formed at one particular
passage, under what circumstances it can form? So, we have said that in our previous
analysis that is isentropic subsonic nozzle flow, one particular pressure ratio or exit
pressure, will have a sonic Mach number that is at the throat. At the A*, we have M is
equal to 1.
Now, at that condition, if your pressure ratio is reduced from that value, what is going to
have is that it tries to expand in a diverging passage. Why the isentropic subsonic
solution was made? Because the flow did not find a sufficient pressure ratio to expand in
the diverging passage. But if you allow the flow to see a sufficient pressure ratio, it will
try to expand.
So, one particular instance, when we say that we maintain certain pressure such that a
normal shock is formed. So, what condition it may form? So, what we can summarize is
that at some exit pressure, the flow expands in the convergent part of the nozzle and
become sonic at the throat. At this point the exit pressure is denoted as a pe3 in our earlier
example.
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Now, while the exit pressure for an isentropic value is pe. So, isentropic solution is pe,
but the subsonic solution value is pe3 for which flow is sonic. Now, consider a situation
for which the exit pressure pe4; that means, we maintain some independent mechanism
such a way that we maintain a exists pressure of pe4 which is higher than pe, but lower
than pe3.
Then in that case, what will happen? The sonic flow which was at the throat which is
already formed when it is at pe3, it tries to expand in the diverging passage because it
sees a pressure difference and it tries to attains a supersonic value at some location in the
downstream.
So, in this particular case, since it is a normal shock flow inside up to this point is
supersonic and once there is a normal shock the Mach number drops. So, when the Mach
number drops, the rest of the part of the flow the Mach number become subsonic. So, we
will never get a supersonic Mach number at the exit.
So, Mach number become subsonic. So, if you look at this pressure plot here, what it is
seen is that had the process been a supersonic, the pressure plot would have taken from
the throat point, at this point it would have taken this passage dotted line and this dotted
pe
line, we say it is a . But since there is a shock wave forming at one of this location,
p0
pe 4
the static pressure will rise which is . So, had the process been completely subsonic,
p0
it would have gone in this manner. Since there is a normal shock, static pressure across
pe 4
the normal shock increases. So, we land of in having a value .
p0
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And correspondingly for this pe4 and Me4, the entire solution is depend on what Mach
number we are going to get at the exit. So, at the pressure supersonic flow could not
proceed further, because pressure different is not sufficient to drive the flow further.
So, normal shock is formed in the divergent portion and the entire flow property is just to
map the value as desired at pe4 and Me4. The flow behind the normal shock is subsonic so
that Mach number decreases at the exit, while the static pressure increases. That is quiet
obvious, static pressure across the normal shock increases.
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Now, we now land of the pressure value pe4. We are now moving that if you bring this p
to another pressure which is pe5; that means, this pe5 is less than pe4. So, obviously, your
p0- pe5 that is this value will rise.
When this is going to rise, we will have enough strength to push this normal shock which
was earlier at some location here and it is trying to push this normal shock away. Now,
this pe5 condition is such that the normal shock stands at the exit. So that means, in the
entire process we will have a exit Mach number Me, flow inside the nozzle is completely
supersonic; that means, earlier situation the flow up to this point, it was supersonic and
from here it was subsonic.
Now, what happens when the normal shock remains at the exit, the entire flow within
this nozzle is supersonic; whereas, after the shock, it becomes subsonic. But after the
shock when become subsonic, we will have a normal shock and this Mach number again
drops to a subsonic value.
So, from its theoretical value Me it drops to Me5 subsonic value; Mach number drops to
this value. When this Mach number drops, the static pressure will raise pe5. So, this is
exactly what happens when there is a shock waves that stands at the exit. So, when the
exit pressure is reduced further, the normal shock will move downstream and becomes
closer to the nozzle exit.
Precisely, it will stand as exit; whereas, pe5 is equal to pe for which the static pressure
behind the normal shock is exactly equal to the design Mach number of the nozzle, but
nozzle is not shock free.
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Then, in another instances, we will see that how an oblique shock can be formed in a
adiabatic nozzle flow. Now moving further, that here we will introduce a term which is
called as “back pressure” pb.
So, that back pressure pb is maintained here, when we have a back pressure pb, which is
controlled in a manner such that the normal shock which was at the exit, the strength of
the normal shock becomes reduced. When the strength of the normal shock becomes
reduced, it sees a imaginary compression corner which is given by this line.
And across this line, we will have the oblique shocks and these oblique shocks try to
meet at one point. So, in this process, a new exit pressure which is maintained for which
pe6 < pb < pe5. Now, at this location the pressure at the exit is expanded below the back
pressure and nozzle is set to be over expanded; that means, here the flow is fully
isentropic, but with supersonic Mach number, but there is an oblique shock which is
formed at the exit.
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The last phenomena that may going to happen is that if we reduce this exit pressure such
that the back pressure is sufficiently lower than what is supposed to be for the oblique
shock, then the we will have a equilibrium flow; that means, we have a pressure value
which is much less than the isentropic value and the expansion waves are formed at the
exit of the nozzle; that means, flow has sufficient pressure to expand further.
So, since it is a corner, so we may have kind of a expansion wave that gets generated at
the exit of the nozzle and down the line these expansion waves can also further interact
and complicate the flow phenomena. So, here the flow inside a nozzle is fully isentropic
for which the nozzle is designed and such a nozzle is known as “under-expanded” nozzle
because the flow is capable for additional expansion after leaving the nozzles.
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So, finally, this is the complete sequence of flow inside a nozzle, where we have
categorized in two aspects; one is isentropic flow, other is non isentropic flow. Now,
when we have isentropic flow, we have possibilities that flow can be a subsonic or flow
can be a supersonic. When the flow is supersonic, there is a unique solution; when the
flow is subsonic, there are infinite number of solutions.
Other possible practical cases where non isentropic flow can have, we may land of in
having a normal shock formation. This normal shock can move along this nozzle and one
point of time, it may stand at the exit, one point of time it may come out. When it come
out, it come out as a oblique shock format and finally, the when the pressure difference
are such that the flow has sufficient pressure to even expand further even after
encountering this diverging passage.
And finally, this particular study will tell us that how the quasi one-dimensional
consideration allows the cross sectional average properties inside a nozzle for a given
shape. So, it is the main effort for the designer to have a contour type of nozzle which is
shock free, entirely isentropic and such a nozzle is known as supersonic nozzle or we say
supersonic contour nozzle.
So, that means, its internal geometry changes from point to point. So, it is a contour type.
So, the surface will have a smooth surface inside so that the flow sees a very negligible
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drop in pressure so that the flow sees a very smooth passage in its expansion process and
such a process is knows as a contour nozzle.
So, with this, I will conclude this talk for today.
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Module - 06
Lecture - 18
Interaction of Shocks and Expansion Waves
Welcome to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in module 6. That

is Interaction of Shocks and Expansion Waves.
So, in the previous lecture of this module, we discussed about the importance of shock
wave and expansion waves and their interactions. So, one such classical example that we
can have is flow through a variable area duct.
So, in that concept we discussed about isentropic flow in a variable area duct. We also
discussed about if the duct happens to deliver a supersonic flow then what would be its
passage. So we call this as a supersonic nozzle flow. Now, if we do not deliver
supersonic Mach number at the nozzle exit, it could be due to the pressure difference
across the nozzle.
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So, in that aspects if adequate pressure difference are not maintained, flow still remains
isentropic, but we land of in getting subsonic flow at the exit. So, we call this as a
isentropic subsonic nozzle flow.
Now, if you see these two aspects; the entire flow field is always isentropic. Now, if the
flow is no longer isentropic or there happens to be normal shocks, oblique shocks at any
cross section of the nozzle, then those kind of flow is treated as a adiabatic flow in the
nozzles.
So, in fact, we discussed exhaustively under what circumstances or what pressure ratio
conditions flow regime of different Mach numbers can be obtained for a nozzle flow.
Now, in this particular lecture we will mostly focus on the similar aspect, but we will call
this as a diffuser flow. So, we call this as a supersonic diffuser.
In fact, whenever we want to have a nozzle flow, diffuser is also integral part of it. One
such example we are going to give, it has a supersonic wind tunnel. Where, both
supersonic nozzle and supersonic diffuser are integral part of it.
So, in this particular lecture we will mostly discussed about the summary of supersonic
nozzle flow and then I will give some introduction about a supersonic wind tunnel,
where nozzle and diffusers are integral part of it. And then we will mostly discuss on the
fundamental concepts of a supersonic diffuser, how it operates.
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So, just to give a brief introduction about a supersonic wind tunnel. So, most of the
aerodynamic facilities operating in high speed regime has Mach number in the
supersonic regime and all the testing needs to be done in the test section of the tunnel. So
such a tunnel we call this as a supersonic wind tunnel.
So as shown in this figure, the schematic diagram of this particular supersonic wind
tunnel has five major sections. So, first section is the reservoir, where we can consider
the storage of the gas at very high pressure and temperatures, and such pressures and
temperatures are treated to be stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature. And of
course, there is no gas velocity, so Mach number is nearly 0.
This flow, when it is allowed to pass through a nozzle and since the flow is at very high
pressure and temperature, when it is allowed to pass through a passage which in this case
we call this as a nozzle, the flow enters to the nozzle and attains a supersonic Mach
number in the test sections.
So, depending on the area ratio of the throat and the exit area of this nozzle, the flow
attains supersonic Mach number in the test sections. Now, after desired testing in this test
section, the flow is again allowed to pass through a converging potion. This converging
portion is similar to that a nozzle, but we call this as a diffuser, and this diffuser has
almost similar shapes like a converging shape, some constant area shape, and then a
diverging shape.
However, the internal features of a nozzle and diffusers are different. In fact lengths, the
throats, all the diameters are different. So what the basic philosophy is that when you
operate this supersonic wind tunnel both the nozzle and diffuser are part of it.
So; obviously, in this figure if you see that the flow is at stagnation pressure p0 and it is
allowed to pass through this nozzle, the flow become sonic at the throat; that means, it
attains the Mach number of one at the throat and then the flow tries to expand further and
attains desired supersonic Mach number Me and corresponding pressure pe.
So, after required testing in the test section, there are two options that one can directly
exhaust the flow to atmosphere or we can pass through a diffuser. So here, the role of
diffuser is very important because when you pass this exhaust flow directly to
atmosphere, we will show that the losses incurred in this mechanism will be very high.
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So that losses or in those cases your stagnation pressure requirement will be also very
high. So, in such cases, so it is a possible solution that we need to employ a diffuser, and
that diffuser will slow down the supersonic velocity to a very subsonic value. When the
flow comes out from this diffuser, it has a very low subsonic or almost 0 velocity.
And at the same time, the pressure that comes out at the exhaust, we call this as a
diffuser pressure or static pressure or stagnation pressure, they should be close to the free
stream pressure which is prevailing in the ambient conditions.
So, the very basic bottom line of this fact that when the flow enters, it is in the stagnation
conditions, but have very high pressure and also 0 velocity. When the flow leaves, it has
also very minimal or very less velocity and the exhaust pressure of the diffuser and the
ambient pressure should match.
So in other words, if you have ambient pressures p∞ and this diffuser pressure should
match. Whereas, in the in the inlet condition, your p0 and your M is also tends to 0, there
is no Mach number. So these are the basic philosophy.
Now, the challenging part of this design of the supersonic wind tunnel is the diffuser
sections, because if you do not incorporate a diffuser, then there will be loss of total
pressure. So we will show that how we are going to retain a diffuser of appropriate
design.
So the two important parts that needs to be highlighted here, since we say its a nozzle, so
when you see this nozzle part, there is one minimum area we call this as a throat area. So
we call this is as a first throat and where the flow attains sonic velocity. So, the first
throat, we can say At1 is equal to A* that means area at the first throat.
Even we will have a second throat, because in the diffuser the flow is already a
supersonic in the test section and this has to encounter a series of oblique shocks that
emanates from the inner wall of this test sections. And they try to interact and this
process will keep on happening and finally, we land of a standing normal shock that has
to be there at the throat of the diffuser. So we say it is a standing normal shock.
So, why we say standing normal shock? Only there is machines, the flow is already at
very high supersonic value in the test section it has to be slow down. So, to slow down
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the possible mechanism is the normal shock so that downstream of the flow will have
subsonic value. So, in this region the flow M is less than 1.
So, when the flow reaches the subsonic value, you give a diverging pressure section or
passage, so that the further slowdown is possible with mapping of the total pressure of at
the diffuser exist with respect to free stream pressure. So this is how the philosophy of a
supersonic wind tunnel works.
And, in our last previous lecture, we exhaustively discussed that how a supersonic flow
can be achieved in a nozzle. So, In fact, when you say this nozzle exit, typically it is
connected to a test sections; till our last class we are concentrating on this nozzle part,
and when you attached this to this test section its a nothing but a constant area duct. And
in this test sections we get the desired Mach number. That desired Mach number is
decided by the area ratio of this nozzle.
So, this is how the philosophy of supersonic wind tunnel. And, some important point I
needs to mention that many a times this nozzle, we call this as a de Laval nozzle. It is a
scientific name for a convergent diverging nozzle as a de Laval nozzle. And, there are
two throats, first throat which occurs at the minimum area where sonic flow is achieved,
so that is in the portion of a nozzle.
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And, when the flow is exhausted to atmosphere it is close to the free stream pressure at
the atmospheric conditions. And also, in the diffuser portion, there is another divergent
section of the duct which is known as diffuser. And this diffuser has also a throat for
which the area is At2, and here also it is nothing but the choked area or A* and M is also
attain 1.
So very basic difference between nozzle throat and diffuser throat is that at the nozzle
throat the flow attains sonic velocity and thereby it accelerates and get a supersonic flow.
But in a diffuser part, the flow is already supersonic.
It is decelerated to a sonic value in the second throat and then to a very low subsonic
Mach number at the exit. So, our main intention is that two components that is
supersonic nozzle flow that gives desired Mach number in the test section. Other is the
supersonic diffuser that slows down the supersonic flow to the atmosphere.
Many a times what will happen that when we discussed about the supersonic flow, we
found that when the flow is completely isentropic that is the nozzle is shock free. But
what happens? If the flow is non isentropic, if the flow is non isentropic or in our term
we call this as adiabatic then, we land of having getting normal shocks, and this normal
shock is controlled through pressure ratio between the reservoir and the exit pressure.
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So, if sufficient pressure ratio is maintained so that the normal shock is driven by the
flow and that comes out. So, at one particular instant when the pressure at the exit is p4
and it is dropped to a further lower value; you can see that this normal shock which was
at some portion in the diverging part, in fact, it starts with throat gets driven by the flow
and some point down the line in the diverging section, it stands at some pressure and if
pressure is reduced further, it goes to the exit. So that normal shock now stands at exit.
Now if you again further reduce this pressure from p5 to p6, then we land off in getting an
oblique shock; that means, strength of this normal shock gets reduced. And when this
process keeps on that we further reduce the pressure to a value pb which is pe6; that
means, the flow is fully expanded and pressure is such that everywhere the flow will see
isentropic flow and it lands of having expansion fan at the exit.
So in this particular situation the flow will always be shock free for any pressure between
the value for which the normal shock stands at the exit and the expansion fan that is
initiated at the exit. So any pressure in this range will make that nozzle shock free.
But, we do not want this nozzle to be shock free when it is integrated with a diffuser. The
shock has to pass through the diffuser so that we can further slow down its velocity.
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So, the formation of normal shock in a diverging passage of a converging diverging duct
act as a driving factor to slow down the supersonic flow, but it incurs a higher total
pressure loss.
So, the ideal way of looking at to slow down the supersonic flow to ambient pressure at
low Mach number is without the loss of total pressure. The loss of total pressure I mean,
whatever flow has total pressure at the inlet should map with total pressure at the
exhaust.
So this p0 should be recovered. So, if you are able to recover this; that means, we are
doing our role in designing an ideal supersonic wind tunnel. Hence, the mechanism of
slowing down the supersonic flow is done through diffuser with as much small loss in
the total pressure. Thus, an ideal diffuser would compress the flow isentropically with no
loss of total pressure, but this is not the reality.
So in the reality what we are going to achieve is that we have to incorporate a diverging
passage at the end of the test sections part. So if you see here, the test section parts ends
at this point. So, when it is at this exit of this test section, the flow is already supersonic,
so since the flow is already supersonic it has to enter a converging passage to slow down
its velocity.
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So, that is the theory of quasi one dimensional flow for which you need to decrease the
velocity. Hence, a converging passage is integrated after this test section. Now, after this
converging passage we also need to incorporate a minimum area and it has to be again
attached to a diverging passage.
The role of this area is such that, this particular area should be higher than the first throat.
And, this minimum area, maybe later on, we will find that this area at the diffuser portion
should be higher than the first throat. This one we are going to prove down the line.
So once you put this; that means, a supersonic flow when it sees a diverging portion its
velocity gets reduced, so it the flow Mach number become sonic in this throat and
finally, after the flow is sonic Mach number becomes 1. We land of having a normal
shock. Normal shock may start here, but it may gets pushed up due to this pressure
difference.
So, whenever we say it is a weak normal shock at the exit of the throat then you see a
diverging passage. So obviously, since it is a normal shock, Mach number in this region
is less than 1 and when the Mach number is less than 1 and the flow sees a diverging
section, the speed further reduces to Mach number much much less than 1. So, almost it
gets slow down to a very low value of velocity.
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So, this is how I have explained, but to quantify the role of a diffuser, we need to define
a term called as diffuser efficiency. So, diffuser efficiency talks about a quantification of
a parameter, the total pressure loss. To the total pressure loss should be as minimum as
possible.
And in fact, you have a strong normal shock, because loss and total pressure is typically
achieves through a normal shock. So we have already discussed that when you have a
normal shock, p01 and p02 so your Mach number is always supersonic, Mach number is
always of subsonic, and this normal shock leads to; that means, s2  s1 is a function
p02
of .
p01
And you will see that, p02 is always less than p01; so that means, there is always a drop in
total pressure, and this drop in total pressure is maximum for a normal shock. And when
you strength of this normal shock increases, this loss also increases.
So the ideal way of looking at a right diffuser is to consider a weak normal shock or
oblique shock. So, these are the two ways that we can think of or combination of both.
So, this is how the philosophy of regime happens.
So, what happens? That at the end of test section, we will have oblique shocks that
comes, this is similar to the oblique shock that forms at the exit of a nozzle.
In fact, we can say all though they exit of the nozzle is here, but we are maintaining a
same constant area and the flow always remains at that value of Me. So you can say
whatever Me and pe at this location that same conditions prevails till the end of the test
sections and there the oblique shock starts forming.
And in the process they keep on interacting each other, and then on the wall and finally,
in the diffuser section, and in the end it lands of having a normal shock at the exit. So
this normal shock is a very weak normal shock.
So what we started is, we started with series of oblique shock terminated with a weak
normal shock. And when we say weak normal shock your M2 is also less than 1 and it
sees a diverging portion, so Mach number becomes low subsonic at the exit.
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But, to quantify this entire process of the mechanism of oblique shock phenomena and
their interaction we have to define a parameter called as diffuser efficiency. So, the
diffuser efficiency is decided by how much gain in total pressure we can have.
So, that part when you define this as the diffuser efficiency, we say that the merit of a
diffuser is decided by a parameter diffuser efficiency which is defined as the ratio of
actual pressure loss of total pressure to that of total pressure loss in a hypothetical normal
shock situations.
So, for instance, if you look at this figure we say that we have added a diffuser part,
when you add this diffuser part, we landed of in having a pressure at the exit which is
close to pd or is equal to pd0 is equal to p∞. This is free stream pressure. This is static
pressure at the diffuser exit pd and this is the total pressure at the diffuser exit pd0.
pd
So if you employ a diffuser, so the pressure ratio would have been . In this actual
p0
case, p0 is your reservoir pressure at the inlet. But, this is what the term which appears in
the numerator. But in the denominator what happens, that if we do not employ a diffuser
and allow the gas at the end of the section pass directly to atmosphere, and it has to have
a normal shock.
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So; obviously, we will have the total pressure p0e and we have total pressure p0 which is
same as that of here. And if there is a normal shock the ratio of the total pressure loss
p0 e
would have been , if it is a normal shock.
p0
Effectively, what remain same is total pressure at the inlet p0, what does not change is
the actual pressure when we employ a diffuser and normal shock when we do not employ
a diffuser. And, it has been seen that in ideal case, the diffuser efficiency is close to 1;
that means, actual diffuser performs as if it is a normal shock diffuser.
And, in a low supersonic situations for a wind tunnel cases we typically considered the
diffuser efficiency to be greater than 1. So, in other words when you say supersonic wind
tunnel, we consider this diffuser efficiency should be higher than 1. But when you say
hypersonic wind tunnel, we will see that the diffuser efficiency is less than 1, because at
those cases employing diffuser may not be a right choice.
So, hardly people consider a hypersonic wind tunnel in this particular situation. When
Mach number increases much much higher than value of hypersonic situation then the
role of a diffuser is such that its efficiency should be less than 1.
Now, we will talk about the some of the important aspect of the diffuser design and
nozzle design. So, what will we look at here is that this is schematic of this same wind
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tunnel what we have, and in this portion we have nozzle and in this portion we have
diffuser.
As I mentioned, there are two throats or two locations of minimum area; one is At1 for
nozzle and At2 for diffuser. And In fact, at both the locations your Mach number is sonic.
So these two conditions should hold good.
But only difference here, the Mach number reaches sonic from subsonic to sonic value.
Here, the Mach number reaches from supersonic to sonic value. That means, flow is
accelerated and flow is decelerated. So, here from supersonic to sonic.
So this is the basic two difference that happens at this two locations. But what remains
constant, if I can say that continuity equation; we say mass flow rate remains constant.
So, when you say mass flow rate remains constant, I can apply the continuity equations
at two locations; 1 and 2. So, what I can say is that 1 At1a    2 At 2 a  . So, a  will get
1 At 2
cancel. So what we land of is  .
 2 At1
1
Now here I can say that what is this . So I can recall that equation of state. We says
 2
that at this two location I can write p1  1 RT1 and p2   2 RT2 . R happens to be remain
same. And In fact, since a  is same. So, this means T  also remain same.
1 p1
So, we this will imply that  . But what is this p1 and p 2 ? One can recall that,
 2 p 2
 
p0    1 2   1 p    1   1
 1  M  . So when M goes to 1, we write 0    , because M is
p  2  p  2 
equal to 1.
So, one can rewrite this equations for state 1 and state 2 for p1 and p2. So, from this
p 01 p 02
equation, one can find out that   .
p1 p2
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p01 p1
So this will say that  . So, we land of having this equations. So, we have left
p02 p2
At 2 1 p1 p p
with     , then we prove that 1  01 .
At1  2 p 2 p2 p02
At 2 p01
So hence, a relation that is developed that  . So, what happens means, that the
At1 p02
area ratio in the diffuser and this nozzle has a particular ratio which is followed with
respect to total pressure p01 and p02 .
So what is this p01 and what is the p02 means? We showed that we will have a normal
shock at the diffuser throat, and when we have this diffuser throat at this normal shock,
till this point of time the entire flow is completely isentropic. So this p0  p01 . Now
when we have a normal shock here, your Mach number becomes subsonic and the total
pressure becomes p02 , because it is after this normal shock.
So in other words, we say, the pressure that remains at the end of the diffuser is total
pressure p02 ; the pressure which is relevant or prevalent in the reservoir is p01 ; and the
At 2
geometry of diffuser throat and nozzle throat has area ratio and they bear a definite
At1
ratio.
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So, this is what the summary of a supersonic diffuser that the increase in the entropy in
the diffuser throat that happens due to normal shock. Its area is larger than the nozzle
throat; that means, we say At 2  At1 , because p02 is less than p01 .
So, we say p02 is less than p01 So this number is higher, so At 2  At1 . So this loss in total
pressure is due to increase in the entropy.
The flow chokes, the supersonic flow in the nozzle is not possible if diffuser throat is
smaller than the nozzle throat. That means, one cannot deliver a supersonic flow in the
nozzle. However, there is no upper limit for the diffuser throat because At 2 can be as
much as large possible, but the performance drops with very large diffuser area throat.
But the main purpose of the diffuser is to have a weak normal shock; that means, as long
as we get weak normal shock at the exit, we do not arbitrarily increase the area, rather we
stop the diffuser area throat at that point and at that point the flow is sonic. If it cannot be
achieved, then flow will accelerate in the diverging portion and it will form normal shock
in the diffuser exit. So, this defeats the purpose of a oblique shock diffuser.
So, as long as we do not have a weak normal shock at the exit, then the role of diffuser is
not attained.
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Now with this, we will try to see some numerical problems based on this nozzle and
diffuser which we discussed in this module.
So, the first problem that talks about a converging diverging nozzle is to be operated for
a design Mach number of 2.5. So, this is how the schematic diagram of a nozzle. So we
say, its design Mach number is 2.5. We say, the supply pressure is p0. The supply
pressure is nothing but your reservoir pressure; that is 20 bar.
So what we are going to see is that, using quasi one-dimensional theory, calculate the
maximum back pressure to choke the flow. So; obviously, although we have maintain a
pressure, now, if this back pressure is close to 20 bar; there would not be flow in the
nozzle. Even though we have designed a supersonic nozzle, but if a pressure is close to
20 bar, it will not flow.
So, for this reason, the back pressure needs to be controlled, so that we get the sonic
supersonic flow at the exit. And second point needs to be emphasized here, that this
nozzle has to be completely shock free. And the flow has to choke at the throat section,
then only the flow can entered into the diverging section.
Now, when the flow is choked at the throat; obviously, we will have a normal shock and
that will try to gets pushed off in the diverging portion. But the main problem is, that if
your back pressure is reduce, and we have your p0, so it get sufficient range to get pushed
off.
But if you do not do this, then the normal shock will either stand at the minimum area or
it may so happen if it does not see the required pressure down the line, it will become
subsonic. But this purpose will be lost, because we are considering the Mach number of
2.5.
Our main intention is that we have to calculate the maximum back pressure to choke the
flow. Now, if you look at this area ratio is which is a function of Mach number. And for
a given area ratio there are two solutions; one is Mach number of less than 1, one is
Mach number of greater than 1.
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Now, if you have a supersonic solution; Mach number is greater than 1, the entire flow
nozzle flow will be sonic. But, the flow will be subsonic if required back pressure is not
maintained.
Now, with this philosophy from the given data what we are trying to achieve is that, let
us calculate that for M is equal to 2.5, what will be the area ratio? So, from this area ratio
we will get isentropic table. Now from this area ratio Mach number relation, for 2.5 this
is what the extract we get from this book. For a Mach number of 2.5, the area ratio A*
has to be 2.637.
But would may so happen, for close to this value of area ratio we may have a subsonic
A
solutions. For example, for is equal to 2.708 which is close to this number. This will
A
implies a Mach number of 0.22, we can see here.
So, here I have trying to explain these point for a given area ratio there are two
possibilities; we have a subsonic solution, we have a supersonic solution, then roll of
back pressure comes into picture. So, if you do not maintained this desired back pressure
then the flow will choke and supersonic flow is not possible.
So flow will land of in subsonic regime. When you have Mach number 0.22, a
p0
supersonic flow will not happen. So, if this is the situation, then your would be 1.041.
p
Now, in our case your p0 is 20 bar. So p would be 20 by 1.034. So this number will be
19.3 bar. So the answer is that if your p is less than 19.3 bar or any value of less p than
19.3 bar, it will choke the nozzle and it will be entirely subsonic. So this is how we have.
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Now, in the same question we are going to little bit of modify for the same nozzle in
question 1; calculate the range of back pressure for which normal shock will appear in
the nozzle exit. So we say here that your p0 is 20 bar, M is equal to 2.5. We are going to
have a normal shock at the exit.
So when you have a normal shock at the exit, then downstream pressure would be p02
here, the upstream pressure will be p01 and p1 and here p2 and your Mach number will be
M2.
Now, of course, if there is a normal shock, your M1 would be 2.5. So, we have two
solution, we have to refer normal shock table where for M1 is equal to 2.5. So for M1 is
p2
equal to 2.5, if you see its a normal shock table, then it will give is equal to 7.125.
p1
pb
Now, this p2 in our case will be pb. So we can write is 7.125. But what is our p1? p1
p1
corresponds to Mach 2.5 for which total pressure is p01 that is 20 bar. So, p1 can be
calculated; as M is equal to 2.5, so we say isentropic table for which Mach number is
p01
2.5, 17.09.
p1
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So, p01 is 20 bar. So from these two equation, one can find out pb is equal to 8.33 bar. Of
course, it will give p1 as 1.17 bar and pb is this. So, if you have a normal shock then your
pb is 8.33 bar. Any pressure at this number will give you normal shock at the exit.
So the first question we are going to answer; the range of normal pressure that will
appear in the nozzle. So, 8.33< pb <19.3 bar, the flow will choke this nozzle, and any
pressure in between this will keep this normal shock which were supposed to develop at
throat, it will get pushed off and at 8.33 bar it will stand at the exit.
The next question is that range of back pressure for a perfectly expanded nozzle. Now
for a perfectly expanded nozzle, we have pe so that means it is a shock free. So when it is
p0
a shock free, same pressure is 20 bar. So, at Mach number of 2.5 one can calculate as
pe
17.09. So, pe will be 1.17 bar. So, any value this or less, we will make this nozzle
perfectly expanded.
And in third case, it have says that range of back pressure for a supersonic flow in the
exit plane. So, now to have a normal shock in the exit. So till exit plane if you want to
have a flow to be supersonic, then as I mentioned our earlier calculations, so normal
shock at exit will have pb less than 8.33 bar, p0 20 bar. Now, it is shock free, your pb less
than 1.17 bar.
So, any pressure between 1.17< pb< 8.85, we will make this always supersonic flow
Mach of 2.5. So, this is how one needs to compute that how you can achieve supersonic
flow in the nozzle.
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Now, next problem that is with respect to a wind tunnel in particular, but very specific to
a supersonic nozzle as a design Mach number of 3 is to be employed in a wind tunnel.
What would be the total pressure required to drive the tunnel if the air is to be exhausted
to directly to the atmosphere?.
So, this particular problem is framed with respect to my explanation that I give; what is
the role of diffuser; why you require a diffuser in a supersonic wind tunnel.
So, main reason is this. This is formulated in this manner. Now in the first case, we are
saying that the flow is directly exhausted to the atmosphere in a nozzle; second case the
flow is directly exhausted to the atmosphere through a normal shock; third case we are
saying that we are going to attach a diverging passage across the normal shock.
Now, in all these cases, what are the changes we are going to see? So, in the first case we
say your Mach number is 3, and we say we have a directly atmosphere. So, atmosphere I
can assume as 1 bar, p∞ is 1 bar. So I can assume that the flow is adjusted to the
atmosphere in the 1 bar.
So in the first case, we say that the total pressure required to drive the tunnel when it is
directly exhausted to the atmosphere. So, what is going to happen if it is 1 bar? And here
p0
for M is equal to 3, I can refer this table; isentropic table is 36.7 bar.
pe
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So that means, if pe is 1 bar, p0 will be 36.7 bar. So in other words, we require a pressure
of 36.7 bar to operate this wind tunnel. But let us pause a moment that what better we
can do. So next better you are going to do is that we are saying let us have a normal
shock, let us consider a normal shock at the exit.
When I say consider a normal shock I can say p∞ is 1 bar, now when I say p∞, this will
be nothing but p2. So, when I have a normal shock we have a static pressure p2 and your
M2 will be corresponding to M1 as 2.5. So this normal shock table, we will have M2
would be 0.4752.
 p  p 
So, when you have say M1 is this, we require p01. So, we can say p0   0  e  p .
 pe  p 
pe
So, 10.33. So I can say, this corresponds to Mach number of 3. So, this is about
p
36.7*1/10.33*1. So, this will turns out to be 3.55 bar.
So, we can say that the requirement of total pressure now drops from 36 bar to 3.55 bar.
Now, further tuning is possible instead of assuming p2 as 1 bar we say p02 as 1 bar. And
we will have a same normal shock, but it will be weak. So to make it weak, we have to
make it by attaching a diverging passage.
So in same case, and one can rewrite that Me is equal to 3 it will have M2 is equal to
 p  p  p 
0.475. So, in this case one can write p0   0  e  2  p . This corresponds to Mach
 pe  p2  p 
number of 4.75, all these numbers you already know, and one can find out this pressure
will be 3.04 bar.
So in this entire sequence of process, what we can observe is that if you allow a
diverging passage the requirement at the upstream or reservoir pressure significantly
drops from 36.7 bar to close to 3 bar. So in other words, if you add a diverging portion
we can operate a wind tunnel with a total pressure of 3.04 bar instead of 36.7 bar.
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(Refer Slide Time: 1:03:43)
So, last part of this problem is about a diffuser. It is a very simple problem. This is also
same thing that we have a Mach 2.5 flow. Here, we need to find the exit area of the
diffuser. So we say, the wind tunnel is operated at atmospheric conditions. We can say
atmospheric condition as pe as 1 bar and atmospheric condition as Te as 288 K.
Ae
With this assumptions, and for this Mach number of 2.5. So it will give as 2.637. We
A
p0 T
can find out here, and as 17.09, 0 as 2.25. So this will tell you that p0 requirement
pe Te
would be 17.09 bar and T0 would be 648 K.
So we need exit area ratio 2.637, reservoir pressure 17.9 bar, temperature 648 K.
Estimate the area ratio of diffuser throat to nozzle throat to allow tunnel starting. So as I
At 2
mentioned the diffuser throat to nozzle throat area is governed by pressure ratio
At1
p02
. This ratio can be found out for M is equal to 2.5 and this value is 0.499.
p01
At 2
So, this will close to give you . Considering the diffuser efficiency of 1.2, calculate
At1
the total pressure ratio at the diffuser exit. So you can say diffuser efficiency is
391
 pd 
 p 
 0 p
. In fact, this value is given as 1.2 so you can say d as this value is
p
 02  p0
 p0  normal

pd
0.499, so we can say this value will be close to 0.6 or pd is equal to 10.25 bar.
p0
Where, p0 we can say 17.09 bar. So, this is how the diffuser part is considerd.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:07:28)
Now, with this I will conclude this with certain learning components. So, we discussed
about a supersonic wind tunnel. We discussed about isentropic flow for supersonic and
subsonic case. We also discussed in the module about adiabatic nozzle flow. We talked
about supersonic diffuser, nozzle throat and diffuser throat. And finally, diffuser
efficiency.
With this I hope I have made you understand about this module of nozzle and diffuser.
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Module - 07
Lecture – 19
Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer
Welcome to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in a new module 7.

Name of this module is Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer.
So, in the first lecture of this module, we will deal with the compressible flow with heat
additions. And to be very specifics, entire analysis will be done in one-dimensional
medium. Like in other situations, we will also derive the fundamental equations for heat
addition process, the flow property evaluations when heat is added to the compressible
flow. Then we will now introduce a concept of thermal choking.
Normally choking is the word which is used when the flow is sonic. Now, in this case the
thermal choking will mean that the sonic flow is achieved through heat transfer process.
Now, by introducing this thermal choking, we will see how the flow property parameter
gets changed and how it becomes easy for us to define a property table known as flow
property table for heat addition process. Now, based on our understanding, we will try to
solve couple of problems based on this topic.
393
Now, just to revisit that whatever compressible flow in one-dimensional we have

studied, it was mainly done with an analysis that we have a rectangular control volume,
and it is imaginary in nature. So, we can see it is a kind of a constant area duct, there is
some inflow with certain flow conditions and there is some exit outflow at certain flow
conditions. And based on these inflow and outflow conditions, we derived the relations
for a one-dimensional medium.
And in all earlier cases we never dealt with a heat transfer process in this one-
dimensional medium or there was no work transfer also into this medium. So, one such
instance we have seen that how the properties change could happen between 1 and 2 by
considering a normal shock. So, the entire flow field is very discontinuous across this
particular thin region or we call this as a thin shock layer of typically dimension of 10-7
m.
And across the shock layer we say there are large gradients in the flow properties inside
the shock structure that results in the change in the viscosity and thermal conductivity in
the medium. So, in this thin region, the flow happens to be a process that increases the
entropy. So, even though the entire flow field is isentropic, but within this region the
flow is non-isentropic. And in fact, we have proved that entropy always increases across
a normal shock.
394
And wherever and when you derive these relations for entropy change, the pressure and
temperature assumptions are such that it does not matter explicitly. We do not explicitly
talk about the increase in entropy, because the already enhanced properties of pressure
and temperature has ensured that entropy will increase. But in this process also, we say
that entire imaginary duct which consists this normal shock is adiabatic in nature, in fact
there is no heat addition into this process.
Now, in the similar logic, we will now move to another situations where we will say that
we have same one-dimensional medium which is a rectangular control volume. And we
can say it is an imaginary duct consisting of large streamlines. But what is the basic
difference between earlier system and this that we are going to add some heat into this
imaginary duct.
So, this is one way that flow property can change. Other mechanism in which the flow
properties can be altered is through friction. So, in general there are three possible
methods in a one-dimensional medium for a compressible flow in a constant area of duct.
So, those methods are a normal shock which you have already covered, and that is in
adiabatic situation.
And next method is heat addition or rejections. Obviously, it is a non adiabatic case since
heat is being added or rejected. So, this is the main theme of this lecture. And last one is
the friction through addition and subtraction of length which is also a non-isentropic case
395
because it involves frictions. So, we will see these particular aspects in the subsequent
class.
So, our main focus is that what will happen to a compressible flow when heat is added.
So, the possible situation could be your condition 1 could be subsonic or supersonic.
Now, if we say that it is a subsonic flow what will happen to downstream situations?
And we again if the condition 1 is supersonic what will happen to the downstream
situation? So, these are the few questions we are going to answer from our analysis. So,
to do all this analysis, we have to revisit the fundamental equations again.
Now, just to say that what is the mechanism of heat addition process in a one-
dimensional flow, we can say that in this particular duct, we are looking at the flow
phenomena through an heat addition process. Of course, there is no normal shock which
is sitting in the flow which we could have said that there are drastic change in properties.
But what change the flow properties is the heat transfer. So, as I mentioned that if our
inflow can be subsonic, we will try to find out answer that if I add heat or subtract heat
what will happen to the downstream condition 2. Or, in vice versa, if the inflow
condition is supersonic, what will happen if I add or subtract heat to the downstream
conditions. So, these are the few questions which you are going to answer in this
analysis.
396
So, the very basic philosophy of bottom line is the fact that heat transfer is the driving
factor. But since there is a addition of heat, so we can say the entropy is going to increase
or decrease. If it is added entropy is going to increase; if it is taken out from the flow
entropy is going to decrease. So, addition of heat will increase the entropy; or rejection
of heat will decrease the entropy.
So, this heat transfer addition into a one-dimensional flow has many applications. One
such application is that the next generation type a ground facilities like laser heated wind
tunnels. So, researcher had thinking of to develop a laser heated wind tunnel in which the
property conditions of the flow can be altered through the heat addition process using a
laser beam.
So, when heat is added through this laser beam radiations, the gases that gets heated up,
and they change their flow properties. And this is one type of application where the next
generation aerodynamic facilities are built with.
The next type of heat addition mechanism happens during a fuel air combustion process.
Normally high speed aerospace vehicles use a different kind of engines known as ramjet
or scramjet engines, in which we consider the fuel layer combustion. So, in such process
when you combust a fuel and air, the enormous amount of heat is generated into the
medium.
So, thereby it alters the flow properties of the mixtures. So, these are the some of the
applications in which the heat addition has shown its significance for a compressible
flow.
397
Now, let us discuss about the heat addition process in detail. So, the first thing that we
are going to discuss is the heat addition process which is in a one-dimensional medium.
And we consider a rectangular control volume with certain inflow conditions which is
denoted by region 1. The outgoing flow conditions are denoted by the region 2. But what
changes the properties is the heat transfer which is certain amount of heat is added into
this medium.
So, we say that the flow occurs in a constant area duct, the flow is considered to be
steady for a calorically perfect gas, there is no work interaction, body forces and
frictional effects are negligible. So, these are the assumption based on which the one-
dimensional flow equations are governed. So, the entire idea for this analysis is that the
conditions 1, they are commonly known as known conditions; and the region 2, these are
the unknown condition.
So, our main task like in earlier cases we did is that we express all the downstream
parameters like all unknown parameters as a function of the upstream parameter and the
flow Mach number. So, all output conditions for the region 2, we have to express as a
function of region 1. So, the property parameters are defined with respect to known
parameters for the region 1.
398
So, the next aspect we are going to study about this is that with this control volume of
one-dimensional medium. We are going to write the fundamental equations. So, those
equations are conservation of mass. And so this first equation which is written here is the
1u1   2u2 . So, it is a mass conservation.
This is second equation which is used is p1  1u12  p2   2u22 ; this is the momentum
u12 u2
equation and last equation that is h1   q  h2  2 . So, this is the equation that is
2 2
going to change in our earlier situations, because q is introduced as a heat which is being
added into the flow.
Now, from this energy equations, so we can write the enthalpy for calorically perfect gas
as h  c pT . So, for condition 1 and 2, from the energy equation if I take out q, then I can
 u2   u2  u2
write q   c pT2  2    c pT1  1  . So, we know that c pT0  c pT  .
 2  2 2
So, from this energy equation we can derive this particular value of q  c p T02  T01  . So,
in other words, the heat addition is expressed as a function of total temperature. So, this
is the first step.
399
And next step what we are going to look at the flow property calculations. And here we
p2 T2 
will deal with the static property ratio. By static property ratio, I mean , , and 2 .
p1 T1 1
So, to start with the static property ratio, we have to consider the momentum equations.
So, this particular equation is considered from momentum equation. So, from this
momentum equation, we write this p2  p1  1u12   2u22 . Then what I use this relation
Mach number as u/a. So, this will implies u is equal to Mach number times a.
So, for condition 1 and 2, if when I put u as M times a, so I can write 1a12 M 12   2 a22 M 22 .
p
So, again we know that a 2  ; when you put this relation here, we are now able to

express a 2 as a function of pressures.
Now, the main equations which was we are here, we now

write p2  p1   p1M 12   p2 M 22 . So, now, we are able to find out pressure ratios as a
function of Mach number M1 and M2. The second property which we are going to
evaluate is temperature ratio.
400
To know the temperature ratio, we will have to recall that the equation of state. So,
equation of state states that p   RT . So, for condition 1 and 2, I can write p1  1 RT1 ,
T2 p2 1
p2   2 RT2 . So, this will give a relation that  .
T1 p1  2
p2
So, now in this equation, we already know the pressure ratio from the above. We
p1
1
now require . So, this rho 1 by rho 2 we will get from continuity equation
2
1 u2
like 1u1   2u2 . So, this will tell you that = . Now, again u2 is equal to Mach
 2 u1
a2
number times a, we can write this. And also here we will now write as also a function
a1
T2
of .
T1
So, we can write that a 2   RT . So, for condition 1 and 2 this is expressed in the form of
1 1
 T2  2 T2 p2 M 2  T2  2
  . So, final expression now stands as    .
 T1  T1 p1 M 1  T1 
So, we can bring this particular term here. We also know the pressure ratios from these
equations. So, ultimately, we get a net results, and the temperature ratio by this form.
2 2
T2  1   M 12   M 2 
   
T1  1   M 22   M 1 
So, once we know the temperature ratio, we can also find the density ratio. So, density
2  p  T 
ratio is . Again using equation of state we can write  2   1  . So, prior to this we all
1  p1   T2 
know the expressions of these values. So, after simplification we can arrive at this.
2 2
 2  1   M 22   M 1 
   
1  1   M 12   M 2 
So, in other words what is I have done here for pressure, temperature, and density, at the
upstream and downstream conditions. They are expressed as M1 and M2. So, obviously,
401
once when you know the pressure, temperature, and densities, we can also evaluate what
is happening to the change in the entropy.
Now, effectively this particular expression does not explicitly focus about the heat
addition process, but these heat addition q has already changed the properties ratio
p2 T
and 2 . And these ratios are mentioned here. And since it is a heat addition process,
p1 T1
so entropy will increase. This is how we get to know that how we are going to evaluate
the static flow properties during this process.
Now, we will move onto the flow property calculations for stagnation conditions. For
stagnation conditions, we are now left with two parameters; one is stagnation pressure,
other is the stagnation temperature.
So, the stagnation properties, what I can say is for the condition 1 which is we can say u1
or Mach number M1 for the pressure p1, we can define p01 . And for temperature T1 and
Mach number M1, we can also define T01 . For M1 and ρ1, we can also define ρ01.
So, and similarly for u2 and M2, this will talk about p02, T02 and ρ02. Here mostly an
parameter is p02 and T02.
402

p    1 2   1 T0    1 2 
So, we can write the 0  1  M  ;  1  M  and
p  2  T  2 
1
0    1 2   1
 1 M  . So, these are arbitrary properties.
  2 
We can now define p01 p1 , T01 T1 , and  01 1 . Similarly, we can write p02 p2 , T02 T2
and 02  2 . So, here it is a function of M2, this is a function of M1. But we are now
p02
require the ratio between . So, we write this p02   p02 p2  p2 ; and in the
p01
denominator it is  p01 p1  p1 .
So, these p02 p2 , we get from these expressions where M is replaced with M2, and
p01 p1 is replaced by same expression where M is replaced by M1. Also in the static
p2
property relations, we already know what is the value ratio of . So, after putting this,
p1
p02
we are in now in a position to simplify a relation which is .
p01
T02
So, in the similar manner, one can evaluate the stagnation property ratio , and they
T01
are expressed as both function of M1 and M2. So, this is how we are going to evaluate the
stagnation properties. Of course, once you know p02 and T02 , one can also evaluate also
p02
 02 , where  02 can also be written as . So, likewise all properties of downstream
RT02
conditions are expressed as function of upstream parameters.
403
So, with these equations we are now summarize that how we are going to evaluate the
downstream flow properties for a heat addition process in a one-dimensional
compressible medium.
But if you look at actually the these equations what we have seen is that let us take a
T02
particular equation let us say , so if we want to find out T02 then we have to know T01
T01
M1 and M2, then only it will be able to find T02 .
But in general the region 1 is generally known condition, and region 2 is unknown
condition. So, effectively we do not know, effectively we have two unknown parameters
in the region 2 that is T02 and M2.
So, even this also is true for all other relations where we need to require at least one
parameter in the downstream either Mach number or any of the static properties. So,
here, but to do that, we do not have any other choice rather we only know that some heat
is getting added into the medium.
So, to do that what we see is that we can express this q  c p T02  T01  . So, from this
q
equation, we can evaluate T02  T01  . So, in this equation what we know is T01 , q and
cp
404
cp. So, this is a known quantity. So, with this known upstream parameter, we only know
q
one downstream parameter T02  T01 
cp
T02 T
So, now next step is that you calculate . When you calculate 02 , for this ratio, we are
T01 T01
T02
now in a position that to use these equations of , where these is a known parameter,
T01
this ratio is a known parameter we have one known parameter M1.
So, iteratively we have we have to do a trial and error approach to find M2. So, this is
how the iterated approach is involved to calculate Mach number M2. Now, we are in a
position that we know M1, we also know M2. So, then all other parameters can be
calculated from this process. So, entire calculations involves the trial and error process
only for the calculation of Mach number.
To avoid such calculations, what we are now going to propose a concept with respect to
a reference conditions. So, what does this mean that had the flow been sonic at the exit,
what would have been its condition? Like for a given arbitrary condition of 1, if the flow
is going to be sonic.
405
If we say condition 2 happens to be sonic means I can say at this case we are saying
Mach number as 1, if we add continuously heat into this duct such that the condition 2
for which Mach number is sonic, then we can define a reference condition as p* T* ρ*
p0* and T0*.
This is also possible that we can bring this condition to star conditions. When I say star
condition that point I will say its Mach number will be 1, here I say Mach number will be
1, but how this star condition is reached, through heat transfer.
So, it means that the sonic flow reference condition can be achieved hypothetically by
choking the flow through heat addition or rejection; such a method is known as thermal
choking.
So, here we introduce a word thermal choking because the choking conditions or sonic
condition is achieved through heat transfer. In all other previous instances, we also
define these choking conditions, but that was with reference to the mass flow rate. So,
that is the basic difference that how thermal choking is different from the mass flow rate
choking.
Now, to simplify this analysis, let me cite this example by using a pictorial
representation. For instance, we have a duct one-dimensional duct where the condition 1
406
is defined. For a given condition we have some downstream condition 2 like M2 p2 and
ρ2. So, the change in the flow properties is achieved through a heat transfer is q.
Now, what we imagine, so this is a real condition. And in a hypothetical situation what
we assume that if I want to go from the condition 1 to a sonic state through heat transfer,
so I have to add a magnitude of heat that is q1* such that your downstream Mach number
will be unity. So, under those circumstances, I can define these pressure conditions in the
downstream as p* T* ρ* p0* T0*and ρ0*.
So, with the same logic, if I will go from condition 2 to get this star condition, so that the
flow is sonic at the downstream, then I have to add q2* amount of heat. Thus since both
the states are a hypothetical state. But the very basic fact that by assuming these
hypothetical states, I am able to calculate the amount that I am going to add since the
reference conditions are same for the both the states.
So, this will give me a equation that from this pictorial representation, I can say the
amount of heat that I am going to add in a real situation is nothing but the hypothetical
heat transfer q1* for the state 1 and state 2. And in fact, we will now show that how this
particular concept will help us in simplifying our flow calculation properties.
So, if I do that all governing equations for the static properties ratios or stagnation
properties ratio, like if you say that for the star condition if you put Mach number as 1,
407
tthose equations can be simplified in this fashion. And in fact what we see in this
equation that p, T, ρ, are any arbitrary properties for any real situation; and star
parameters, they are the corresponding imaginary states when the flow is brought to
sonic state through heat addition.
So, in such cases, the equations get simplified. And what we see is they are only function
of Mach number. So, this gives an indication that we can form a table just by changing
the Mach number and find these ratios so that it will help us in simplifying our
calculations.
So, that table which is known as one dimension table with heat additions. So, this table is
presented here. So, it is taken from the extract of the book John D. Anderson that is
Modern Compressible Flow with Historical Prospective McGraw-Hill. What has been
shown here I have just taken some extract from this.
So, there are about 6 columns. So, the first column talks about the Mach number. That
p
means, if you know the Mach number then we can find out these property ratios – ,
p
T  p T

,  , o , o .
T  p0 T0
408
So, this table can be prepared. In fact, if we are not really supposed to know the or
remember those equations big equations rather just by referring the table, just by
knowing one value in this table we can find out the complete information in that row.
po
For instance if I know as maybe 1, then I can say that all the numbers in that row are
p0
known. So, this gives a very easier method to evaluate the flow properties in a heat
transfer situation in a compressible flow.
Now, with this logic, we will now try to solve some simple problems which we will talk
about how one has to refer a gas table for a given flow situations. So, the question that is
given is that a supersonic stream of air enters in a constant area duct at a flow Mach
number of 3 at a pressure 0.9 bar, and 20°C.
So, the question that is asked is how much heat is required to choke the flow? Calculate
the flow properties the in the downstream. In the downstream means what properties you
need to calculate the Mach number, static pressure, static temperature, density,
stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature.
So, what the problem that is given to us is that we have constant area duct. So, you draw
these situations whatever the flow is entering from region 1 and here the conditions that
409
are given as M is equal to 3 or M1 is equal to 3, p1 is equal to 0.9 bar T1 is equal to 20°C
or 293 K.
What is required at the condition 2, we say that the condition 2 is achieved by choking.
So, choking the condition means here we say M2 is nothing but 1. So, for this condition
1, we have to find out to get this condition 2, how much q we are going to add? So, we
also have to require p2, T2, ρ2, and p02, T02. So, these are the important parameter which
needs to be found out.
But before we start this, we can recall that this q  c p T02  T01  . Now, since this is not
known, we have to find out, and T01 is known to us. So, how do you first find out T01?
  1 2 
So, T01   1  M 1  T1 . So, you know M1 as 3, then this will give you T and T1 as
 2 
293 K. So, this will tell you T01 would be 820.4 K; just put M1 is 3. So, I can write T01 as
820.4 K.

p    1 2   1
Similarly, we can write 01   1  M 1  . So, this will say p01 would be 33 bar. So,
p1  2 
I say p01 is 33 bar.
So, what I am now going to see that if for a upstream Mach number of 3 by adding heat
if I want to choke the flow, then I should refer the Mach number M as 3 in this particular
column of Mach number. So, here we can see the3 at this last row, we can get at this
number as Mach number of 3.
p1 T
So, for that I can say 
as 0.1765. I can note down all the values in this row 1 because
p T
I have put for this condition 1. So, p is replaced as p1, T is replaced as T1. This is 0.2803
1 p T

is 0.6296, o1 3.424, o1 as 0.654.
 p0 T0
So, I can find out T0 as To1 /0.654. To1 is known. So, we can find out this value as 1254K.
So, we can say q is equal to cp that is 1.005(1254-820.4). So, this number will be about
436 kJ/kg, because cp is 1.005 kJ/kg. So, thus we are able to find out how much heat is
required.
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The next one, we know all property parameters – p1, T1, P01 and T01. So, from these
ratios I can say we can say p* as 5.1 bar, T* can be calculated from this expression that is
1045.3 K, then ρ*is equal to 1.72 kg/m3.
We also can know that as 9.63 bar. So, these numbers are very simple because we know
this ratio, we know all the upstream parameters. So, the star conditions can be found out.
But the most important segment is the value of q. And here the important information
that is required is T0 to calculate q.
In the second problem, what has been given with the same upstream data if heat added is
0.3 MJ/kg. We have shown that in this case your heat added to choke the flow is required
is 436. Now, the question says here now we do not want to add 436 kJ/kg, we are going
to add only 300 kJ/kg or 0.3 MJ/kg.
So, in that case what is going to happen in the flow properties? So, here the condition 2
is not a star condition, the conditions 2 is any real situation. So, we define this as p2, T2,
ρ2, M2, p02, T02; condition 1 as p1, T1, ρ1, M1 that is 3, p01 and T01. So, heat is added q is
equal to 300 kJ/kg. From the last question data, we can gather the information for M1 is
equal to 3.
411
For M1 is equal to 3, we say the data which are known to us p1 – 0.9 bar, p01 – 33 bar, T1
is 293 K, T01 happens to be 820.4 K, and ρ1 1.084 kg/m3, ρ01 would be 14.22 kg /m3. So,
these information are with respect to Mach number 3 from isentropic relation.
Now, referring to this table for this Mach number 3, when heat is added to choke the
p1 T 
flow we can say from this row we can say 
as 0.1765. 1 is 0.2803, 1 is 0.6296,
p T 
po1 T
then 
3.424, o1 as 0.654. So, this is the data which we get.
p0 T0
But what is actually added is 300 kJ/kg. So, now, I can write q  c p T02  T01  . So, this
q
will give you T02  T01  , and that number I can find out 1118.9 K. Then I can find out
cp
To 2
what is .
T0
 T  T 
So, this is nothing but  o 2  o1  . So, I can write this is 1118.9, T01 is 820.4. This ratio
 To1  T0 
To1
is 0.654. So, this will give you a value 0.892.
T0
Now, I am in a position to refer this table for this ratio. If you look at this number, then
we will find that there are two numbers which is close to it; one is 0.8935, other is 0.899.
So, this will give you your M2 can be 0.68, or M2 can be 1.54. So, there are two values;
one is subsonic, other is supersonic.
So, what has been seen here that the subsonic solution will not be possible. Whereas,
supersonic solution will be possible, why I will come to this in the next class because the
supersonic flow without coming back to Mach sonic flow, it cannot again go back to
subsonic flow, that means, it is not possible to bring a supersonic flow to subsonic flow
without reaching a sonic state, so that is not possible.
So, in this case, we cannot reach the sub sonic state directly. So, one solution that
possible is your M2 should be 1.54. Now, when I say M2 is 1.54, then I can compute p2.
412
p2
So, I have to take all the data as this. So, I can say for M2 is equal to 1.54, we can say
p
T2  p T
is 0.5555, 
0.7319, 2 0.759, o2 as 1.142, and o2 as 0.8992. So, once we know this,
T  p0 T0
 p   p 
we can find p2   2    p1 . So, this number would be 2.83 bar.
 p   p1 

 T  T 
Similarly, we can say T2   2    T1 . So, we all know the property values here, here,
 T   T1 
and here. So, we can say T2 is 765 K. Likewise, I can compute p02 as 11 bar, ρ2 as 1.306
kg/m3, and ρ02 as 3.47 kg/m3. So, as we see that how this table makes the calculation
simple. So, you do not have to explicitly use these equations.
So, this is all about for this today’s lecture. I hope I have made you understand for the
content of this lecture.
413
Module – 07
Lecture - 20
Welcome to this course, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in module 7 that is

Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer. Till this point of time we have
analyzed the compressible flow in one dimensional medium and also two dimensional
medium and we discussed about isentropic flow, normal shock, oblique shocks,
expansion waves.
Now, after having done all these things, we are now going to study what will happen to a
moving flow when we add or extract heat from the flow, this is one aspect. Second
aspect is; if you increase the friction what is going to happen to this compressible flow.
There are some significant inferences that will get out of this analysis and in fact, in our
earlier analysis we discussed about this compressible flow with heat transfer.
414
Now, here we will discuss about the compressible flow with friction. So, in the previous
lecture we have analyzed the one dimensional flow with heat addition in a compressible
flow. We found out its fundamental equations, then we evaluate the flow properties like
pressure, temperature, density, etc at the inlet and the exit and based on these flow
property evaluations we framed certain relations which are prevalent for one dimensional
flow with heat addition process, but later on it was found that the equations are
cumbersome to analyze.
So, based those equations we developed a table, what do you called as gas table for heat
addition process. And while in the process of this discussions, we also introduced the
concept of thermal choking; that means when the speed of the flow becomes sonic and
this sonic condition is achieved through heat addition, then we call this flow to be
choked thermally.
So, with same logic we are now going to analyze what is the effect of frictions. Now,
when I say increase or decrease the friction I mean that we are adding some extra length
to the flow so that friction becomes more. If I want to reduce friction, then you have to
reduce the length of the duct. So, this is the concept of increasing and decreasing the
friction. Until this process of time we are only talking about the one dimensional duct,
but here we are going to be very specific that duct is a circular in nature; that means, it is
a circular pipe flow.
415
So, in this pipe flow analysis we will frame these equations. There are specific reasons
for this, because the flow in a circular pipe, most of the fundamental relations are known
and that makes the basics for our analysis to deal with friction in the compressible flow.
Then based on these fundamental equations in a similar philosophy, we will discuss

about the flow property evaluation. Then we will introduce another term which is known
as frictional choking; that means, flow is choked or flow is brought to sonic conditions
through friction.
And with this choking conditions and the fundamental equations, we will define a
property table for the frictions, then based on our understanding we will solve some
numerical problems. So, this is the summary of this lecture which we are going to
analyze today.
Now, just to give some brief introduction to the concept of friction in a circular pipe; we
all know that the classical fluid mechanics problems involves a fully developed flow in a
circular pipe. As shown in the figure, what do we have? We have inclined pipe. So, that
there is a elevation difference between inlet and exit and this elevation difference is
defined by z . So, if we say this is inlet and this is the exit.
416
So, this elevation is given by z and of course, since a flow has to occur, there is a
pressure difference p . This the dimension of the pipe, it has a length L and radius R or
maybe we can say diameter D. So, we can say it has a diameter D.
Now, for a fully developed flow in a pipe, we can say that the velocity profile which is u
which is a function of r is shown in this figure and this velocity is maximum at the
central line and it is 0 on the wall or inner wall and based on this things the velocity is
maximum means; at that point of time at the centre line, the shear stress is 0.
Now, basically when you deal with the friction, the friction is caused due to the shear
stress in the wall. So, as you can see that for the flow, the opposing force is the shear
stress on the wall as shown in this figure that is  w and in fact, it acts at the entire inner
surface of this pipe and this shear stress is minimum or 0 at the central line and it is
maximum at wall.
So, we call this as a wall shear stress and this distribution of shear stress with respect to
radial direction is linear. So, with this philosophy when you deal with the head loss
calculations h f that is nothing but the total head loss in a circular pipe. We can represent
as z that is the due to elevation and mostly another term that is due to pressure
p
difference and in fact, we have in our earlier classical fluid mechanics problem UG
g
2 w  L 
level, we correlated this head loss as h f  where is the L is the length of the
 g  R 
pipe, R is the radius. So, this is how the head loss is correlated to wall shear stress. In
fact, the main intention is that how to find out the wall shear stress?
417
To find out the wall shear stress now, we have many models. So, the typical approach is
normally we have to say whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. So, depending on this
the wall shear stress can be functionally related to the geometrical parameters of the pipe,
flow properties and flow velocity.
As you see in this equation, the  w is written as a function of  that is density,  fluid
viscosity, u fluid velocity, d diameter of the pipe, and  which is the surface roughness.
So, here as I said that geometrical parameters involve diameter and surface roughness.
So, this is what the geometrical parameter. Fluid properties are  and  and flow
velocity is u.
Geometrical parameters are d and  . So,  is nothing but the surface roughness. So, this
is how it is functionally related. Now, through a dimensional analysis, one can find out a
non dimensional factor. Non dimensional factor, which is known as friction coefficient f
1
and this friction coefficient is related to shear stress of the wall divided by  u2 .
2
w
f 
1 2
 u 
2 
418
So, these this is a general expression to find out the friction coefficient factor. Now, later
on based on many theories it was found that the friction factor is dependent on whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Now, when the flow is laminar, let us say the laminar value of friction factor is a fixed
64
number which which is a function of Reynolds number and it is related as f lam  ,
Re d
Reynolds number based on the diameter. So, that means once you know the flow
64
Reynold number, this laminar value of friction factor is a fixed number which is .
Re d
But what happens when the flow is turbulent? So, that case we refer this functionally
with respect to Reynolds number and another factor which is known as surface

roughness factor, which is , where  is the magnitude of the surface roughness and
d
divided by diameter. So, it is a non dimensional number and typically this is obtained
through a moody chart, when the flow is in turbulent nature.
So, this is how we deal with the friction factor and wall shear stress. In fact, for our
compressible flow analysis these two are most important factor that is f and  w and we
are going to see what is its effect when there is a compressible flow in a circular pipe.
419
So, if you recall our previous analysis we developed some correlations for normal shock
heat addition process and in fact, these two are the possible method to the change the
flow characteristics in a one dimensional flow in a constant area duct.
So, these two facts we have already discussed that how a normal shock or heat addition
process can alter a compressible flow in nature, but here we will discuss about the role of
friction. Role of friction I mean; whether I should increase the friction or decrease the
friction, that is add or subtraction of length and in fact, when we are dealing with friction
it is a non isentropic process.
So, what you see here is that; we allow a compressible flow which is entering in a pipe of
diameter D and length L and we say that inlet condition is 1, exit condition is 2. Now,
when the flow is entering into this pipe; obviously, the wall shear stress that opposes, this
magnitude of this wall shear stress is  w .
What you are looking at a differential length dx in which we are going to analyze our
fundamental equations. So, in a differential length dx we are going to revisit the
fundamental equations.
So, before you do with these fundamental equations, we try to say that there are certain
assumption involved that is the flow is one dimensional in nature, but fluid is inviscid,
but flow is compressible in a constant area pipe.
420
The flow is steady, adiabatic, and shock free. The friction between the moving fluid and
the stationary wall of the duct causes the flow property to change along the length of the
duct. So, the driving factor here is the friction, but here when you deal with this friction,
it is modelled as a shear stress which is acting on the wall and the fluid is having uniform
properties over any cross sections.
So, what I mean say; if you look at the fluid properties at any cross section, across this
cross section the properties are uniform. So, that is the assumptions involved in our study
and the complete flow is described with mean properties of the frictional flow in a
constant area duct.
So, here we are going to revisit three fundamental equations; first is continuity. So, as
you see that if you have 1u1 and  2u2 , the continuity equation holds good
1u1   2u2 and since we are analysing in a differential section dx, so, I can express this
term  u  constant ; from this expression you can evaluate a term what will happen
to d   u 2    u du . So, these things we are going to use in this subsequent analysis.
So, next equation that we are going to study is energy. So, energy equation is not altered,
because there is no heat added or there is no work is done on the fluid. So, we say
u12 u2
h1   h2  2 . So, this says that c pT   u 2 2   constant . So, our total temperature
2 2
421
does not change that remains constant, but the most fundamental equation that we are
going to use for friction is the momentum equations.
So, if you look at the momentum equations of 1 D flow, what extra term that is going to
come from the surface force is the force due to this shear stress on the wall. So, it is this
shear stress acts on the circumference. So, its corresponding force term would be
 D  wdx . So, we have to integrate the shear stress over the entire length. So, that is what
the integral term is there.
So, apart from this there are pressure terms that is p1, pressure is p2 and area is a constant
area duct. So, A is known. So, then we can use this momentum equations and try to
simplify. So, when you simplify we have to use this concept that since it is a circular

pipe, we have to write as A  D2 .
4

When I use this A  D 2 , then these momentum equations gets simplified in this
4
L
4
formula that is  p2  p1     2u22  1u12     w dx .
D 0
So, here instead of writing in finite numbers, we are expressing this in a differential
4
form. So, we say dp  d   u 2     w dx .
D
1 2
Then, d   u 2  becomes  udu , then we are going to use this  w as  u f . So, since this
2
 w is difficult to obtain, so we have to relate this  w in terms of friction factor f. So, this
is classical relations what you get from the pipe flow.
Now, when you put these expressions we are now in a position to obtain an momentum
1  4 f dx 
expression, in this one that is dp   udu    u 2  .
2  D 
So, here the most important factor that we are going to say is that we are now get rid of
this  w . So, these equations needs to be integrated and simplified. So, for that
p
simplifications we are going to use the speed of sound expression a 2  . So, we can

422
divide this particular expression by ρ. So, that we get dp/ ρ here then we also have to
u2
use M 2  , then we have this energy equation c pT   u 2 2   constant and of course,
a2
equation of state p   RT .
So, these equations after simplification, we are going to get a term in the form of Mach
number. So, that means, in that previous equation the factor of interest is the term
4 f dx 4 f dx
. This is now related to Mach number that is given by this expressions.
D D
1
4 f dx 2  1  dM
2 
 1  M 2  1     1 M 2 
D M  2  M
So, if you look at this flow in this compressible flow in the pipe, we are looking at two
sections 1 and 2, if you have a Mach number M1 and Mach number M2 at the exit. So,
Mach number M1 is at the inlet and M2 at the exit. The driving force is the friction; this
4 f dx
friction is correlated to a parameter which is and this factor needs to be found out
D
as a function of Mach number.
423
So, here this particular expression tells us about relation between Mach numbers at two
different sections of pipe and it will give you the integrated effect of friction over the
entire length.
dM
So, what we see here, this particular equation has a term . So, we can integrate this
M
x2
4 fdx
entire friction term that is integrated over  .
x1
D
Now, when you integrate the expression from right hand side, the Mach number has to
be integrated from M1 to M2. And here you may say that x1 is 0 and x2 is equal to L. So,
4 f dx
over the entire length L one is able to find the term .
D
Now, once you do this, then we are in a position that we know all the parameters. So,
based on these things since we know this friction, then you know the indent Mach
number M1, we can find M2.
Now, once you find M2, then static pressure and stagnation flow property parameters can
be related. So, those parameters of interest in this figure we have one and two region. So,
424
we already know M1. We know M1 is a known conditions, M2 is already found out, how?
l
4 fdx
From M1 and the term  . So, this particular term is known.
0
D
So, from these two we know M2. So, once we know M1 and once we know M2, then one
can able to find out the properties ratio. So, the first property ratio we can say p1 , p2 ,
T1 , T2 , 1 ,  2 also p01 , T01 and p02 , T02 . They are now given here.
What we say is that to calculate

T2 T T 
we can write them as 0 1 . So, here we can say
T1 T0 T2 
except the flow inside the duct, all other parameters they are the static and stagnation
properties are related to Mach number.
  1  2
So, we recall the expression T0 T  1    M . So, when we use these expressions,
 2 
we are able to get the temperature ratio.
Similarly, one can find out the pressure ratio from the equation of state that is p   RT ;
this equation of state we are going to use, another expression we are going to use that

    1  2   1
p0 p  1   M  .
  2  
So, likewise in other situation the way we derived this pressure temperature ratio similar
philosophy needs to be followed. So, we can find out total temperature ratio, total
pressure ratio, total density ratio and one important thing is that the stagnation
temperature remains constant, that we know from the energy equations, but we are able
p02
to find out the stagnation pressure ratio from already known conditions that is can be
p01
 p  p  p 
expressed as  02   1   2  . All these things are known, because this is a function of
 p2   p01   p1 
M2, this term is function of M1 and this is already known.
Now, once you know all these things we can also find out the entropy change s2  s1 . So,
with this way we are able to find out all flow properties.
425
But the very basic point is that for a known conditions 1 and for a unknown condition 2;
so, typically 1 is known condition, 2 is unknown condition means all flow parameters are
known and all flow parameters of condition 2 are unknown.
So, our main job is to find out at least one parameter from the unknown region that
parameter is to be evaluated through the expression of friction or shear stress. So, from
that we are going to evaluate all other parameters, because all the property relations says
that the equations can be useful only when the Mach numbers at 1 and 2 conditions are
known, but which is not possible unless and until we find some other alternatives.
The other alternative is to define a reference conditions and in our all our study for
convenience of calculations, we say that the sonic flow is treated as a reference.
Now, question remains that can I get a sonic flow by using the concept of friction? The
answer is yes, which means that it is possible to choke the flow by hypothetical manner
in which the length is added or subtracted to the pipe and such a concept is known as
frictional choking.
So, in other words it is analogous to the fact that the similar way when you deal with heat
addition process; the friction can cause the flow to reach the sonic state. So, for that
things the reference conditions we define as star in which we say you have Mach number
426
is supposed to 1 and all other conditions are defined as p*,T*, ρ*, then we can say also
p0*, we also say T0*.
So, if you say this is a reference condition, it means that any arbitrary flow parameters
whether it is a condition 1 or condition 2, they can be brought to sonic state through
friction. Now, when we bring them to sonic conditions irrespective of their own arbitrary
conditions, the choking conditions value remains same.
So, this gives a trick to us that instead of going from region 1 to 2 directly through this
pipe, our approach should be from known condition we should go to the choking
conditions and again from the choking condition you get back your unknown parameters.
So, this is the approach we are going to follow.
So, for that we can conceptually explain this particular fact in this manner that if we have
a real situations 1 and 2 where the flow is entering in a duct or pipe of length L which is
the actual length of the pipe and the condition 1 is known, the condition 2 is unknown.
Now, what you do is that from this known condition, you hypothetically add certain
length to this pipe which is L1* so that the flow Mach number becomes sonic. So, this is
a hypothetical situation. This we can do it for the condition 1 and similarly for condition
2, one can find out another term L2* so that flow becomes sonic.
427
So, in all these things, by doing so we arrive at the flow properties value represented by
star conditions and both are same; that means, both these hypothetical conditions are
same. Now, when I say both hypothetical conditions are same then from this geometry of
the figure one can find out the length L is related to L1* and L2* that is L= L1* - L2*.
Now, we are going to use this length in terms of friction. So, how you are going to do?
4f L
In that case in the both sides we can just add one parameter . We also can find out
D
4 f L1 4 f L2
 .
D D
Interestingly, these two terms are known to us; that means, from these particular
conditions when the flow becomes choke, we can get this value the first term that is
4 f L1
and the second term can be found out from these second situations that is from
D
condition 2, when it is brought to sonic state.
So, we get these particular equations. So, this relation will help us to evaluate, how we
can get all other parameters of unknown conditions.
So, this is how we call this as a concept of frictional choking. Now, just to give some
brief introduction about this frictional choking that the frictional choking is meant for the
fact that flow needs to be sonic through addition or subtraction of length.
428
Now, when you add or subtract length, since the flow involves certain velocity, certain
geometrical parameters, certain roughness parameters, flow Mach number. So, in all
these, the flow can also be laminar or turbulent.
So, all these factor brings boils down to the fact that the local friction factor depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent and it is a function of Mach number, Reynolds
number and surface roughness and in our most practical situations the flow is mostly
turbulent. So, the friction factor coefficient is obtained empirically.
So, in this case an approximate constant value of friction factor f = 0.005 is considered
4f L
for our analysis. So, as I mentioned in this expression that ; so, in this particular
D
term f refers to the friction factor and that is 0.005 and since all the flow is turbulent so
we say Reynolds number is based on length is 105 and the surface roughness parameter
that is  is 0.001.
d
So, based on that we say that instead of writing this particular term, this integrated effect
4 f L
we do it from 0 to L*. So, the integrated number becomes . So, this factor happens
D
to be uniform across a given cross section.
So, once you do that integration of the right hand side of the equation is now a function
of Mach number. So, here we represent this f as average friction coefficient. So,
4 f L
likewise in this manner we are able to find out the term . So, that is how the
D
concept of frictional choking was introduced. How L1* and L2* are determined?
2
4 f L  1  M 2     1      1 M 
 
2  
ln
  2 
D   M   2   2     1 M 
So, in this equation if I put L1*, I write here the right hand side as M1, when I put L2*, on
the right hand side I can represent this equation with M2. So, in this manner one can find
out.
429
So, with this concept, the all other property relations can now be function of Mach
number only. So, here the the superscript star represents the choke conditions and all
other terms like pressure, temperature, density, they are any arbitrary flow conditions.
But, what you see is that these equations needs elaborate calculations and although it is a
direct relation on the function of Mach number; it needs elaborate calculations.
So, to simplify the analysis, what has been done; this equations are represented in a
tabular form and that we call as one dimensional table with friction and this is used for
compressible flow and all the parameters are now expressed as a function of Mach
number.
430
So, in this way the table is introduced. When we introduce the table here what it says is
that in first column Mach number is written. So, here I have just defined in two regions;
one is subsonic region, other is supersonic. So, this entire column is about Mach number.
So, if I say any 1 or 2 conditions are there, so based on the Mach number, one can go in
T
the vertical column and for a given Mach number one can find out all the values
T
p  p0
, , , .
p    p0
So, here you say p, T, ρ, p0, T0 and here we say p*, T*, ρ*, p0*, T0*. Here your Mach
number is M; your M is equal to 1. How this flow becomes 1? This is governed by the
4 f L
parameter . So, with this friction term, the flow becomes sonic. So, all the relations
D
now are in a tabular form.
In fact, this table is derived from this book John D Anderson, modern compressible flow
in historical prospective. So, it is the McGraw Hill Publications. So, I hope one can
utilise this table to solve any numerical problems.
431
So, let us see that how this particular table can be used to solve some problems. So, a
similar problem we have solved in a heat addition systems. We are now trying to solve
the similar problem with respect to friction. So, there the parameter that was given is heat
added to the flow. Here, the parameter that is given to us that addition of length.
So, the problem governs like this that a supersonic stream enters a constant area duct and
in this case we will say this duct is a pipe, having inside diameter of 120 mm. So, the
inlet conditions are known at Mach number 3 pressure 1 bar temperature 27°C.
So, you can start the solution. To start the solutions one need to schematically represent
the problem. So, we have a circular pipe. Now, in this circular pipe what is required is
condition 1. We say that the flow is the downstream side is the choke. So, the length has
to be L*, other parameter of that is given diameter 120 mm.
Now, the inlet conditions we say M1 is equal to 3, p1 is 1 bar, T1 is 27°C. So, when you
p1
know pressure, temperature, we can find density, that is 1  ; that number we can
RT1
find out as 1.18 kg/m3.
So, once you know p1, T1, and ρ1 and Mach number, then we can evaluate p01 from
isentropic relations as 36.73 bar and we can also get T01 as 840 K and ρ01would be 15.44
kg/m3.
432
So, basically we know all the inlet conditions and we say they are known conditions.
What is unknown? We want to find out what is M2. So, M2 is nothing but M*, because
we say the flow is choked. So, we require p*, T*, ρ*, p0 , T0 , to do that what you have to
see that for a flow which is supersonic in nature, if this flow needs to be choked.
So, for that Mach number when I refer this table, extract of the table one can find out that
this last line corresponds to Mach 3. So, I can take the extract of this ratio for M is equal
4 f L
to 3, I can write this particular terms. We say first thing we require is 0.5222. So,
D
this is of importance and in our case you have D is equal to 120 mm that is 0.12 m and
f we can say it is 0.005. So, an average value of this.
So, this will tell you that what is the value of L*, that would be 3.13m. So, we require
about 3.13m to choke this supersonic flow. So, you have to also find Mach number and
T p 
static pressure. So, you have to take all these ratio, 
as 0.4286,  as 0.2182,  as
T p 
0.5092.
So, this will give me T* about 700 K. Because we know p1, T1, and ρ1, so, we can say p*
4.58 bar, ρ* would be 2.32 kg/m3.
p0
So, similarly we also can find out 
that is 4.235. So, this will give you p0 8.67 bar,
p0
because p01 is 37.63 bar. So, we know that T01  T02  T0 as total temperature does not
change 840K.
p0
So, we know p0 , T0 , then you can find out  0 is equal to . So, this is about 3.64
RT0
kg/m3. So, likewise we are now able to find out what is the value of the choking
parameters in the downstream situations.
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Now, moving further we are now in the next problem that for the same data, for the
question 1; if the length of the duct is 1.5 metre, we have to calculate the flow properties.
So, what is it says is that, in the last problem, we found that to choke this flow of
supersonic inlet conditions M1 is equal to 3 we require L* as 3.13 metre, but here our
second question does not say that it is 3.13 metre, but it is actual length is 1.5 m; that
means, L is 1.5 m. Diameter remains same 0.12 m and; obviously, the flow will not be
Mach number 1 at 2.
So, you have to calculate M2, p2, T2, ρ2, p02, and T02, but the known conditions which are
us is p1 as 1 bar, T1 as 300 K, then T01 is 840 K, p01 is 36.73 bar; so, I am just extracting
those numbers which we found from the last problem.
So, ρ01 is 15.44 kg/m3. Now, for this Mach number, we also know p 1 by p star that is
T1 p 
0.2182; that means, from this last column we say 
as 0.4286, 1 as 0.2182, 1 as
T0 p0 0
p01
0.5092 is 4.235. So, this is known condition that we get from this friction table for
p0
Mach 3.
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4 f L1 4 f L2 4 f L
So, now let us see that we know that   . So, this we
D D D
get L1  L2  L . So, from this equation we can rewrite this. So, we know f 0.005 D is
4 f L1
equal to 0.12m and first term that is with M 1 is equal to 3 happens to be 0.5222
D
and here you know L is equal to 1.5m.
4 f L2
So, from these equations we can evaluate what is the value of . So, this number
D
happens to be 0.2722.
4 f L2
Now, for this particular friction term as 0.2722; so, closely this number comes to
D
this, where M2 becomes 1.9. So, we can use this particular row. So, this will imply M2 is
equal to 1.9.
p2 T
Now, when I say M2 is 1.9, I can say 
all the number I can note down 0.4394, 2
p T
2 p
0.6969, then 
0.6305, 02 is 1.555.
 p0
So, likewise once you get this, then now you are an able to find out what is p2 that is
 p   p*  *
 T  T 
nothing but  2*    p1 . So, this will give you 2.014 bar. Similarly, T2   2*    T1 .
 p   p1   T   T1 
   * 
So, we get 487.8 K,  2   2*    1 . So, one can calculate this number. So, you get
    1 
 p   p* 
this, then we can say p02   02*   0  p01 .
 p0   p01 
So, in this way I can evaluate this number is 13.5 bar. T02= T01, which is remain same
p02
840 K and  02  that number is 5.67 kg/m3.
RT02
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So, we are now in a position to calculate all this number. So, likewise this particular
problem tells the fact that when a length is given how you are able to achieve these
downstream conditions.
Now, to achieve this downstream conditions; we have to bring this in flow, fast to this
choking conditions. From this choking condition, we have to come back to the
downstream conditions. This is how you are going to solve for the problems that
involving friction. So, with this I will conclude this talk for today.
Thank you.
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Module – 07
Lecture – 21
Welcome to this course Fundamental of Compressible Flow. We are in module 7 that is

Compressible Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer. In the last two lectures of this
module, we discussed about a one dimensional flow in a compressible medium with heat
addition process.
Subsequently, we derived the fundamental equations, then we made this equations to be

available for flow property evaluations; based on those equations a table is formed which
is called as one dimensional table for heat addition process and while dealing with all
these heat transfer process, we introduce a concept of thermal choking that is bringing a
compressible flow to a sonic state at Mach number of 1 through heat addition or heat
rejection.
Then in a similar aspects, we dealt with the one dimensional flow with friction. So, with
friction it means that to increase this friction we have to increase the length also. Now, in
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a compressible medium when it flows in a duct if I add length to this duct then I can
increase the friction and vice versa.
So, in those cases we also found out that what are the fundamental equations that
governs that flow path. Based on this equations, we also evaluated the flow property and
thereby, we introduce the gas table for friction. Having said this friction, there is another
concept which is called as frictional choking. In this process also the compressible flow
is made to a sonic state by adding length to the duct or subtracting length from the duct.
So, in all this process we derived all the fundamental equations and in this particular
lecture we will talk about some of the important interferences in terms of thermodynamic
aspects. In fact, this is one of the important area where in which the gas dynamics course
is different from a conventional fluid mechanics course.
So, while dealing with the compressible flow, although it is a fluid related topic; but the
thermodynamic approach is also vital to equally understand the flow phenomena. Now,
for this heat addition and friction process which is the main focus of this lecture and we
will try to give the thermodynamic definitions for this process and those are known as
Rayleigh curve and Fanno curve. This Rayleigh curve is for heat addition process and
this Fanno curve is for friction process.
438
So, in the beginning of this one dimensional flow analysis, we introduced a constant area
duct and we said there are three possible ways in which the flow properties from
upstream and downstream conditions can be altered.
So, in this first approach it is a normal shock and in fact, it is a adiabatic duct. So, when
you say normal shock, in this constant area duct, we simply say that you make the flow
conditions in such a way that one normal shock will form and across which these
properties going to change.
So, these particular thin region in which your attention is focused; in this first case it is a
normal shock and in the second case in this control volume we say that we are going to
add heat. So, thereby the conditions upstream and downstream conditions can be altered.
So, in the third case same one dimensional duct region 1 and 2; so, we say that length of
the duct can also change the flow phenomena. So, here the driving factor by this length
means it is the friction. So, these are the three broad areas in which we talked about
compressible flow property change through a normal shock, heat addition, and friction
and the very basic fundamental figure is shown here, it is a constant area duct.
Now, let us talk about something more detail on what happens in a normal shock, as I
mentioned and in fact, we have derived this normal shock relations much earlier. So, the
very basic summary that we get out of this normal shock relation is that for given
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conditions or known conditions if you want to correlate the information between
unknown condition and known condition then one can frame the fundamental equations
as given in the slides.
So, through this equations one can say that the across a normal shock the flow becomes
subsonic, static pressure and temperature density, all these numbers will rise.
The total temperature does not change, but the total pressure decreases and entropy
increases. So, here the entropy is increased mainly due to the drop in the total pressure.
So, all these summary references are shown here and of course, this is also an non
isentropic process and this drop in total pressure causes this entropy to increase.
And based on this particular fact, we tried to map the difference between a isentropic
curve and shock based compressions. As I mentioned the shock based compression is a
known non isentropic phenomena and it is governed by a curve, which is known as
Hugoniot curve and this Hugoniot curve gives an indication that it is more efficient than
isentropic curve.
So, that tells the information that the shock based compressions is more efficient than
isentropic curve. As you see that when you are moving from a point 1 to 2, as and when
the volume specific volume decreases, the Hugoniot curve climbs above the isentropic
curve.
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So, as and when we increase further, the difference becomes higher. So, in other words
for given a specific volume if I take two points 2` and 2 then that means, if I come from
isentropic curve, then I should have got the pressure difference as p2  p2 . So, this much
compression would have been achieved.
If, I have to come through a shock based compression, then I would have got p2  p1 ;
obviously, this number is higher than that of isentropic curve. So, this makes a
conclusion that a shock based compression is more efficient than Hugoniot curve; of
course, it drops the total pressure.
So, in the similar logic when you dealt with one dimensional flow with heat additions;
that means, in a one dimensional duct when certain amount of heat is added, it changes
the flow properties. So, this heat addition what it does in this case is; increases the total
temperatures.
So, this is the driving factor to change the flow properties. So in fact, we earlier we
derived the property relations between region 2 and region 1 through these equations and
in fact, we have derived them earlier. There is no point to discuss it again and what we
were trying to say here what are its consequence.
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So, from this equations one can talk about two important informations; one is what
happens if your upstream condition is a supersonic flow, when heat is added. In fact,
there are four possibilities; the first two possibilities could be inflow can be supersonic or
subsonic and for a supersonic flow heat can be added or heat can be taken out; so, that
means, heating the flow or cooling the flow and in fact, same thing for subsonic flow,
one can heat the flow as well as cool the flow.
So, now in the first case we are going to analyze when the inlet condition is supersonic
that is M1 is greater than 1. So, the physical trend for a supersonic flow when heat is
added; so, heat is added into a supersonic flow. So, what does this mean for us? As you
see in the downstream case, when heat is added in a constant area duct the changes that
occurs in the flow properties are as follows.x
So, what we see here from the equation that your Mach number decreases, of course
since Mach number decreases velocity also decreases, the static pressure and static
temperature increases. The total pressure that drops and total temperature increases,
because since heat is being added.
Now in the same supersonic flow if you take a reverse situations like instead of adding
the heat, if I take out heat, then these conditions will be exactly opposite that is what it is
written here that all the above trends will be exactly opposite for the cooling flow or in
heat extraction process.
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Now, something we talk about the subsonic flow. So, in the same logic when a subsonic
flow which is at the inlet condition 1, condition 2 is mentioned here. So, for an inlet
condition 1 when the flow is subsonic and it is entering to a constant area duct in which
heat is added; so what will it make? In the downstream conditions, it would be such that
the Mach number will increase, static pressure will decrease and this is most significant
part for this subsonic flow about the temperature.
So, what it has been seen that static pressure can increase or decrease. So, we will try to
explain why it is so. So, this is most important inferences that we are going to discuss in
this lecture that why it is happening, because it is not following the exactly the opposite
trend as it was for a supersonic flow.
So, for certain situations the static temperature increases and for other situations static
temperature drops and mathematically, it can be shown that these are the limits in which
the static temperature can increase or static temperature can decrease, but what happens
to total temperature? Total temperature should always increase, because heat is added,
but the total pressure drops. This is what the conclusion that we get when in a subsonic
flow, when heat is added.
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Now, here the most important topic that we are going to cover is the Rayleigh curve and
this gives the thermodynamic definitions for a heating and cooling process in a
compressible flow through a constant area duct.
So, what it says is that from this mathematical interpretations described in the last two
slides, what we found out that heat addition process that means when a heat is added
either to a supersonic flow or subsonic flow, it drives the Mach number towards a sonic
state.
That means, in a supersonic flow when heat is added the Mach number decreases, but in
a subsonic flow when heat is added Mach number increases. So, at some point of time
they will reach at a sonic state and such a process thermodynamically we are trying to
interpret in a diagram which is called as Mollier diagram enthalpy-entropy diagram.
In fact, this is a very basics basic diagram in the thermodynamics and one can draw these
diagrams for different mass flow rates. So, that means for different mass flow rates one
can draw this h-s diagram and if you increase the mass flow rate then each of the curve
can be traced or plotted.
So, as you can see here in the right hand side of the figure with increase in the mass flow
rate, the curve traverse towards the left in the enthalpy entropy plot. Now, let us take one
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particular curve from this series, because there may be infinite number of such plots and
let us take one particular curve.
In fact, to give the name of the curve it is known as Rayleigh curve; so, that means, for
different mass flow rate there may be infinite number of Rayleigh curves. We are going
to take one particular Rayleigh curve and which is plotted in the left hand side of the
figure. When I say it is one particular Rayleigh curve so I mean that this curve is drawn
for one particular mass flow rate.
So, as you see here that this is the curve which talks about for a given mass flow rate. So,
here I will explain about some of the important points is that the arrow indicates that we
are moving in a direction either heating or cooling, similarly in this case also.
As I mentioned that there is a point ‘a’ which is known as sonic point that is point of
maximum entropy. So, point of maximum entropy divides this curve as two halves; one
is the subsonic flow, other is the supersonic flow.
Now, moving further, here we are now going to talk about what are the different points
on this particular curve is meant for. So, this particular curve is meant for a given mass
flux.
So, first thing is that this curve Rayleigh curve is drawn for a given mass flux. So, in this
curve I can choose any points and all these points denote thermodynamic states. All the
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points implies some thermodynamic states, which means let us we have 1`, if I add heat
then I can move to 2` or 2`` or 2```. So, this heat addition process will drive me towards
point a.
Now, in this region when I am in the lower half of the curve the heat addition will take
me to point a. Now, reverse is also true. Suppose, I am at point 2``, if I instead of adding
heat, if I cool the flow I can bring the state back to 1 also. Similarly, when we are in the
upper half of the curve that is when we are in subsonic region, when heat addition will
also drive the flow towards point ‘a’.
So, heat addition will drive the flow towards point ‘a’ and again if I take out heat or I
cool the flow, I can trace back the path in the exactly opposite manner. But, one
important point here is that there are two cardinal points of importance; one is point of
maximum entropy that is a and that is another point is point of maximum enthalpy that is
point b. So, this point refers to smax and point b refers to hmax.
So, this is a very important conclusion here, that when I am in the upper half of the curve
that means when I am in the subsonic region either heating or cooling, the heating will
drive me towards the point a; but before I reach the point a, I should pass through the
point b; this makes the critical point that why static temperature should increase and then
drop.
So, this is what we are going to explain. And similarly, but when we are in the lower half
of the curve the heating will take me directly into point a. So, the question of maximum
enthalpy does not arise when we are in the bottom part of this curve. So, these are the
some tricky points that needs to be analyzed carefully.
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Now, let us talk about one by one; that means, we are in the lower branch of the curve.
So, I am dividing this curve as two branch and I am in the lower branch of this curve. So,
when I am lower branch of the curve that means obviously, we are in the supersonic
region.
So, the initial points can be anything. So, let me start with the point 1. So, heating will
take me from point 1 to point a. So, through this process I can trace many points in this
line on a given Rayleigh curve. So, each point we will talk about amount of heat that gets
added, that increases. So, I can say q1, q2, q3.
So, likewise from point 1, for different value of heat addition I can move along this
curve. So, one particular time when I am at point a, that is the maximum possible of heat
addition that can be given to a supersonic flow. So, this is the maximum amount that can
be given to a supersonic flow so that it becomes sonic in the downstream.
So, that heat addition is nothing but qmax that is the maximum heat addition and this
maximum heat addition will the choke the flow and this choking will known as thermal
choking. By choking I mean heat addition; so, obviously when as you see in this figure
when I add heat to a supersonic flow, Mach number decreases, M2 is less than M1.
So, one particular instant, M2 will reach as 1 that is sonic. When this condition is reached
for a given qmax then the flow is called as thermally choked. Now, similarly I can also
447
reverse the situation that if I am at any intermediate point if I reject heat; that means, I
cool the flow I can trace back to that point 1. So, this Rayleigh curve is also reversible in
nature in which either heating or cooling can be plotted.
Now, what will happen? once we have reached point a; that means, in a duct with region
1 and region 2 when I am adding qmax heat, so this condition M2 becomes 1 for a
supersonic flow.
So, further if q heat addition is greater than qmax; that means, which is more than choking
the flow then what will happen that if you look at this particular curve, the beyond this
point; that means, we are already at point of maximum entropy, then entropy will try to
drop.
Since the flow is proceeding from 1 to 2 through this increasing order of the entropy, at
one particular instance when q greater than qmax when these flow is sonic then further
heat addition will not take it further increase in the Mach number or decrease in the
Mach number; that means, the flow for which the entropy and beyond this point a will
drop. So, this will violet the second law of thermodynamics.
So; that means, I cannot continuously add heat to a supersonic flow that will cross the
point a that point of maximum entropy. So, this will violate the second law of
thermodynamics, which means then what will happen to the flow; then a normal shock
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will be formed for the initial supersonic flow. So, in that case the flow will adjust itself in
such a way that a normal shock will be formed for which that will bring down the
supersonic flow to a subsonic Mach number.
So, this is a case when continuously adding heat to a supersonic flow is not possible,
however, from point a if I cool, I can trace back the path in a subsonic domain.
Now, let us see that what happens when heat addition process takes place for a subsonic
flow. So, that means, when we are talking about the subsonic flow, we are now in the
upper half of the curve. So, here we have subsonic. So, for an arbitrary states point 1 if I
locate a point 1 here; so, heat addition will drive me to go in this path and cooling this
flow will take me in the opposite path.
So, while going from 1 to any other points on this curve through heating then the flow
will be driven towards the sonic point, but interestingly when it goes to the sonic point it
has to cross the point b.
So, when it has to cross the point b; that means, we are denoting this point as maximum
enthalpy, hmax and point a is maximum entropy. So, obviously when you add heat, the
enthalpy will rise, because the static temperature will rise.
u2 u2
h0  h   T0  T 
2 2c p
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Now, if you look at this equation what you can see here the total enthalpy of the flow has
two components that is one is static part which is h and this is nothing, but cp times T,
other is the dynamic part.
So, what we see here is that the total enthalpy has two components static part and
dynamic part. So, heat addition will increase both temperature as well as velocity. So,
when we are at point 1 and we are moving towards point of maximum entropy a. Now,
between the point 1 and b, the static temperature increases as much faster rate.
So, heat addition will drive the static temperature to rise in the first part; so, mostly in the
first part, but what will happen at point b; that means, once it has reached to maximum
enthalpy; that means, flow has reached to its say maximum point; that means, you cannot
take out any heat energy further. So, since it cannot take any heat energy, the static
temperature is not going to rise.
So, but whatever amount that heat is given to this flow, it will increase its velocity. So,
when it increases the velocity. So, between the point b and a, the velocity which tends to
rise, but its static temperature will drop, because it has to maintain the total temperature
to remain constant.
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So, this is how the curve is drawn here. So, I can write from point 1 to b we can say that
both u and T increases. So, as you can see that temperature as well u increase; between b
and a, temperature cannot increase.
So, temperature will drop but velocity will increase, because h0 has to be constant. So, it
1

can be shown that from point 1 to b in this zone, your M1 will be less than  2
,
1

mathematically it can be shown and in this zone your M1 is greater than  2
.
1

So, under this condition when temperature increases your M 1 is less than  2
. So, these
two expressions holds good.
1

So, it can be shown that for this reason if your M1 greater than  2
the static temperature
will drop, velocity will increase so as to enthalpy remains constant, but between the
region 1 to b both static temperature and velocity is going to increase.
So, this is the philosophy that happens in the case of Rayleigh curve. So, another
inference that can be done irrespective, whether you are in the subsonic region that is in
the upper half curve or supersonic region that is lower half of the curve.
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So, when I move from the supersonic region that is when I am in the lower half of the
curve, the heat addition; that means, heating the flow will bring the point 1 towards point
a that is sonic point, but thereby further heat addition is not possible because it is already
choked. What I can do? By cooling the flow I can trace back the subsonic, I can go into
the subsonic domain.
Similarly, other cases also a subsonic flow by heating can be reached to a sonic state and
again by cooling it can be brought back to the supersonic state. These are the some
important inferences that the Rayleigh curve gives us that it is theoretically possible to
accelerate the initial subsonic flow to supersonic first by heating the flow till sonic point
and thereby cooling the flow.
So, this point also I am already mentioned. When you are initial flow is supersonic the
heat addition will drive the flow towards the sonic point and for this case there is no
question of maximum enthalpy on its path, but it is not true when it is the initial
condition is subsonic.
452
So, finally, we can summarize from Rayleigh curve that it is theoretically possible to
decelerate a initial supersonic flow to subsonic flow; first by heating the flow till sonic
point thereby, cooling the flow. In particular Rayleigh curve it is also theoretically
possible to accelerate an initial subsonic flow to a supersonic flow first by heating till
sonic point thereby, cooling the flow.
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This is what we get from the Rayleigh curve. Now, with respect to friction, the next
important topic is that other flow conditions can be altered through friction as well. So,
here we talked about a constant area circular pipe of certain length.
So, when we say it has certain length and the flow is entering into the pipe from region 1
and is leaving at region 2. Since, in such cases the friction that the flow is going to
encounter for this length is expressed in terms of  w that is wall shear stress.
L
4 fdx
Now, this wall shear stress can be mathematically related to a factor which is  .
0
D
So, quantification of shear stress is given by this integral term and that integral term is
nothing but it is a function of Mach number. So, we say that friction is the driving factor
for the condition to be altered upstream and downstream.
So, based on this fact we derived the fundamental equations for one dimensional
compressible flow with frictions in earlier slides. So, the summary for those fundamental
equations tells us here. So, the possibilities that one can have is that for a given length of
duct L, one can have a supersonic flow inlet or we can have subsonic inlet flow.
Now, let us take the case 1, if the upstream Mach number is supersonic the effect of
friction or the length L in the downstream that is for region 2 is such that the Mach
number and velocity decreases; the static pressure and temperature increases, the
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stagnation pressure drops and the total temperature remains same; these inferences we
can get from the fundamental equations of friction.
The other situation is that if the upstream Mach number is subsonic, the downstream
condition will have the effect of the friction such that the Mach number and velocity
increases, static pressure and temperature decreases, total pressure drops, stagnation
temperature does not change, because there is no heat added or taken out into the system.
So, these are the derivation or summary that we can get from the fundamental equations.
Let us see how we can give a thermodynamic definition to this. So, such definition is
possible through a curve which is known as Fanno curve. So, the Fanno curve is nothing
but Mollier diagram, which is drawn for a one dimensional flow with friction. And this
particular curve shows here that in the similar way it is plotted in enthalpy entropy plane
and for a given mass flux, there can be a Fanno curve. So, likewise different Fanno
curves can be drawn for different mass flux rate.
So, if you increase in this directions, then we can have infinite number of such Fanno
curves. Each Fanno curve will be for a particular mass flux. So, let us take one particular
Fanno curve for a given mass flow flux and it is shown here.
So, this Fanno curve has two sections; one is upper half and other is lower half. So,
upper half refers to subsonic region, lower half refers to supersonic region and both
455
upper half and lower half of the curve is differentiated by a point `a`, which is known as
sonic point. So, this sonic point splits the Fanno curve into two halves; upper one is
subsonic flow, lower one is supersonic flow.
Now, let us see that what we can get out the information from this Fanno curve. Now, let
us say that we are in the lower half of the curve. So, each point in this lower half of the
curve denotes different thermodynamic states.
So, when I am start with point 1`, I can move towards the sonic point through on this
particular curve and each point on the curve means different values of L; L1, L2, L3, and
so on. So, that means if I add length to a duct, I can bring this different thermodynamic
states in the downstream.
So, addition of length or friction brings the subsonic with brings the supersonic flow
towards sonic state. When I am moving from supersonic flow towards sonic state means
Mach number decreases. So, if your initial Mach number M1 is greater than 1. So, the
Mach number at any points on this curve is always less than M1 and finally, I arrived at a
point `a`, which is sonic.
So, here it says that the each point on the curve 1 and a corresponds to certain duct length
and these duct length is made larger, the condition at the exits would be closer to the
point a.
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And in this process when I am going from this point to point a, it leads to increase in the
static pressure and enthalpy with increase in the entropy as well. So, a supersonic flow is
compressed with increase in the friction.
Now finally, when I reach the sonic point, the flow is choked. Sonic point a we say L
becomes L*, the flow is frictionally choked, which means physical inference that adding
length or increasing the friction in a supersonic flow will lead you a sonic state.
I cannot travel back beyond this point, because it could violate second law of
thermodynamics, because this point a, the entropy will drop. So, this point is known as
the critical length of the duct.
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The alternative case when the flow is in the upper part of the curve.. So, likewise in this
upper part of the curve when I am at point a, the length addition will take me towards the
sonic point. So, each point will give different L1, L2, L3 and finally, I will come back to
this point as L*.
So, flow is again choked, but it is frictionally choked. So, when this flow is frictionally
choked, I reach a point where the friction causes the static pressure and enthalpy to drop,
but with increase in the flow velocity and entropy. Further increase in this length beyond
L* is not possible without altering the inlet Mach number to a lower values.
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So, one can finally summarize that the friction always drives the flow towards sonic state
with a drop in total pressure irrespective whether the flow is supersonic or subsonic at
the inlet state. The upper part and the lower part of the Fanno curve cannot be traversed
back for same flow conditions.
It is important to note here, that friction process is always a irreversible process. This is
not like what we did for heating and cooling that with in case of heat transfer process.
What happens here, that the main intention of this sentence is that by when I am moving
from subsonic or supersonic region to sonic state; I can go from point 1 to point a and
beyond that I cannot go back, because friction will not allow me to cross this point.
Similarly, when we are in the subsonic region one can come from point 1 to maximum
point a. I cannot traverse back, whether you add or extract length from this duct. So, in
other words what it says is that in Rayleigh curve the way you put heating or cooling
here, we cannot put it, because it will violate the second law of thermodynamics and
since the friction is always an irreversible process.
So, what can be concluded here is that within the framework of one dimensional theory,
it is impossible to slow a supersonic flow to a sonic conditions then further slowing to
subsonic speed by friction because the deceleration of subsonic flow by friction would
violate the second law of thermodynamics.
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So, having said both Rayleigh curve and Fanno curve. Let us try to make certain
correlation among between them. So, what correlation? What you can get from here that
we are now putting both Rayleigh curve and Fanno curve on a single domain or single
plane.
So, in enthalpy and entropy plane we are representing both Fanno curve and Rayleigh
curve and of course, when you are representing both Fanno curve and Rayleigh curve,
they must have same mass flux.
So, for same mass flux one can get one Rayleigh curve and also we can get one Fanno
curve. What can be shown is that both the curves intersects at point 1 and 2 and if you
look at the curves closely, the point 1 and 2 happens to be at two other streams. It means
if you take the Rayleigh curve that is s max that is point of maximum entropy, I will put
as Rayleigh and point of maximum entropy for Fanno curves I can put as (smax)Fanno.
So, the point 1 in both Rayleigh and Fanno curve happens to be in the supersonic region
and similarly, point 2 is always subsonic region. Now, if I want to go from 1 to 2 then
along a Rayleigh curve then I must go first by heating till the point of maximum entropy
smax, then I can trace reverse the path.
So, instead of heating I should go as cooling, then I can reach this point. But, if I am in
the Fanno curve, I cannot go from 1 to 2 because it will violate the second law of
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thermodynamics, but what most important point common here is that both the point have
same mass flux.
So, let us look closely these equations. So, here I have plotted a more explicitly manner
about the enthalpy entropy diagram for a Rayleigh curve and Fanno curve and
mathematically what can be proven is that on a Rayleigh curve, if you look at what are
the equations.
So, first equation is the continuity equations, we say  u  constant ; so we say it is a
mass flux that remains constant. Even p1  1u12  p2   2u22 ; so, p   u 2 we say it is a
momentum flux.
So, its known as stream thrust. So, these two parameter remains constant. Since, it is a
heat addition process, stagnation temperature does not remain constant, but when you
look at a Fanno curve what remains constant is mass flux and stagnation enthalpy.
These two parameter remains constant, but interestingly when these two curves intersect
at point 1 and 2 means all the equations of Rayleigh curve and Fanno curve of equations
are satisfied; that means, which was not satisfied in Rayleigh curve is stagnation
temperature which was not satisfied in the Fanno curve is nothing but moment of flux.
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So, these two are satisfied at the intersection points, but interestingly when we found out
if such a things happens under what circumstances all the three conditions are satisfied, it
happens to be a normal shock. Now, if you look at the normal shock you see that across a
normal shock we satisfy mass flux, we satisfy momentum thrust or momentum flux or
stream thrust, we also satisfy stagnation enthalpy.
So, the intersection points happens to be possible thermodynamic states across a normal
shock. Now, which can be thought of at two different thermodynamic states of a normal
shock and which one can be supersonics and which one will be subsonic. So, M1 has to
be supersonic and M2 has to be subsonic, because spontaneous process from 1 to 2 is
possible and since it is in the direction of increase in the entropy.
So, spontaneous process from 2 to 1; that means, if I want to go as a across a normal

shock then I can draw a dotted line that touches this point 1 and 2. So, this
thermodynamic states of normal shock can be represented as s1 and s2.
This is how we are going to represent here that the spontaneous change from 1 to 2 is
possible, because one can draw a dotted line from point 1 and 2 in the direction of
increasing the entropy. From 2 to 1, it is almost impossible to come, because it will
violate the second law of thermodynamic process, but what we can infer from these
when I am going from 1 to 2, then if you correlate same information from Hugoniot
curve, we can say which was in the beginning we emphasized that when I am going from
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1 to 2 in a spontaneous process then it increases the pressure as p2 - p1 which is nothing,
but the static pressure rise across a normal shock, velocity will drop and Mach number
become subsonic. Finally, it will decrease in the specific volume.
So, this is the link between the Fanno curve, Rayleigh curve and subsequently we
brought the Hugoniot curve into picture. Intersection of Fanno curve and Rayleigh curve
is a possible thermodynamic states that follows the Hugoniot equation or Hugoniot
curve.
So, with this I conclude this module that is compressible flow with friction and heat
transfer and some of the important inferences of this module or learning components can
be summarized as follows. So, in this module we talked about fundamental equations for
one dimensional flow separately; one for heat addition, other for fiction, then we try to
evaluate the properties upstream and downstream for a heat addition process and for a
friction process.
Then you introduced a property table; one for a heat addition process, other for friction
process. Then you introduce the concept of thermal choking as well as frictional choking
to give some thermodynamic definitions for heat addition and friction process. We
defined a Rayleigh curve and Fanno curve and try to see that what are the different
thermodynamics states that are possible; how a process can proceed in certain direction.
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So, all these things were answered on a Rayleigh curve for heat addition process and on a
Fanno curve for a friction process and finally, we tried to correlate that the most
important aspects of compressible flow heat and friction with respect to normal shock
analysis. So, try to gave a thermodynamic definitions for heat addition, friction process,
and across a normal shock. So, with this I will conclude this module.
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Module - 08
Lecture - 22
Measurement Diagnostics and Experimental Facilities for Compressible Flow
Welcome to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in the last module
that is module 8. The title of this module is Measurement Diagnostics and Experimental
Facilities for Compressible Flow. So, this particular module is designed to have some
overview on flow measurement methods that are particularly used for compressible flow,
this is first part.
Second part is most of the compressible flow phenomena takes place in aerodynamic
testing facilities and we will try to give some glimpses about one of the experimental
facilities that is shock tube and shock tunnel. Since this course is dealt with the
compressible flow, we will focus on those aspects that are mostly relevant for
compressible flow category.
So, in the first lecture of this module, our intention is to do some classical measurement
techniques. The first is temperature measurement, pressure measurement then flow
velocity. So, these three measurements are very critical to know the flow phenomena,
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because since the fluid is already compressible and it is ensured that it is moving at very
high velocity. In fact, this high velocity flow gives many challenges with respect to
measurements.
So, the first topic of this today’s lecture is, that we will discuss about some measurement
challenges in the compressible flow. Since we are already in the last module and prior to
this module, we have analyzed various aspects of the compressible flow. We discussed
about the shock wave and expansion wave formations. In this category we have oblique
shocks, we have expansion waves, we have normal shocks. This is one category the flow
property changes across a shock or expansion waves.
In one case, the flow Mach number decreases that is in the shock wave and in expansion
wave category, the flow Mach number increases, but the very basic bottom line of the
fact, since we are talking about a compressible flow, we say that as and when passes
through the shock waves or in the expansion waves, the important factor that changes is
the flow density.
In fact, this is very vital with respect to measurement point of view. So, this is how we
get from the shock waves. And the other methods of changing the density in the flow
field is due to heat transfer; the pressure and temperature increases; so obviously, your
density will also increase or this is what we do for supersonic flow inlet.
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For subsonic inlet, we have similar phenomenon where pressure drops, temperature may
increase or may decrease. So, it all depends on the relative increase or decrease of
pressure and temperatures. And in terms of friction, this also leads to increase in the
pressure and temperature. So, density will also increase or decrease.
So, if the flow is in this case is subsonic inlet, in this case you have supersonic inlet. So,
this is what the summary what we have known so far. And in fact, in all the phenomena,
the parameter that changes is the density. This imposes some measurement problem in
doing certain measurements in the compressible flow.
So, just to give some glimpses that, how the measurements in the compressible flow is
different from the incompressible flow? So, in case of incompressible flow, which is
mainly for liquids, whatever classical techniques that are employed, they are not
applicable, because for gases they pose a dual nature that density can change in the flow
field. And when the gases change the incompressible flow limit that is Mach number is
greater than 0.3, then it gives a indication that flow is approaching towards the
compressible nature.
Now, due to this compressible nature, what happens is the pressure gradient change. And
when you would say for liquids, this pressure gradient change can only do the change in
the velocity by keeping density constant for liquids, but these pressure gradient has dual
role in changing the velocity and density for compressible flow. So, when the flow
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becomes compressible or flow velocity increases, then the pressure gradient cause the
change in the velocity as well as the density.
Now, we may say that the compressible flow can be thought of a variable density flow
and when we say this density is more than 5 percent, then the flow is approaching
towards the compressibility limit. And in fact, when we are approaching the
compressibility limit, what are the mechanisms? As I mentioned in the last slide that
shockwave formation, variable area passage, heat exchange, friction; these are the
mechanisms that can change the density during a flow.
So, looking at this change in the density, many advanced measurement techniques or
flow diagnostics in supersonic and hypersonic facilities, they rely on capturing density
informations. So, rather in a high speed flow situation, they try to capture the picture
with a principle that what are the methods that can change the density in a flow field
through this advanced measurement techniques.
So, although you pose its one of the challenges at the same time, this is also one of the
beneficial factor that by somehow if one can get the information of density change in a
flow field, mainly using some kind of electric discharge methods or some kind of optical
techniques. So, all these methods if you can incorporate, then we can take the advantage
of capturing the density informations. In fact, all measurement diagnostics in advanced
flow phenomena, they rely on this issues.
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Now, in this lecture, we will talk about the two important parameters mostly pressure
and temperature measurements and these pressure and temperature measurement can
combinely gives the flow velocity. So, our lecture is mainly rely on the flow velocity
measurement, pressure and temperature measurement in a compressible flow situation.
In fact, when you do the pressure and temperature measurements, they are localized
measurements. Localized measurement means that in a given flow field as shown in this
figure, we can introduce some kind of probe and this probe try to measure either pressure
or temperature. And the location of the probe can vary in the lateral direction or in the
longitudinal directions, rather I can move this probe in these directions or in these
directions.
So, lateral and longitudinal directions movement will give you localized measurements
in this flow domain. So, if your domain of the flow is this test section; so, one can play
with locating this probe or placing this probe at any locations in the axial or normal
direction.
So, this is how the flow information is captured in a localized manner, but one basic
problem that arises here that, when we have a subsonic flow; obviously, there will be no
shockwave, but when we have a supersonic flow, the measurement device itself will
have a shock wave sitting on this surface.
So, this means that whatever we are capturing the information from the flow either
pressure or temperature, this number should be the value which is supposed to be at after
the shock not before the shock, ok. So, these particular things we call this as a
freestream, this is we say within shock layer.
So, this free stream and shock layer, these are the important categories in supersonic and
hypersonic limits. But however, the advanced flow measurement techniques involves
complete flow field visualization through optical methods by taking advantage of density
variations. Here we will not discuss about these methods, so we will talk about only
localized measurements.
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Now, first measurement that we are talking about is the temperature measurements.
Now, when you deal with the temperature measurements, there are two ways one can
deal like, if you have a free stream flow having free stream temperature T∞, total
temperature T0 and Mach number M and we are trying to know that, what is the static
temperature and total temperature of this flow.
So, there are two ways to measure this information. We can keep our probe or in this
case let us say it is a thermocouple; keep fixing it at some locations in the wall. So, when
I put this in the wall; so, it means this probe is going to capture the information of T0 or
T ∞.
Now, which temperature it will capture? To look at all those aspects; so, what we may
have in the situations, we can say that since there is a very high speed flows or flows are
in the compressible nature, we will think of a kind of a boundary layer that is popping
up.
So, that boundary layer may grow with respect to wall. Now, when I say there is a
boundary layer, we may have a velocity gradient, that is happening in this boundary
layer. So, we will have a free stream velocity V∞ or a Mach number. So, this velocity is 0
at this bottom of the wall and this value changes and it approaches to free stream.
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So, this means that when this probe is experiencing a boundary layer which is velocity
boundary layer in this case and we will also have a another boundary layer which is the
temperature boundary layer, in which the temperature will also vary. Apart from this,
since it is a corner; so, there may be shock layer and if the surface is inclined also, the
shock layer will be more and more compressive.
So, in this process what we are trying to see is that, we must know that when we are
inserting a thermocouple in this flow, our main intention is to capture the information of
T0 or T∞, but we have to see that these informations are measured within the boundary
layer or shock layer. So, this is one approach we do this.
And in other approach people have thought of designing a specific probe, where these
thermocouple is a part of it. So, what you do is that, these particular probe consist of the
stainless steel holder that holds this probe and we have a ceiling, we have a support
system, we have a shielding, we have a vent holes.
So, all these have certain purposes. And what we do is that we try to collect a sample of
the flow having T0 temperature, T∞ and M in a certain passage which is a diffuser
passage and allow this thermocouple experiences this flow. And when it approaches then
finally, through this vent holes this the flow gets released.
So, in this process without disturbing nature of the flow we capture the sample,
thermocouple gives them indications and this thermocouple through this thermocouple
wire and finally, the flow leaves out. So, entry of the flow comes in this way and finally,
it leaves through this vent holes.
So, there are some purposes like shields that when you putting a shield, we do not allow
any interference from the outer side. Then second thing we have to have certain ceiling.
So, that whatever we are measuring from this thermocouple, it should be the
measurement from the flow not from any other sources. So, these are the some kind of
precautionary measures that needs to be taken.
So, in this process typically, we also experience the total temperature of the flow. In fact,
here also, we measure the total temperature of the flow because on this wall your no-slip
condition is satisfied. So, we say this measures also the total temperature of the flow.
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So, true value is total temperature of the flow we are trying to capture, but in reality we
have to see that really we are capturing this total temperature or something else. So, this
is the typical design of a temperature probe.
So, now before we go further let us see that what is the most important device that can do
our temperature measurements? So, in fact, I told there is two types of temperature we
are going to see; static temperature and also we have stagnation temperature and to
measure those temperatures we are looking at thermocouples.
So, these are very robust type of devices that are used for temperature measurements. In
fact, these are very classical or robust that has been existence from many years and they
work on the principle what we call as Seebeck principle that states that flow of heat in
metal always induces an electro-motive force and also generates a voltage change with
respect to temperature change.
So, through this electro-motive force, a current gets generated and through this current
we are going to capture this voltage. I will show how you are going to do that. So, this is
one aspect. The next question is that, how do you make this thermocouple?
So, these thermocouple are made of with metals. There are two category of metals such
as copper, platinum, chromel, iron these in these metals both heat and emf they flow in
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the same directions, whereas, in the other metals constantan, alumel and rhodium; they
have characteristics of opposing nature of heat and emf flow.
Now, when you do this or prepare a thermocouple, you take the advantage of both the
metals, take two dissimilar metals and join them together to form a junction. So, one
junction is kept at the temperature where it is to be measured, while the other junction is
known as reference junctions.
So, this is the typical picture whatever I have explained. First this is for similar metals,
whenever there is a temperature difference T + ΔT that appears, a heat is getting
generated. And because of this heat flow also there is a current flow in this metal and this
is what happens in a similar metals, but same thing when you do in a dissimilar metals.
So, in a dissimilar metals both q and i the current direction they are opposite in nature.
So, this is one characteristics, but both of them have potential to measure the temperature
change. Then what do you do? Take these two metal materials or metals and join them
together. Now, when you join them together, for same value of heat flow q in the circuit;
for temperature T + ΔT and T, a current tries to flow in this circuit.
Since, they are in one way, the current flow in the same direction, in other way you have
in a opposite directions. So, this is what we sees for similar metal, this is what we see for
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dissimilar metals for the other thing. Then what you do? Now, how to take the magnitude
of this temperature change? Then what you do?
So, whenever there is a current flow in the circuit, try to gather the information about
what voltage it will be induced by this current i? So, we say it is a value is E. So, in other
words, for a two junctions at different temperature T + ΔT, when they are joined
together. So, we say this junction as reference junction, for which the temperature is
typically known and for this junction temperature is unknown, but what we get is in
terms of this voltage.
So, in other words for a temperature change of ΔT, a voltage gets generated. This is how
the fundamental principle of a thermocouple and it works on the Seebeck principle. So,
now based on this category, there are many types of thermocouples.
There are many, these are the scientific names. We call them as E-type, K-type, J-type,
N-type; these are the commercial names and scientific names there Chromel-Constantan,
Chromel-Alumel, Copper-Constantan and all these things.
And each of these thermocouple depending on the type of material, the temperature
range is also specified, but what very basic philosophy is that the word sensitivity here.
So, if you look at this magnitude of the sensitivity talks about that a for a one degree of
change in the temperature, we can get a about 39 microvolt voltage for a thermocouple
of Nicrosil and Nisil. So, likewise every thermocouple needs to be calibrated to know its
sensitivity value.
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So, this is how the thermocouple becomes a one of the important device to measure the
temperatures. Now, let us see that we will go to some aerodynamic view point of this
temperature measurement and we will see here, what is the role of Prandtl number in this
temperature measurement.
cp
So, if you look at the expression of the Prandtl number, Pr  . So, µ is the viscosity
k
of the flow and Cp and k these are thermal parameters. So, it talks about the relative
weightage of the viscous effect and the heat conduction effect that is k. Now, where is
this term comes in?
So, if you see here in this figure, as I said that we are measuring the temperature in a
boundary layer or shock layer domain. So, there will be velocity profile and the velocity
is 0 on the wall and in max it approaches the free stream and while making this
measurement in this probe, we are seeing the effect of this velocity boundary layer.
Now, what is the effect of velocity boundary layer? This effect of velocity boundary
layer it causes fluid friction and heat dissipation. This fluid friction and heat dissipation
caused by this velocity boundary layer, it increases the temperature within the boundary
layer. So, we are supposed to see first thing is that, your velocity is 0 at the wall. So, if it
is 0, we are supposed to measure total temperature T0.
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But, due to this velocity boundary layer and the fluid friction and heat dissipation, the
temperature within the boundary layer increases. So, this thermocouple is expected to
feel a temperature which is above stagnation temperature, this is one part. And this is
happening is due to fluid viscosity µ in this expression. But the other side of the story is
that, if you look at the temperature boundary layer, what happens if you can see that the
wall has certain temperature and the free stream had has another temperature.
Now, due to this viscous effect the wall temperature suits up. So, why this wall
temperature suppose to increase? Because when this increases; obviously, the heat will
be taken from the wall. So, this will give a opposing effect to the fluid friction; that
means, the temperature gradient in the boundary layer gives rise to heat loss from the
probe. So, there is a relative effect between these two phenomena and their relative effect
is judged through a non dimensional number known as Prandtl number.
Now, what happens if Prandtl number is high or low? It has been seen that for gases, the
Prandtl number is less which implies that heat conduction from the surface dominates;
that means, here the k mostly dominates. So, when the k mostly dominates. So, the probe
feels a temperature less than the stagnation temperatures.
So, in other words, the final bottom line of this thing although we have a total
temperature of T0 and we are trying to get the information about this T0through this
thermocouple, but it is expected that due to these two important effects our will be
expecting a temperature which is less than this T0. That means I cannot approach to T0. I
will be measuring little bit of lesser than what is supposed to be for the flow.
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Now, to quantify this, what we have defined that, let us give a definition that what
temperature we are trying to measure, that temperature we call this as a adiabatic wall
temperature. So, it means that when a thermocouple is located on the wall surface inside
the boundary layer, the flow velocity is zero and no-slip condition is satisfied. So, the
measured temperature on the wall would be the total temperature of the flow, but at the
same time if we keep this wall insulated, the temperature which is measured is known as
adiabatic wall temperature.
 T 
So,    0 says that, this particular relations gets satisfied on the wall, that is at y is
  y  y 0
T
equal to 0, that is  0 , that means, we define this temperature on the wall as Taw, T
y
becomes Taw. So, in other words, if you keep everything perfectly insulated wall and
keep the thermocouple to this wall; so, at best what measurement we can make is to
capture the Taw. Let us see that, what is the deviation within the Taw and T0.
So, it means that as a measurement point of view, I can design a thermocouple which can
give us the information about Taw for a well insulated wall, but whether there is a
deviation between this Taw and T0.
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To quantify this parameter, we define a term which we call this as a adiabatic recovery
factor. In other words what it says is that, how far we are approaching to the total
Taw  T
temperature. So, a relative term that is ratio is defined, that is R  .
T0  T
So, this says that the, if Taw is equal to T0, then your R will be 1; so, that means, I am
getting closer to Taw; that means, your measurement is quite accurate of the total
Taw   1  2
temperatures. So, relation that can be generated that is  1 R   M . So, from
T  2 
Taw
1
T
this expression what I can say that   R.
T0
1
T
Now, this T0 - T∞ is related in this manner. So, when I substitute this here, then I can get
Taw   1  2
 1 R   M . So, just substitute this value here and simplify you will arrive at
T  2 
this. So, now, you look closely these two expressions, which is this is this
T0   1  2
 1   M we get from this isentropic relations it relates total temperature,
T  2 
static temperature and Mach number.
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Now, in a similar lesson, we are going to get here; Taw is your adiabatic wall temperature
and T∞ and Mach number. So, by controlling this parameter R, one can approach when R
is equal to 1, this will implies Taw goes to T0.
This is what has been derived here, but as I said that this R is a is due to two effect and
one is the viscous dissipation and with other is due to velocity boundary layer and other
is the temperature gradient and that is related through a Prandtl number.
And when you are doing the measurements for air, we take this Prandtl number for air is
0.72 and it has been found that for a laminar compressible boundary layer, the value of
R  Pr1 2 and for a turbulent compressible boundary layer R  Pr1 3 . So, these are the
standard numbers that can be routinely used for temperature measurement.
Now, this is one aspect when we do the measurement by putting our probe on the wall.
So, as I also mention there are another devices or another type of design in which we do
not use this probe on the wall or maybe some certain situation it is not possible to fix the
probe on the wall. So, rather we capture the flow in a passage where our temperature
sensor is placed.
So, typical design of this, I mentioned there is a thermocouple, it has two lead wires that
measures the voltage due to this temperature change between T∞ and the measurement
point and what we see is that the flow is allowed to enter in this passage and it leaves in
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this passage. So, in this manner the probe experiences the supersonic flow. Now, let us
see that what the probe sees then.
Now, this probe sees a temperature what we call as Tp, but the actual total temperature is
T0. Now, whether we are getting this Tp or T0 same or not, that can be ensured that since
the location of measurement and this flow, they are perpendicular to each other; that
means, probe is facing the flow directly.
So, the probe is facing the flow directly. So, means that we are supposed to get a
stagnation point at the meeting point on the sensing surface of the probe. So, this
temperature is measured as Tp not necessarily that this temperature would be equal to T0.
So, this all depends that how we designed this probe holder; that means how you have
designed the seals, how you have designed this support structure, and how the flow that
encounters the probe. So, all such things makes a slight deviation in the temperatures.
So, here the typical design have vent holes that allows proper ventilations, the design
may have some seals to prevent radiation from the thermocouple, the design may have
thin lead wires to minimize heat conduction losses.
So, this possible things could land of having a temperature measurement which is
different from the total temperature. So, based on that we define a parameter what is
called as probe recovery factor K. So, this is also defined in a similar manner, that we
Tp  T
say it is . This is also defined in line with the adiabatic wall temperature.
T0  T
But difference is that here we will not have any boundary layer or here we will not have
any velocity boundary layer or temperature boundary layer and no effects is there and
only thing is that the flow is allowed to come to rest isentropically at this point and
whether we are really ensuring the isentropic situation or not, that is defined by the factor
probe recovery factor.
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So, we have said that, for a given flow problem, our main intention is to go for total
temperature and static temperature for a given Mach number and for this situation, we
are doing two types of design, in one design we are getting a information about Taw, that
is mounting the thermocouple on the wall, in other design we are bringing the flow to
rest, we are getting the information of Tp.
So, based on these, we say we have defined an adiabatic recovery factor and probe
recovery factor. But your true value of temperature is T0, that is total temperature and
static temperature is T∞. So, if you just plot a some kind of trend it may look like that,
this is the true value of T0, irrespective whether it is a shock wave or not, the total
temperature remains same, but the static temperature may change.
So, total temperature line remains constant, but static temperature line may change. If it
is a shock wave, it also have a same number or the way the density changes in the flow
field. Now, through this we will have another number, if you measure by this method, we
will land of our measurement in the range which is we call this as a Taw, but if you do in
this method, we may land of another type value Tp.
So, the relative judgment one can make that through both the approaches one can find an
error and when you do this the error between T0 and Taw is termed as velocity error. And,
the error between T0 and Tp that is due to conduction and radiation error due to stem; that
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means, we are unable to look into these effect, the losses due to conduction and radiation
in this methods.
So, likewise a suitable design of a probe will help that how far we are approaching this
Tp value with respect to its true value T0. Typically a number of more than 0.9 or so is
ideal for temperature measurements; that means, recovery factor should be as close as to
its true value.
Now, moving further in the similar to temperature measurements, we also can think of
pressure measurements. But, here in the pressure measurement, there are two types of
pressure, one we can say static pressure, other may be will be the stagnation pressure.
So, the flow may have p∞ and p0 for Mach number M. But while doing we can follow the
similar strategy for pressure measurement as well, but a classical approach is that you
design a Prandtl-Pitot Static Probe. What it does is that, this is similar to a stagnation
temperature probe, but here the design is little bit of different. So, here what you do have
is that a Prandtl Pitot static tube have provision for static pressure and stagnation
measurement simultaneously.
So, at the nose part of this probe the flow is allowed to come to rest. So, for which this
your V∞ is equal to 0. So, the sensor which is mounted at this location, this measures the
stagnation pressure, but on the circumference, there are multiple static holes and on the
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circumference some flow is allowed to pass through continuously on this sides wall and
through this we get the information of static pressure measurements.
So, finally, what you see here is that, the lead wires for stagnation pressure probe and
lead wires for the static pressure probe. So, in this way both static and stagnation
pressures are measured simultaneously.
And there are two types of situation that may have, one may be subsonic flow. So, when
we have a subsonic flow, the static pressure and stagnation pressures are related with
respect to Mach number. Now, when we have a supersonic flow; that means, we measure
the static pressure measurement or we can directly use the Prandtl Pitot tube to measure
both the information and find out the Mach number, other ways that you do a
measurement in a supersonic flow.
So, this we say it is a supersonic and the relation between the total pressure and the static
pressure is defined across the shock wave which is supposed to have. So, in one
situation, when you are trying to capture the information of the pressure, the
measurement is typically done after the shock. So, we say that whatever value this
pressure probe gives, it will give the total pressure after the shock.
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p02
So, it is p02, but before that we have free steam pressure p∞ and this particular is
p
related to Mach number and in fact we already derived in the one of their calculations we
called as Rayleigh Pitot equation.
In fact, if you refer the normal shock table, this particular ratio is mentioned there,
directly getting ratio from here will lead to the calculation of Mach number.
This is how we talked about pressure measurement and this static pressure measurement
can give you the information about flow velocity. So, the Prandtl-Pitot static tube gives
p0 and p∞. Difference between these p0 and p∞ can be related to flow velocity.
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So, how we are going to see here, let us talk about the fundamental equations that, in a
compressible flow how this velocity is related to total pressure and density.
So, to do that let us recall this Bernoulli’s equation in differential form. So, here while
talking about this Bernoulli’s equation, we can say this can be applicable for
compressible as well as incompressible flow, but how this main equation is going to
change for compressible flow or incompressible flow. So, one is a differential form then
we can do the integration. So, we say this is the one of the form of Bernoulli’s equations.
dp dp V 2
 VdV  gdz  0     gz  constant
  2
Now, from this equations, when you put p  C   , that is for isentropic flows p    C ,
dp dp
and try to get  C   1 , then you require  .
d
dp
So, for that you rewrite this expression as  C    2 d  . Now, if you take the integral,

then we will land of this particular expression. So, if you take the integral, this will give
 p
you a value .
 1 
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Now, when you substitute this equation here, the expression now becomes
 p V2
  gz  constant . Now, to find out this constant, we say that you approach
 1  2
this V tends to 0; that means, when V tends to 0, the pressure will be p0, then we can say
 p0
is this constant.
  1 0
Now, this constant when you rewrite this equation again. So, what we can write that
 p V2  p0
  . So, here we have neglected elevation difference. Now, once
  1  2   1 0
you do this we get this expression. Now, what you do? Solve for V∞. To get when you
solve for V infinity you will arrive at this expression.
1

 2  p0 p   2
V     
   1  0   
So, in this expression what you see that V∞ has the information about the stagnation
pressure, stagnation density, static pressure and static density. So, in other words the
information of stagnation pressure and static pressure with the knowledge of these
density value can lead to the velocity information.
But if the flow would have been incompressible, then this density would have been kept
1
constant in this Bernoulli’s equation. So, this equation would have been p0  p  V2
2
which is here and here of course, we neglect elevation. So, this philosophy of doing this
indirect measure of velocity is done through pressure measurements.
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So, this is all about this for this lecture today, but before you close let us try to solve
some numerical problems which we pertained in this particular lecture. And these
problems are based on the pressure measurements and temperature measurements of
course, flow velocity measurements. The first question gives that Mach number of a
compressible flow air is determined from pitot-static tube.
The static probe indicates that 20kpa, pitot tube measures 32kpa; determine the Mach
number and the velocity of the air. So, here we know we have two information, one is
total pressure p0, it is done through pitot tube that is 32 kPa and static pressure p it is 20
kPa. Now, we can find out this p0/ p ratio that is 32/ 20 that is 1.6.
Now, before you proceed further we have to see whether the flow is sonic or not,
because that will tell you whether these measurements involves after the shock wave or
not; that means, when I put this probe whether there is a shock wave or not, to ensure
that we find the critical value of pressure.

p    1 2   1
So, in the first relation of isentropic relation we can write 0  1  M  , when
p  2 
p0
M goes to 1, this becomes critical value, that becomes 1.89, but our case is 1.6. So,
p
that means, flow is subsonic; so that means, this pressure ratio is for subsonic flow,
means there is no shock waves.
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So, rather we say it is a p∞ and this pressure will be p0. When I say it is a subsonic flow
and flow entire flow field isentropic, then one can rewrite this value as

   1 2   1
1.6   1  M  , this will say that our real Mach number of the flow is 0.8477.
 2 
So, when I say Mach number is this, I can say velocity is Mach number into speed of
sum; that is V  M  RT . So, take this T∞ as 298 K, R is equal to 287 J/kgK. So, this
will give you velocity as 293m/s. This is one part.
Now, second part of the problem says that, what will be the Mach number and velocity
of air, if the Pitot pressure reads 80 kpa; that means, we have p is 20 kPa and p0 now here
p0 p
is 80 kpa. When you take this ratio is equal to 4 that is greater than 0 critical.
p p
So, obviously, this probe will have a bow shock sitting on this, where we have M, p0, p∞
and here we will have p02. Then, since for this pressure ratio, we will have a bow shock.
p0
So, you use the normal shock table. When you use a normal shock table for is equal
p
p02
to 4 p here will be something to be 4 and closely it is in this range. So, this will gives
p
roughly Mach number as 1.65.
So, when I know Mach number of 1.65. So, I can say V is equal to M times a; for same
value of a, the velocity becomes 561m/s. So, this is the way we measure the static
pressure, we measure the Mach number and velocity from the pitot readings.
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Now, second problem says that, now take the data for question 1, calculate the velocity
of air assuming the flow to be incompressible. So, here we are treating that, if you use
this incompressible flow assumption what would have been your Mach number and
velocity? So, let us take the first case. So, for incompressible flow, we can write
1
Bernoulli’s equation, which says that p0  p  V2 .
2
So, our role is to find V∞. So, what we require? ρ∞; ρ∞ for standard air is 1.2 kg/m3. So,
assuming the flow to be incompressible density of air is treated as 1.2 kg/m3. Now, in the
first case our static probe reads 20 kpa and total pressure reads 32 kpa. So, I can say
 32  20  1000  0.5 1.2 V2
So, this will give you V∞ value as 142m/s. If the flow would have been compressible
flow, in the last problem we found these V∞ value as 293m/s.
So, that means, your Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible calculation under predicts,
when the gas becomes compressible. So, it is about 142m/s when it is incompressible
calculation and it becomes 293 when it becomes compressible calculations. In fact, this
will also have similar situation for the second case, where static pressure is 20kpa and
total pressure is 80kpa.
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So, this will also give V∞ value incompressible calculation as 233m/s and same value for
compressible, this value becomes to 561m/s. We can see that how deviation can happen
if you neglect the compressible nature of the gas or air.
So, third problem we are going to talk about a temperature probe. We have a stagnation
temperature probe of recovery factor of 0.95 over wide range of operating conditions in a
supersonic flow and it is used for temperature measurements, but side by side we also
measure the pitot tube that measures pressure 300 kPa which is stagnation and a static
probe it measure 60 kPa which is static pressure.
If the indicated temperature of the probe is 600 K, calculate the free stream static and
total temperature. If the adiabatic recovery factor of the probe is 0.72, calculate the
adiabatic wall temperatures.
So, the very basic philosophy of the problem that we have a temperature probe, this
temperature probe is used in a supersonic flow; obviously, we will have a some
shockwave, since it is a supersonic flow and the total pressure is 300 kPa, static pressure
is 60 kPa. Total pressure that is measured by the probe at this point will be p02 that is 300
kPa.
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Now, in the same flow you are going to make the temperature measurements. So, the
temperature measurement in the first one, we are talking about a probe recovery factor.
So, we talk here about Tp and here you talk about T1 and T0.
In the second case we talk about adiabatic recovery factor. So, here you talk about Taw
and we say T1 and T0 and we say R adiabatic recovery factor of 0.72 and here we say K
is equal to 0.95. This is the summary of the problem and to address this problem first we
have to find out from this pressure data, what is the Mach number of the flow?
p02
So, we start the solution saying that p02 as 300 kPa, p1 is 60 kPa, calculate that
p1
happens to be 6. Now, for this pressure ratio, what will be Mach number? So, we refer
p02
normal shock table for this ratio close to 6, one can find out this M1. So, this will be
p1
T01    1 2 
M1 2.08. Now, we say we can find out  1  M  , this ratio becomes 1.86.
T1  2 
So, the first problem gives K, this means T01  1.86T1 . So, we say K is equal to 0.95. So,
Tp  T1
by definition K  . So, we know T01  T1 . So, this will give you and Tp say 600 K.
T0  T1
So, from this we can get T1 as 330 K, T01 becomes 1.86 time that, so, 615 K.
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So, we get free stream static temperature and total temperature. Now, moving to the
second problems for which we define R that is same probe is used and another aspect,
Taw  T1
where we try to capture adiabatic wall temperature, we say R  , that number is
T01  T1
0.72.
So, we all know that true value of T01. So, this will give Taw as by putting this value T1
as 330, T01 as 615, we can say Taw is 545 K. So, as we can say your true value is 615 K,
but through this measurements we get Tp as 600 K. So, we seems to be more accurate
and through this approach we can achieve Taw as 545 K.
So, that means, the a static probe of this sorts, where we try to make the probe in a very
well designed manner that can capture the total temperature close to the main flow. So,
this is how the typical temperature probe works in a supersonic flow field. Now, with
this I conclude this lecture for today.
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Module – 08
Lecture – 02
Measurement Diagnostics and Experimental Facilities for Compressible Flow
Welcome to this course Fundamentals of Compressible Flow. We are in the module 8,

and this is the 2nd lecture. The title of this module is Measurement Diagnostics and
Experimental Facilities for Compressible Flow.
So, in the last lecture, we concentrated mostly on measurement methods, where we

talked about challenges in executing these measurements and localized measurements in
terms of pressure, temperature and flow velocity.
In this lecture, we will focus mostly on testing facilities with respect to compressible
flow. So, the contents for this lectures are as follows, first, we will see that what are the
different compressible flow regime. In fact, we have already discussed in our previous
modules about this flow regime.
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Then, based on this flow regime these test facilities are different. So, we will discuss
about aerodynamic test facilities. I use the word aerodynamic because in most of these
compressible flow facilities are attend by aerodynamic scientists.
Then, out of this aerodynamic test facilities there are some facilities which are
continuous type or impulse type. Means, some facilities they run in a continuous mode,
but other facilities they just run in a blow down mode; that means, for one test when the
experiment is over then we have to rework on the second test. But where are in the
continuous mode, as long as the flow continues in the tunnel, we can take the
measurements.
And in particular with respect to our course, I will just discuss about the fundamentals of
a shock tube and shock tunnel because this is the simplest type of one dimensional tool
that can be used in the laboratory as a impulsive device. Then, I will just give you a brief
introduction about the shock tube facilities located at IIT Guwahati in the Mechanical
Engineering Department.
And in the last, I will conclude this course with a philosophy that how a compressible
flow knowledge will help in conducting research in the area of shock waves, what are the
revenues or research focus that is available that one can create his passion in conducting
this research.
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Now, let us talk about this compressible flow regime. We all know that till this point of
time that compressible flows are characterized when the Mach number of the flow is
more than 0.3. And based on this Mach number, the flow regimes are classified as
subsonic flow in which Mach number lies between 0.3 and 0.8. Transonic flow where
Mach number lies between 0.8 and 1.2. Supersonic flow, any Mach number that goes
more than 1.2, we categorize that as supersonic flow. Hypersonic flow when the Mach
number goes more than 5.
And the major challenge is that once you cross this limit of hypersonic flow many a
times the Mach number role is irrelevant and on many situations we define the flows in
terms of its velocity. We call as hypervelocity flows. So, if you look at this expression of
Mach number, it is equal to the speed of the body with respect to speed of sound.
Now, what happens in the limit of subsonic transonic or supersonic or low supersonic
Mach numbers? The speed of sound normally does not change because temperature
change is not drastical and because the temperature does not change and the medium that
is air has almost no change in its characteristics property. Like, there is not significant
change in the specific ratio for air or characteristics gas constant.
But, what happens when the velocity becomes very high and it becomes more than speed
of sound? So, that is one part this Mach number also changes. And because of this
temperature is also very high because the body encounters normal shock. And moreover
the properties of the medium that is γ and R changes.
So, effectively in the expression of Mach number, the velocity changes, γ changes, R
changes, temperature changes. So, everything that changes, but we really do not know
why this change in Mach number takes place or which particular effect has significant
role in changing the Mach number. So, in that case, people try to express the high
velocity or hypersonic flow Mach number may be more than 10 and above in terms of its
velocity.
So, we categorize them as suborbital velocity less than 8 km/s, super orbital velocity
where the it is if it is more than 8 km/s and in fact, we all know there is a word escape
velocity that is 11.2 km/s. That means, when you go to this particular regime the
appropriate way of discussing about the velocity of the body is in terms of velocity not
Mach number because all these parameters V, gamma and R and T changes drastically.
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Now, what happens? Specific characteristics of a hyper velocity happens when the speed
goes nearly about 8 km/s. So, in such cases, the temperature and pressure becomes very
high.
Now, once the temperature becomes very high the vibration excitation mode starts, so at
around 800°K and close to 2500°K oxygen starts dissociating and close to 4000°K
nitrogen starts dissociating and close to 9000°K the ionization of air is initiated. In fact,
air consists of mostly nitrogen and oxygen and those gases are not in their stable state.
And because this is not the stable state we can say γ, R changes drastically. Hence, there
is no role of Mach number rather we interpret in terms of velocity that is one angle.
Second angle there are lot of chemistry and chemical process that are involved, that
absorb the energy and the reaction rates are also difficult to predict. So, in such cases, it
is appropriate to infer the velocity as a parameter rather than Mach number. In fact,
people have discussed about dissociation scaling in their chemical reaction in
hypervelocity flows. But anyway that is not on our topic of discussion. But our main
focus is that under this flow regimes how the aerodynamic test facilities can be
classified.
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But before you move for the aerodynamic facilities, in fact, design of any facilities
requires a lot of power. So, when you talk about aerodynamic ground base facilities, we
must know that what type of power requirement we need to establish such facilities. A
simple calculation will tell us that what type of parameters or power that we require.
The question that comes in our mind that how much power would be required to drive a
flow of air at room temperature and pressure because we are operating at atmospheric
conditions, while passing the air through 300mm diameter tube. And we are using a tube
of 300mm diameter and we want to have a speed 40m/s, this is about close to Mach 0.1
and 400m/s this is about Mach 1.2, 2000m/s this is closely about Mach 6, 4000m/s Mach
12, and 8000m/s Mach 24.
So, these are the broad regime of Mach number that we are going to see. So, we have
fixed its velocity and Mach number and we want to find out that how much power do
you require. Now, we have two options, one is we are going to create an environment
which is atmospheric in nature in which the density is about 1.2 kg /m3 that is at sea level
density.
Now, if you want to simulate a high altitude conditions let us say we are talking about a
30km altitude where density is 67 times lower, so you talked about a density of 0.018 kg
/m3. So, in other words, if I pose the problem like this that for a given set of dimensions
of facilities and we are changing the speed, but we are operating at different densities.
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So, to calculate this, the power requirement is normally decided through the kinetic
1
energy which we can say Ek  mu 2 . So, m you can put a for a slug of length L. So, we
2
can see that there we have a pipe of 300 mm diameter and it has a length L. So, for this
length L then you have a slug of mass m. This mass we can write as its ρALu. So, this is
volume density into flow velocity u. So, mass flow rate becomes this.
Now, once I say slug of mass, then we can say that if you are talking about a speed u and
we can say that this particular slug of mass will take a time t that is nothing but L/u, to
cross this length. So, this slug of mass at any time t will be L/ u, so based on that you can
Ek 1
reframe that problem that the power requirement will be   Au 3 . This is the
t 2
working formula that can give us an estimate that what is the power requirement.

So, here we know that what is area that A  D 2 ; D is about these 300 mm diameter.
4
Now, putting all this numbers we are going to work out what is the power requirement.
So, the power requirement is calculated in two situations, one is conventional density
mode that is ρ is equal to 1.2 kg/m3 other is the high altitude conditions where density is
about 0.018 kg/m3.
If you look at these numbers, so for 40 m/s that is for M is equal to 0.1, we can see that
the power requirement; This is typically a low speed mode is about 0.0027 MW which is
very less, but if you go to 8000 m/s that is Mach 24 then this power requirement is huge,
that is about 21811 MW.
But whereas, this number reduces drastically when I use the value density as 0.018
kg/m3. So, this gives a clear cut indication that if I reduce density then I can go for higher
speeds. So, that is the reason all flight vehicles they look for a right altitude to go at
higher speed.
So, likewise for other speeds like Mach 1.2, Mach 6, Mach 12, we can find the power
requirement. That means, if you are able to reduce the density of the gas, then we are
able to travel higher speeds.
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So, based on this we can have a altitude Mach number plot that way if you want to go at
higher Mach number we have to increase the altitude. Now, here the aerodynamic
challenge comes into picture because at low subsonic speed, even in fact the commercial
aircraft this is the location for which we have commercial aircraft flies.
And, typically these are Mach numbers in the range of 0.6-0.8. So, the Mach number is
order of 0.8. And these altitude at are at very less that is within maybe 10 km altitude.
But if you want to go higher speeds or higher Mach number, then you have to climb this
altitude. So, that is what this curve talks about a attitude Mach number plot; that means,
if you have to go higher Mach number you have to climb in altitude.
And, in fact, for a given Mach number if you want to operate these are the level of
altitudes that we call this as a flight envelope. For this Mach number, we may have this is
the domain in which the flight suit. This means, that if you want to operate your flight at
Mach 15, then your range of altitude can be fixed. So, in this mode normally all the flight
vehicles operate. But the real challenge that happens that how do you simulate these high
altitude conditions in the laboratory. This is what the aerodynamic scientist or test
facilities require.
In fact, our main intention is that we have to create a high altitude conditions in the
laboratory. Now, one can do those things through computations, but when you talk about
very high speeds when the conditions of dissociation of air, the flow physics is not clear.
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In fact, most of the CFD tools are not sufficient to predict this data. So, what we require
is a ground based testing is mandatory for simulating high altitude conditions; at least we
will be able to get a real time data.
So, with this the different flight regimes between subsonic to may be hypersonic flow
and then towards this hypervelocity flows. We have classified the ground based
aerodynamic facilities in 3 broad categories, one is wind tunnels. This wind tunnels can
be subsonic mode, supersonic mode or hypersonic mode.
Now, here the word continuous mode and impulsive mode is predominant because
mostly these subsonic wind tunnels they operate in continuous mode. And to some extent
this supersonic wind tunnel can or can be continuous, but when you say hypersonic wind
tunnel it is a kind of impulsive mode or blow down mode.
And, but all other shock tunnels like when you talk about hypersonic speed and
expansion tube when you talk about hyper velocity speed, they work on impulsive or
blow down mode.
By impulsive mode I mean that for a given test there is a very limited time available to
us and within that time one has to complete this experiment. But in a continuous mode
we need not have to worry about the time because the facility gives continuous flow
conditions and we have enough time to do our measurements.
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So, in this way the short duration aerodynamic facilities are classified as supersonic wind
tunnels, shock tunnels, expansion tubes. And I have mentioned their typical range of
Mach number in which these tests are carried out because for example, if we want to
conduct the flow Mach number in the range of 2 to 4, mostly supersonic, we have to use
supersonic wind tunnel. This is how I have explained how a supersonic tunnel works in
my previous module.
But if you want to operate at this Mach number these facilities can provide data for 10
seconds. So, test flow deviation is 10 second means your entire measurement diagnostics
should be over within the test durations. But what happens? That if you want to go for
higher Mach number the supersonic wind tunnel will require huge power. So, this is not
a preferred options when you go for higher Mach number.
So, in that case you have to choose these other modes that we call this as a shock tunnels
and this is we call as enthalpy based tunnels, where we can go very high Mach number,
but our available test time will reduce. That means, from 10 seconds the test time reduces
to about 1 milliseconds. So, in other words it means that we have to conduct all our
measurements within 1 millisecond time frame. And when you go to expansion tubes
that is we say that hypervelocity flows, then the test time further reduces to 50
microseconds.
But we can have the hypervelocity flows in the range of 4 to 8 km/s. So, this is the
challenge that lies that the test time reduces as and when your Mach number increases.
So, this is the main challenge for aerodynamic engineers that we have to decide which
tunnel we are going to use and based on their testing Mach number.
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So, likewise I will just give some introduction that what are the facilities available so far.
We have a low speed continuous subsonic wind tunnel, where speed range is about 50
m/s. Typical way of operation is that this is a very fundamental wind tunnel where we
have electric drive that is in terms of fan and motor.
This fan and motor rotates, when it rotates it sucks the air from the other end. When the
flow gets into the tunnel, it enters to settling chamber where the flow gets settled in the
sense that we get a total flow and those flow you try to contract, allow into a nozzle
mode where your velocity is increased.
So, this velocity increase and decrease that can be controlled through the contraction
zone and we get desired flow velocity. So, I am saying 50 m/s means we can operate the
tunnel that is up to maximum 50 m/s that is you can test a model at 10 m/s, 20 m/s,
likewise the conditions can be controlled here.
Then, the gas or the air after testing is over, it enters to into a diffuser and finally, comes
out. So, as long as your electric drive is there, it is rotating you are getting the flow. So,
there is no question of measurement diagnostics in trouble because we have enough time
to do the testing.
But when you go for supersonic wind tunnel like we discussed in the last module, where
we have a reservoir, so that means, instead of this drive we have a storage vessel that
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have sufficient pressure and temperature and this is allowed into a nozzle that gives
desired Mach number in the test section. And finally, the flow is slowed down in a
diffuser before going to the outer exit. So, in this range in a supersonic wind tunnel we
can go up to Mach number of 4.
But, what happens if you aim for very high flow speeds? So, as I said that when you go
for high flow speeds your test duration decreases when speed increases or Mach number
increases.
So, this gives a real pose of problem that whether we get enough time to do our testing.
So, for that purpose we define a term which is called as flow establishment time. So, we
are looking at a length L of the model and we are talking about a speed u. So, one can
find that how much time it takes to cross this L length. So, time t is equal to L/u. So, we
call this as flow establishment time. And when I am putting this model in a test section
the facility will give you a test time, we say testing time.
So, you have two time, now, one is testing time which is controlled through
facility; establishment time is obtained through model testing. So, these two times bear a
definite correlations and that correlation we call this as a body pass. Means that to do the
testing we must know that certain body pass of the flow should crossover the given
model. This is one aspect.
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Second aspect is that what we see is that the power requirement becomes huge as the
cube of the speed, so that means, when I use a wind tunnel for hypersonic Mach number
my power requirement will be very huge which is not at all feasible. But we will get a
test time about 10 second, but when I do the same testing in a shock tunnel, the test time
reduces to a millisecond, but what I compromise is that I can operate that tunnel at low
power.
So, based on this philosophy a judgment is made that depending on your requirement of
the model and the flow Mach number we decide the test facilities. So, for example, when
your speed is about 2 km/s, length is 1m; your establishment time will be 0.5
milliseconds. Now, in this 0.5 millisecond if your test time is less than this then there is
no role of doing that testing because by the time will get a 1 body pass flow, the test flow
will be over.
So, this is the reason that we define a term which is called a body pass that is the ratio of
test time available in a facility to that of flow establishment time. So, a body pass of 3 to
4 is required for a attached flow that is laminar and 20 to 50 is required for a turbulent
flow. That means, if I expect a laminar flow I must allow a 3 to 4 body pass to pass over
the body, so that I can do our measurement testing without any difficulties. So, we
require suitable body pass to have a meaningful data.
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In this philosophy, the shock tubes and shock tunnels require a body pass because they
are impulsive facilities, they have very less time, considering these aspects the shock
tube and shock tunnel require sufficient number of body pass.
So, now, in our discussion today, although there are many facilities are available, but I
will discuss about very important facilities which is a shock tube. And it is considered as
a impulsive facility where test times are very less, may be less than a millisecond. Why I
said a shock tube because it is a simple one dimensional tube, and does not have any
complicacy or extra attachments and in fact, it follows the philosophy of one
dimensional flow what we have discussed so far in our course.
So, to introduce that topic we say that shock tube is a simple duct which may be closed
or open at one end, but closed at other end; that means, one end is always closed, other
end may be opened or closed. It has two sections mainly driver and driven sections, and
a diaphragm that separates ducts into two apartment called as driver and driven sections,
and these diver and driven sections contain gases at different pressures.
So, this device produces high speed flows with high temperature through traversing of
normal shock waves. So, as I say that how in my previous lecture I told that how normal
shock creates supersonic flow at one end and subsonic flow at other end. So, it drives the
slug of mass to a very high velocity by instantaneous rupture of diaphragm that separates
the high pressure gas from the low pressure gas.
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So, you have a driver sections, these driver section is called as high pressure driver and it
contains gases which are typically air, nitrogen and helium. Driven section is a low
pressure region and it is mostly contain a test gas you normally call this is as a driven
gas. And in this section, all measurement diagnostics are kept such as pressure
transducer, temperature probes to do certain measurements in the downstream locations.
So, ideal choice to have a driver gas with lower molecular weight than the driven gas.
That means, if you use helium because helium has a lower molecular weight it will have
give a higher shock Mach number. And the diaphragm that separates between driver and
driven is a thin membrane, like soft metal like aluminium, that divides driver and driven
sections.
So, this is how it operates. We can say that there is a driver; driver contains helium gas
and driven gas contains air, and initially the both the ends are closed or separated by a
diaphragm. Now, when the diaphragm ruptures instantly what we see at one locations.
So, when in the beginning state, the driver gas which is air it is at condition 1, and
helium gas is at condition 4, whereas, after the rapture we see that one time instant the
shock wave is sitting at this locations. We call this as a incident shock or we call this as a
primary shock.
When the shock wave is moving in this primary zone, it allows the slug of mass which is
air that gets compressed. So, we say that this is what the driven gas that or test gas that
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gets compressed. And the blue color that shows that air in this zone is undisturbed, where
air in the yellow zone is disturbed.
Now, between this yellow zone and this driver gas, what happens? There is a contact
surface. Contact surface means it is a kind of a region in which the driver gas and driven
gases are separated. That means, when the diaphragm ruptures instantly shock wave is
generated the shock wave moves towards right, side by side we have expansion fan, we
have expansion wave which moves towards left.
Now, between the shock wave and expansion wave, they tried to spread. So, there is a
partition in which we see that, in this contact surface zone we may have the driver gas as
well as the driven gas. But, the partition that separates has two lines, one we say in the
shock region other is in this expansion region. So, what we see here? Shock wave is
moving. Behind that there is a contact surface. And between these shock wave and
contact surface the slug of mass which is the test gas gets compressed. This is the second
instant.
And similarly towards the left hand side we have expansion wave moving towards the
left. And now, in another time instant what see that the shockwaves gets and reflected
from the end wall. When it gets reflected from the end wall entire slug of mass becomes
yellow; that means, they have already exposed to the primary shock for which
temperature and pressure gets elevated and then it is moving towards reflected mode.
Now, when it is moving reflected mode, the further rise in pressure and temperature
happens. So, because of this reason you can see that now we have a red color; this red
color means it has already exposed to primary shock as well as the reflected shock.
Now, similar situation happens in the expansion wave also. We can see that the color of
green becomes little bit of fading. So, this expansion wave goes and hits in the end wall.
So, this process keeps on happening within this tube.
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But how to quantify it? Means, which is shock wave, which is expansion wave? So, to do
that a simple diagram what we call as x-t diagram is plotted; it is a kind of a distance
timing diagram for a given shock tube.
Now, considering the conditions region 1, 2, 3 and 4; that means, 1 is primary

undisturbed gas, 2 is the region in which the gas is exposed by primary shock, 3 is the
contact surface region and 4 is the undisturbed region. And after reflection we get region
5. So, what we see is that after the rupture of diaphragm we say that primary shock path
is given in this manner and finally, it goes and hits the end wall and it tries to reflect.
Now, since the shock wave speed is higher and following to this shock wave we have a
contact surface that path is given by the second line. Now, what happens? So, since this
speed of contact surface is obviously less, so it is moving at lower speed. Now, side by
side we see here the expansion fans that generated at the location of diaphragm.
There are lot of because expansion fans, they always try to diverge, they never converge.
So, we say they sprayed; that means, we have the head of the expansion fan and we have
tail of the expansion wave, then it goes and every fan they try to reflect.
So, this is what we say reflected expansion wave. This is primary expansion waves and
this phenomena happens. Now, what you see here? when the region one is there, in this
region the shock wave condition is undisturbed gas, region 2 it is exposed to primary
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shock, region 3 is contact surface, region 4 is undisturbed expansion wave, and region 5
that is reflected shock and in that means, in this region the gas which is exposed to both
primary as well as the reflected shock.
So, what may happen is that this reflected shock and goes and meets this contact surface.
So, in this zone 2, we say we have test gas and if we plot a vertical line, so this is the
time, ΔT. So, for this ΔT time, what we can see here that this test gas is exposed to both
primary as well as reflected shock and its temperature becomes very high, pressure
becomes very high and we call this a momentary reservoir or heat source.
Since, this pressure becomes p5 that is 5 stands for region 5, temperature 5 stands for T5,
but this p5 and T5 conditions is attained for the time ΔT. And this is typically in our
shock wave facilities is 1 milliseconds. So, what I can say that for 1 millisecond time, I
can generate a momentary heat source using a shock tube.
Now, why this is 1ms time, because if you look at here beyond this time the test gas will
be exposed to contact surface and that means, it gets diluted with the driver gas. So, test
gas is no longer as whatever they are in the driven gas.
So, that is the reason we say this momentary heat source for a very short time. So, this is
the basic philosophy that tells since time is involved here, so we say its impulsive facility
and we say that it is a reservoir because the shockwave has made its pressure and
temperature very high.
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So, likewise I have explained here that shock tube it is a laboratory tool for generating
high enthalpy flows for deviation of 1 to 2 milliseconds. So, it can be imagined to be
high temperature momentary heat source. Here also another version of the diagram that
explains about different regimes 1, 2, 3, 4 and it is the ΔT which is this.
Now, there are certain working formula. So, in fact, these working formula need not
have to remember. So, what it says is that previously we have discussed about this
moving shock analysis in one of the module, where we say that shock wave is moving
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and we are looking at in a laboratory frame. Since, it is a moving shock situation we
define a term called as shock Mach number that is Ms that can be calculated from the
speed at which the shock wave is traveling and speed of sound. Typically speed of sound
is controlled by  RT . Here 1 stands for region 1.
So, here one thing to be noted that whenever 2 is given, this 2 stands for this region, if I
say 5 stands for this region, and likewise we can say the pressure ratio after the primary
p2 p
shock , pressure ratios after the reflected shock 5 , temperature ratio after the
p1 p1
primary shock, temperature ratios after the reflected shock, density ratios across primary
p4
shock and this is the pressure ratio of say that is normally called as rupture pressure.
p1
What it says that all these ratios are obtained through moving shock analysis and we
consider this as a working formula and no need to remember. Because all these
parameters are derived parameters from this relation, but what measurement you require
is that shock spee.
Now, to calculate this shock speed, normally we define since it is a one dimensional
tubes we define two locations in a shock tube, where you mount the pressure sensors;
once we know the two locations and you can get this Δx. So, this is the Δx. I can put two
sensors that will give you time; that means, we can say that we can obtain the time by
mounting some sensors which can let us know that when the shock wave is passing
through that location.
So, Δt is known. So, we know Vs then we can find out shock Mach number. When you
say shock Mach number, all the other derived parameters can be calculated.
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So, likewise we have a shock tube facilities at IIT Guwahati. And this is a 7 meter shock
tube driver and driven, we have mounted 3 pressure sensors. You can see that the driver
gas is filled with high pressure gas. In this photograph here, this particular cylinder refers
to helium; this particular refers to nitrogen; that means the driver gas can be helium or
nitrogen.
And in the downstream side we have vacuum pressure. We can see here in this figure,
we have driven section is vacuum pump, where driven section is maintained at low
pressure region. So, we have a high pressure regions, we have low pressure regions, and
in the driven section there are 3 taps, 1, 2, 3.
We call this as a pressure taps where we mount our pressure sensors. So, because the
prior to this we know these locations we call this as a Δx, and this pressure sensor will
give the time at which the shock wave is passing through that sensor. So, having said
this, we can get the shock Mach number.
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Now, another important aspect of this shock tube that when we are talking about a shock
tube whether really a shock wave is generated or not. So, this is ensured through a visual
inspection and we put this diaphragm into picture. So, we have a very well designed
diaphragm that is a circular diaphragm, and it has a kind of a groove which is triangular
grooves, something of this sorts along this depth.
Why we made this groove? Because we want to rupture this diaphragm in a controlled
manner, so that instead of getting it ruptured haphazardly it will rupture at one particular
place and the rupture should be very instant because we say that the shock wave is the
merger of all compression waves instantly. So, that means our ruptures should happen in
this instantly.
Now, the original diaphragm with well-designed grooves and it is fixed between the
driver section and driven section in this manner. Now, after we pressurize it ruptures.
Now, when it ruptures, I have shown here 4 photographs of different rupture phenomena.
So, if you look at that we have one situation where it is like a petal like rupture, just like
a flower structure petals; all 4 petals that comes out uniformly.
But, whereas in another situation, this rupture is non-uniform. So, although we say it is a
rupture, but this rupture is not due to shock wave, it is due to compression waves. And
since we have not used a right kind of groove or right kind of logistics, so we are unable
to rupture.
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So, for this situation I can say although diaphragm ruptures we get the measurements,
but those ruptures concept is not due to shock waves, but it may be due to compression
waves. That means, all shock waves are compression waves, but all compression waves
are not shock waves. It is a one particular instant. So, instantaneous rupture is shown like
this petal like rupture.
Now, once you say that we have ruptured uniformly then we can take the measurements.
This is the typical voltage data. Voltage means we have pressure sensors here, we know
the distance. So, these voltage data will give us the time, from the distance and time, so
x
we say Vs  . Δt we can get from this time axis and delta x is fixed by the pressure
t
sensor location. So, we know the velocity of the shock wave.
p2
And these pressure sensors also measure the jump in pressure. So, we say that is due
p1
p5
to primary shock, this is that is reflected shock. Now, we have two parameters, one
p1
measured parameter that is through experiment and we have calculated parameter. We
p5
can say is a function of Mach number. This Mach number we can calculate through
p1
shock speed and speed of sound. So, we have two data, one through experimental
measure other is calculated measure. Then, you prepare the calibration curves.
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There are variety ways that we can plot the calibration curves of Mach number versus
p2 T2 p
rupture pressure ratio, we can have primary shock, , , we have reflected shock 5
p1 T1 p1
T5
and . And if you see that the solid lines indicates the theoretical curve and the the
T1
points that we are looking at, these are the experimentally measured points. So, in some
cases our predictions are under predicted, it all depends on the accuracy in the
experiments.
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Now, I will move further to give some introduction to a shock tunnel. So, we discussed
about the shock tube exhaustively. Now, a shock tunnel is nothing but we attach a nozzle
and test section. So, we have two parts here, one is tube part like we have a shock tube
part and we have tunnel part.
So, as I mentioned, this tube part will give me a momentary reservoir conditions as p5
and T5 for 1 millisecond durations. Now, what I do? This reservoir conditions, I try to
use a nozzle to expand the flow. Now, when I use this conditions to expand the flow and
put a model here, then I can get desired Mach number. So, by using this nozzle we can
get hypersonic Mach number because shock tunnels are referred as impulsive facilities
and for hypersonic Mach number applications. We can put the model and do our testings.
So, likewise we say this is the test time which is available to us that is ΔT, and we can
say this is the length of the model which we are using and we say it is ΔT flow
establishment time. And a definite ratio between these two is the body pass that I have
explained.
Apart from this, there are other ancillary requirement that we need to have a vacuum
pump, we need a very high end vacuum pump to evacuate this, to keep this conditions
alike. And we call this particular facilities as high enthalpy facilities.
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Now, I will just conclude this shock tunnel topic with one particular technique which is a
kind of a electric flow visualization technique, that whether really a shock wave appears
or not. So, one such visual experiment we did with a flow visualization technique, and
this method we call it as electric discharge method.
It works on the principle that intensity of spontaneous radiation emitted by ion

recombination in an electric discharge depends on the gas density and temperature along
the discharge path. I will explain it how it happens.
Then, this discharge is occurred across a shock wave, and we know that across a shock
wave there is a density and temperature difference. Now, when there is a density and
temperature difference, and we create a discharge, we use high speed photography to
capture that flow path. So, this capturing flow path we get the shock shapes in this
intensity field.
Now, to create the discharge we need two metallic electrodes, one we call this as a point
electrode, other is called as a line electrode; line electrode is embedded in a model.
So, what we see here is that a model which is mounted in the test section. So, this entire
domain is the test section wall, on the test section wall there is a point electrode, and
matching to this a line electrode is embedded on the model surface.
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Now, between this line electrode and point electrode, we create a very high electric
discharge or you give a high voltage source and when the flow is exposed to hypersonic
flow and simultaneously we create a discharge, this appears as a glow and when there is
glow appears, we can capture that as a image in a photograph through high speed
photograph.
So, as I can see that there are glows that is appearing and we can see a structure of a
shock wave pattern and typically we call this as a bow shock for this model. And with
this philosophy it gives a visual indication that really shock waves appears in a
supersonic flow and in fact this Mach number here is about 5.75.
So, for 5.75 Mach number, we can see a bow shock that is appearing from this point and
it goes along this body part. And we say this shock is a detached shock. It is quite
obvious and this is what we call as standoff distance. Why we say it is a detached shock?
Because the body is blunt, and for which the oblique shock solution is not possible, so
we will have a detach shocks. So, this gives a visual indication about the formation of
shock wave on a blunt body.
In fact, I started this lecture with this photograph and gave my introduction lecture that
we can visualize a flow path. Now, I am closing this lecture with same figure about
explaining that through using appropriate flow visualization technique one can capture
the shock waves. And nowadays, there are many advanced equipments or instruments
available such as Schlieren method, shadowgraph methods to have a continuous mode of
evaluating the shock wave path.
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So, with this I will conclude this lecture as well as this module and as well as the
complete course. And finally, my overall remark would be that we have discussed about
the compressible flow fundamentals and all aerodynamics principal work on this
compressible flow phenomenon, but in turn one particular aspect is shock wave which is
a very critical phenomenon in a compressible flow research.
But, however, the area of shock wave research is not limited to mechanical or aerospace
streams, but it is spreads in variety of multidisciplinary area, as far as shock wave
research application is concerned. And, more or less I can say that only mechanical
and aerospace streams they are get exposed to all fundamentals subjects on compressible
flow. But people working in the shock wave research in the area of instrumentation
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and they are not aware of the fundamental side of the
compressible flow.
In this regard, this course is very beneficial and hope in addition to the parent’s streams
of mechanical aerospace this course is also very useful for those people who are people
of civil, instrumentation, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biotechnology, those who are
working in the shock wave research.
Now, what are the particular topics in the shock wave research that can be attempted?
First few things are only based on aerodynamic measurements, where we say
aerodynamic research, experimental facilities for stimulating high altitude conditions,
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measurement diagnostics in high speed flows, characterization of thermal sensor. Here
you introduce another topic shock assisted deformation and manufacturing; that means,
shock wave research has entered into the manufacturing area.
There are chemical kinetics and ignition delay studies for fuels. So, here we are
chemistries and people in the area of alternative fuels, they are also part of it. Then, there
are situation like that shock wave give instantaneous rise in the temperatures. So, people
are talking about high entropy or high temperature materials. So, materials area also is a
part of it.
And many people they work in bioscience and bioengineering, so in this case that shock
waves in the wood science and technology, tea and coffee industries, very potential
applications. People working in medical area we call this as a medical application of
shock waves, like using shock waves as a injection mode to the human bodies.
There are civil people who can work on the area of underwater shock waves; that means,
tsunami behavior if can be also modeled. Then, we have deformation and impact testing
of civil structures. Apart from this in the end we have computational modeling and there
are some psychological aspects of shock waves where human minds are also controlled.
So, the areas research areas are many, disciplines are multidisciplinary, but the course is
start only in for the people of mechanical and aerospace in their parent syllabus. So, with
this philosophy, I hope the compressible flow in this particular module is very vital to get
the fundamentals of the shock wave research.
With this I will conclude my module as well as the topic and the course. I hope I have
attempted all your queries or answers in this course.
Thank you, and best wishes.
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Lecture – 24
Shock Tube Facility Gas Dynamics Laboratory
We are now going to demonstrate a Shock Tube Facility which is installed in the Gas
Dynamics Laboratory of the Mechanical Engineering Department of IIT Guwahati. So,
this particular shock tube facility which we cover in the course modern compressible
flow and in the last module we have given all the theoretical details about the shock tube
facility.
So, in the laboratory we have installed a shock tube facility it consists of a driver section
and a driven section. So, as you see this driver section this is a high pressure section for
the shock tube and they are connected by pressure regulator and subsequently it is
connected to high pressure cylinders nitrogen and high pressure cylinder helium. But, in
one of the particular experiments either we can connect it to high pressure nitrogen gas
or high pressure helium gas. So, these two are the mostly used driver gases that are used
for shock tube.
Now, the most important part of this driver gas is that if we are going to use a higher
molecular weight gas in the driver section, then it will lead to less shock wave velocity or
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Mach number. But, however, when you are going to lower molecular weight gas which
is helium then we can have shock speed in the tube will be faster.
So, now, let us start with the driver sections. So, here in the driver sections there are two
tubes of 1 m length and they are connected through the planes. This stainless steel tube is
width of 56 millimeter internal diameter and 12 mm thickness and it is the and what you
see here is the diaphragm that separates the driver section to the driven section.
What we can do now is that, if you look at this particular tube we have this driver section
and driven sections and this metallic diaphragm we are going to put it in this manner so
that the both driver section and driven section during the experiments can be distinctly
separated. So, while performing the experiments we will tell you how you are going to
connect it.
Now, another important feature of this diaphragm is that this particular diaphragm is
made out of aluminum material and this is of 1 millimeter thickness. We can think of
different thickness diaphragm if you want to increase higher shock speed. So, the
diaphragm will ruptures with respect to its yield strength and when it ruptures, it has to
rupture in a particular fashion. Then only we can say that a shock curve is generated.
What does this mean? It means that while discussing about the shock tube theory we
have told that by pressurizing the driver tube we are essentially increasing the
compression waves. And these compression waves are generated and at one particular
time, these compression waves has to merge and they have to come as a shock wave.
Now, in this process of merging if you do not use a particular fashion of this diaphragm
then this diaphragm can rupture abruptly. So, that is the reason we have made here a
groove which is a V groove and this V groove as you can see it is pointed at the center
and the section of this, is a V shape. And, the diameter of this size of this circle would be
something of similar value which is the inner section of the shock tube.
So, when it fits it, we try to see so that this rupture has to initiate from this center point
and when it ruptures here it will rupture instantly at particular pressure for which this
yield strength of diaphragm is defined. So, this is the basic philosophy that the rupture
pressure or instantaneous rupture of this diaphragm will generate the shock wave.
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Now, one by one we will now move to the driven section of the tube. So, you see that the
have driver section has two tubes each of 1 meter length and driven section similarly it is
connected from this end or the separation point of diaphragm and there are 5 tubes
connected in this sequence.
Now, we are moving to the driven section of the tube. So, driven section of the tube is of
similar length and material as used in the driver sections. So, as a thumb rule when we
are using two tubes of driver section of 1 meter length, similarly we have to use
minimum of 5 meter of driven section length.
This is mainly due to as it is explained in the theory that the introduction of shock wave
also creates expansion waves; that propagates back into the driver sections and
subsequently they reflect from the end flange and they interfere to our signal. So, for this
reason as a rule of thumb we have been fixed that driven section tube will have 5 number
of stainless tubes of same length and they are also connected in the similar fashion using
these flanges.
Now, let us come to the measurement part. So, for the driver section and driven section
the measurement part consists of two things. One is first thing we should know that at
what pressure the diaphragms would rupture; that means, this particular aluminum
diaphragm when it is fixed in the junction point at what pressure it should rupture.
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So, to do that when you pressurize this through this gas cylinder, side by side we monitor
the pressure at which it ruptures using this pressure gauge. So, that is a pressure gauge
which is connected to the driver section or high pressure section. And, the similar way
we also connect this driven section using a vacuum pump so that by switching on this
vacuum pump we can reduce the pressure.
And, side by the side we can also monitor the pressure within this driven section of the
tube using a simple manometer. So, this manometer will tell about the pressure in the
driven section and these pressure gauge will tell us that pressure in the driver sections.
So, we can say that this pressure will keep on increasing and once the rupture pressure of
the diaphragm is reached, then again this value will come down.
Now, this is how the driver section and driven section pressure measurement is
undertaken while during the experiments. Now, we will move to the subsequent
measurement part in the driven sections. So, just to tell you that at this junction of time
we say that at this location the shock wave we are going to generate. This shock wave is
going to propagate in the driven section. And, this will keep on happening till this shock
wave reaches in the end flange.
Now, when the shock wave is generated due to the instant rupture, the induced mass
which is already there in the driven section of the tube, it will also follow the shock
wave. So, as we have mentioned in the theory that we have a shock wave which is
moving towards the end flange of the driven section and followed by induced mass.
And, the driver section and driven section is separated by a diaphragm and theoretically
we call this as a contact surface.
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So, now let us move to the instrumentation side for the driven sections. So, we have seen
that when the shock wave propagates in the driven section, across the shock wave there
is a instantaneous rise in pressure of the induced mass. So, to measure that step response
of this induced mass pressure, we have mounted two pressure transducers and one is at
this location which is 1885 millimeter from the end planes.
Now for this, driven section is terminated with an end flange at this location. Now, from
this end flange location, the first pressure transducer that the shock wave sees is at a
location of 1885 millimeter from the end flange. And, there is another pressure
transducer which is located at a distance of about 500 millimeter from this first pressure
transducer and this location is about 1035 millimeter from this end flange.
So, if you take our reference as the end flange, the second pressure transducer is 1335
millimeter and the first pressure transducer is 1885 millimeter. So, now let us see the
sequence of events that happens. So, in the driven section the shock wave first
propagates the towards the end flange and followed by the shock wave there is induced
mass which is at a elevated pressure. And, this elevated pressure we are going to measure
through this pressure transducers.
Now, typical pressure transducer as I can show you; this is a piezoelectric type pressure
transducer. So, you can see this is very simple system is a pressure transducer which has
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a sensing surface which is very flat. Now, when it is mounted like this, so, we are going
to see the static pressure because it is mounted towards the inner surface of this tube.
And, when the flow sees, this sensing surface response to this flow and since it is a
piezoelectric type there is a diaphragm that vibrates and subsequently through this
oscilloscopes which is shown here we are going to tap the pressure jump across the
shock wave. Now, the instrumentation part for this pressure transducer here is that this
pressure transducer has to be connected to a power supply unit because this sensor has to
be powered by the power supply unit and from there the output from that is going to take
in the oscilloscope.
So, this is how the pressure transducer instrumentation with respect to oscilloscope is
concerned. We are going to take the final measurement of pressure jump across the
shock wave using this oscilloscope. The other important part of this pressure transducer
is that when the shock wave travels in the driven section; the first pressure transducer
sees it first. So, it will respond immediately, but by that time the second pressure
transducer has not seen it so, it will not show any signal.
So, when the first pressure transducer is triggered after certain time, the second pressure
transducer gets triggered. And, since from this oscilloscope signal we can record that
how much time does the induced mass takes to travel from first pressure transducer
location to the second pressure transducer location.
So, in this process we know the time from this pressure signal and we also know the
distance between this pressure transducers. So, this distance and this time from this
oscilloscope will give you the shock speed. So, in this way we can get the shock speed
and subsequently knowing the speed of sound we can calculate also the shock wave
mach number.
So, the pressure transducer does the two purposes – one is that it records the time which
gives the shock Mach number, at the same time it also gives the pressure jump across the
shock wave. Now we have said that the shock wave now cross the first pressure
transducer, second pressure transducer and we recorded this signal.
Subsequently, the shock wave will travel and finally, there is end flange; that means, this
is the end portion of the shock tube. And, this is the end flange; it is a kind of a end
526
portion of the tube for which the inner surface is flat and the shock wave is trying to
reflect.
Now, when we are looking at the reflected shock wave, means that already the induced
mass motion has gained the pressure jump of the primary shocks. So, when the shock
wave gets reflected from the end flange it sees the mass which is already at elevated
pressure. So, when again the reflected shockwave travels back or in the opposite
direction of this shock tube, then the second pressure transducer sees the reflected shock
pressure and subsequently it is seen by the first pressure transducer.
Now, in this environment already the medium is pre elevated due to the primary shock.
And finally when we see the pressure jump in the oscilloscope we can see there will be
another pressure jump in the oscilloscope; so, which says that the reflected pressure is
much higher than the primary shockwave pressure.
So, all these things we are now going to demonstrate by conducting a simple experiment
and these experiments will tell you how the pressure jump is recorded instantly in the
oscilloscope.
So, we are going to show now that how a diaphragm looks like before before its rupture
and after its rupture. So, what we see here is the first diaphragm and for this first
527
diaphragm this diaphragm is connected between driver and driven sections at the
beginning of the experiments.
So, as you can see there is a V groove and after the rupture if we are able to capture the
shock wave means that all the compression waves merge and the rupture is initiated at
this center point, then the photograph of this after the rupture can be seen in this fashion.
So, it means that this is a flower like petals and it ruptures from the centre point all the
four portion or four leaves have a unique and uniform ruptures as you can see from this
photograph.
Now, if at all the rupture is not initiated by shock wave then what you can see an erratic
fashion of a rupture locations some are like petals, some are like bent. So, as you can say
that this rupture is not due to the shock wave rather it can be only due to the compression
waves that means in this situation we can be sure that it is not due to the shock wave
rather due to compression waves.
Now, this is the pressure transducer which is mounted in the driven section of the shock
tube. This is the sensing surface which sees the flow and this pressure transducer is a
model of 113B22 and this is made out of PCB Piezotronics and this particular pressure
transducer is located at the driven end of the shock tubes. Now, we will move on the
instrumentation for this pressure transducer and this instrumentation is mainly power
supply cum signal conditioner and the oscilloscope or the data acquisitions.
528
So, let us see that what are the instrumentation for the pressure transducer and how you
are going to acquire the primary shock pressure jump and the secondary or reflected
shock pressure jump using these oscilloscopes. So, for that purpose I have shown you the
PCB pressure transducer. The connecting wires from the PCB transducers which is
mounted from the driven sections of the tube, it is connected to a power supply unit
which is also made by PCB Piezotronics.
This power supply unit has a unique feature that it supplies power to the pressure
transducer as well as it also suppresses the unwanted signal and we call this as a noise.
So, we call this as a signal conditioner. So, side by side it also conditions the signal as
per the requirement.
And, second thing for the data acquisition part; as you can see the data acquisition part in
the shock tube experiment is a very simple instrument which is the nothing but
oscilloscope. So, basically the oscilloscope captures the voltage time data from the
pressure transducers.
So, the main unique feature for this oscilloscope is that it is a Yokogawa model and its
sampling rate is about 200 MHz or 2.5 Giga samples/s. So, that means, we can take
samples of .5 Giga samples/s data in these oscilloscopes. So, it means that the short
duration timely events can be taken and all those data are recorded in voltage and time
format.
So, in the oscilloscope the x-axis refers to time axis and this y-axis refers to the voltage
axis and in our experiment our y axis is nothing but the pressure transducers. So, as you
see there are two colors of reference line because we have not started the experiments.
So, these two colors refers to each of the pressure transducers. So, that means, this shows
that two pressures transducers are connected in this oscilloscope and this is at the
reference line, we have not started the experiments.
Now, when we will do the experiments we will see that the pressure jump which is for
the primary shock as well as for reflected shock will be shown as a jump in this reference
line. So, now in the y-axis, we have a y-axis scale which we kept as 50 mV per division;
that means, one division refers to 50 mV.
529
So, depending on how many divisions there is a rise and corresponding calibrated
number of the pressure transducer as supplied by the company PCB, we can exactly map
what pressure rise had caused that rise in the voltage signal. So, now, we are going to
demonstrate an experiment which is going to be seen in this oscilloscope.
Now, we are going to demonstrate this shock tube experiments. So, before the start of the
shock tube operation which means that filling the driver section pressure and vacuum
pressure, one needs to do the all types of circuitry arrangement as far as the pressure
transducer is concerned and the reference line for the data acquisition system. In this case
we have this oscilloscope as you can see there are both reference lines for the pressure
transducer green and the yellow, they are at the reference level.
Now, one thing we are going to emphasize here is that when you conduct the
experiments we have to keep this oscilloscope in a auto mode; that means, we are
allowing the scope to capture all the informations as set within this scope. So, for that we
need to fix a trigger lines. So, trigger line means it is a kind of another voltage which you
are going to set. So, this line we can set it means that any value above this it should
capture.
So, currently as a first guess one may show that in order to capture all the events that
happen for the shock tube, I am setting a particular value in the voltage scales. And, from
our experience it goes that if you set voltage scale of about 39 – 40 mV, then all the
informations can be captured. So, as you see that we have set this trigger line at this
locations and these are the reference line.
Now, I am switching on this instruments which means if I said that the oscilloscope is
waiting for the data to come for its recording. So, here which I am switching on so that
means, we are setting this oscilloscope to capture the data. So, in this process we are now
going to pressurize the driver sections and at particular instance the diaphragm is going
to rupture. The entire sequence of event starts and both the pressure transducer is going
to record its signal in the form of voltage and time in this oscilloscope.
530
So, as you see that to have inserted a diaphragm at this interface location between driver
section and driven sections, and this pressure of the driver section we are going to record
in a pressure gauge.
So, for this pressure gauge you can see there is a reference line which is almost 0, but;
however, this is the instrument bias error, there is a marginal error. However, we can put
this as a reference line which is seen that there is a almost the pressure or what you say
with respect to this value is 0.
531
Now, we are going to pressurize in the driver section and pressure recording data from
this pressure gauge we can see how the pressure is going build up in the driver section.
So, here you see that pressure keeps on increasing and this pressure is being recorded
with respect to psi and pressure is now 129, 141, 150, 156, 165, 183, 200 psi, 218 psi,
235 psi.
So, you can see that at 262 psi it ruptures and finally, after this rupture pressure value
comes down and this pressure is finally steady state pressure. Once the both driver
section gas and driven gas they mix up from the ultimate pressure which is at the end of
the experiment in the tube is 85. Since we have not exhausted the gas from this shock
tube, the final steady state pressure now turns out to be around 83 psi.
Now, if I remove this pressure valve you can see that this pressure come down further;
that means, we are leaking this gas out of the shock tube and finally, we are bringing
back this pressure level to this reference line. So, this is how the pressure gauge
connected to the driver section of the shock tube records the rupture pressure of the
diaphragm.
So, as you see from the scope instantaneously both the reference line shoots off. So, you
see there are two signals which is captured in this oscilloscopes. The yellow line refers to
the first pressure transducer which is located at 1885 millimeter from this end flange and
the second pressure transducer is located 1335 millimeter from the end flange.
That means, when the shock wave travels in the driven section of the tube; the first
pressure transducer sees the flow information of the induced mass and this jump if you
can see it is instantaneous it is like a step. So, this instantaneous jump refers to the
primary shock generations. Now, subsequently till that point of time you can see that
green line which is in the pressure transducer 2 does not see the shockwave. So, it is
shown as the same reference line.
Now, after that when the shock wave reaches to the location of the second pressure
transducer, this also sees the primary shocks. So, for a certain duration in the time scale
the entire value for the both the transducer remains same. So, this particular jump refers
to the pressure jump after the primary shock.
532
Now, when you are coming to the second pressure transducer as you see that the
reflected pressure jump is shown in another step rise of these signals. So, here the
reference point is little bit reverse because the second pressure transducer sees the
reflected shock first.
So, that is what it sees; the reflected shock first and this reflected shock keeps on rising
and at this particular time it means that the entire induced mass has further rise in the
pressure; that means, after this particular timescale the entire flow events is over and this
means that it is the arrival of the contact surface followed by the driver gas. So, there is a
sudden rise in the pressure as well.
Now, similar trend is also seen in the first pressure transducer. So, with respect to end
flange the first pressure transducer shows this after a certain time delay and similar value
of rise in the voltage signal is also observed. And, here if you see that by the time the
flow has already been contaminated due to the arrival of the contact surface. So, you do
not see any steady reason there is a continuous rise in pressures.
However, if you look at this particular timescale there is some kind of steadiness is seen
whereas, in the first pressure transducer in the reflected event there is no steadiness is
seen here. And, as I mentioned in the beginning that the arrival of the contact surface or
other driver gases which are unwanted in our scenario this shows that further rise in the
pressures.
But, at the outset what we are going to demonstrate in this event is that using the shock
tube and using the pressure transducers, we are capturing the pressure jump across the
primary shocks which is seen as the first jump for the pressure transducer 1 and also
similar nature of the pressure jump at least across the reflected shock.
So, both the pressure transducer shows significant rise in the pressure jump across the
shock wave. Now, looking at the y-axis timescale one can map that how much division it
corresponds to. So, looking at the number of voltage divisions one can capture the
pressure jump across the primary shock as well as reflected shock.
So, this is all about the end of this demonstration of the shock tube and as we have
mentioned in the theory, more details can be found from the theory class. At the same
time at the outset I can conclude this demonstration saying that a shock tube can be
533
considered as a impulsive facility for generation of high speed slug of mass for a short
duration time.
And, its main application as you can see here we have also attached a section which is
used as a enclosure to study the deformation behavior for the metals and which is not
part of this course.
So, at the end I will conclude this that shock tube is a simple laboratory one-dimensional
tube, mainly intended for impulsive application measurements. And, these main
application includes deformation behavior of materials, calibration of thermal sensors
under step and impulsive response, then to some extent we can study the ignition delay
of potential fuels.
So, these are the few applications of these impulsive facility and its utility is very vast as
far as the high speed flow phenomena generation under impulsive domain is concerned.
Thank you.
534
THIS BOOK
IS NOT FOR
SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08

nptel.ac.in
swayam.gov.in

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INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 08:45)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:25)

(Refer Slide Time: 11:46)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:57)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 19:28)

Tds  du  pd Tds  dh  dp

So, this can be expanded as

Tds  dh  pd  dp  pd

(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

C is related to internal energy.

So, we define a parameter called as a bulk modulus E v , this is what we say

Another parameter of interest is coefficient of thermal expansion which we say as β how

(Refer Slide Time: 34:14)

out to be RT for an ideal gas.

Similarly, we move on to properties called thermal conductivity. And, in fact, in our

(Refer Slide Time: 41:19)

(Refer Slide Time: 42:35)

(Refer Slide Time: 44:37)

(Refer Slide Time: 45:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 47:25)

(Refer Slide Time: 52:58)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:46)

Now, to define this continuum parameter, we quantify it in terms of a number which is

(Refer Slide Time: 11:13)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:56)

coordinates of the point B has change to xB, yB, and zB.

differential equations; that is velocity of the particle p can be defined as the

(Refer Slide Time: 17:40)

this is how the extensive properties is defined.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 25:03)

(Refer Slide Time: 26:44)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 32:45)

stresses on this particular plane.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:49)

And finally, it turns out to be in a matrix form which is

(Refer Slide Time: 37:12)

(Refer Slide Time: 43:31)

(Refer Slide Time: 50:02)

(Refer Slide Time: 55:42)

(Refer Slide Time: 57:54)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

So, after finding these terms we can simplify this as

(Refer Slide Time: 11:08)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:14)

the sonic velocity. Sonic velocity is defined by RT .

(Refer Slide Time: 22:40)

(Refer Slide Time: 28:17)

Thank you for your attention.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:25)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:43)

(Refer Slide Time: 06:28)

So, this is where the  T is represented as compressibility at constant temperature. So,

(Refer Slide Time: 10:39)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:29)

(Refer Slide Time: 26:32)

(Refer Slide Time: 27:46)

  aA which is we get from

(Refer Slide Time: 45:06)