CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND AC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS

SSM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Divar, Parihaspora, Pattan , Baramulla

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In partial fulfillment for the award of degree
of
BACHELOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
TRAINING REPORT 2018
ON
“CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND AC SYSTEMS IN
HOSPITALS”
Submitted by
KHUSHBOO BASHIR. SEC. A
RUQSANA NABI SEC. A
INSHA SHOWKAT. SEC. A
KALEEM MUSTAFA SEC. A
RAQIB IMTIYAZ. SEC. A
AQIB MEHRAJ. SEC. A
P SUHAIL IMRAN. SEC. A
MUTAHIR AHMAD. SEC. A
ZAHID LATEEF. SEC. A
WASEEM BAQAL SEC. A

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CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND AC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS

Acknowledgement

Praise and Thanks to the Almighty, who showered us with uncountable and
magnificent blessings and made us to work under the humble shadow of various engineers of
Srinagar development authority. We would like to thank and appreciate the role of engineers
and works supervisors of the HOSPITAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT who gave us the
permission to have the field training at SKIMS SOURA

We would also thank Er Mohd Nayeem (HOD MECH.) for giving the permission to
for field training.

KHUSHBOO BASHIR
RUQSANA NABI
INSHA SHOWKAT
KALEEM MUSTAFA
RAQIB IMTIYAZ
AQIB MEHRAJ
P SUHAIL IMRAN
MUTAHIR AHMAD
ZAHID LATEEF
WASEEM BAQAL

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CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND AC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled as CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND
AC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS Submitted By Khushboo Bashir, Ruqsana Nabi , Insha
Showkat, Kaleem Mustafa, Raqib Imtiyaz, Aqib Mehraj, P Suhail Imran, Mutahir Ahmad,
Zahid Lateef And Waseem Baqal to SSM College of Engineering & Technology, Divar
Parihaspora, Pattan in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree of
Bachelors in Mechanical Engineering is a bonafide record of the training work carried out by
them during the year 2018.

Head Of Deptt
Er Mohd Nayeem

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CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND AC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS

ABSTRACT
Central heating, Boilers and AC systems are a vital part of hospitals and medical facilities. In
addition to providing heat for the entire building, the steam produced from the boiler is used
to sterilize medical equipment and for hot water heating.

Boilers are so vital that the Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Health-care
Organization (JCAHO) requires all accredited hospitals to maintain a 100% backup
capability for steam generation. As combustion experts, the sales engineers and factory
trained technicians of Applied Technologies of New York offer more than two decades of
experience. We will provide expert assistance and guidance from conception through
completion. Our team of professionals will strategically work to deliver cost-effective, long
lasting combustion solutions for medical centers and hospitals.

A central heating system provides warmth to the whole interior of a building (or portion of a
building) from one point to multiple rooms. When combined with other systems in order to
control the building climate, the whole system may be an HVAC (heating, ventilation and air
conditioning) system.

Central heating differs from space heating in that the heat generation occurs in one place,
such as a furnace room or basement in a house or a mechanical room in a large building
(though not necessarily at the geometrically "central" point). The heat is distributed
throughout the building, typically by forced-air through duct-work, by water circulating
through pipes, or by steam fed through pipes. The most common method of heat generation
involves the combustion of fossil fuel in a furnace or boiler.

In much of the temperate climate zone, most detached housing has had central heating
installed since before the Second World War. Where coal was readily available (i.e. the
anthracite coal region in northeast Pennsylvania) coal-fired steam or hot water systems were
common. Later in the 20th century, these were updated to burn fuel oil or gas, eliminating the
need for a large coal storage bin near the boiler and the need to remove and discard coal
ashes. Coal-fired systems are now mostly reserved for larger buildings.

A cheaper alternative to hot water or steam heat is forced hot air. A furnace burns fuel oil,
which heats air in a heat exchanger, and blower fans circulate the warmed air through a
network of ducts to the rooms in the building. This system is cheaper because the air moves
through a series of ducts instead of pipes, and does not require a pipe fitter to install. The
space between floor joists can be boxed in and used as some of the duct-work, further
lowering costs.

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CENTRAL HEATING, BOILERS AND AC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I
TITLE PAGE
II
DECLARATION
III
CERTIFICATE
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENGT
V
ABSTRACT
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
01
INTRODUCTION
02
HISTORY
MODERN CENTRAL
HEATING SYSTEM 05
ENERGY SOURCES 0
8
09
WATER HEATING
11
STEAM HEATING
11
ELECTRIC HEATER
12
HEAT PUMPS
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS 12
13
AIR CONDITIONING
16
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
AIR FILTRATION AND
CLEANING 18
19-21
FIGURES

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INTRODUCTION

A central heating system provides warmth to the whole interior of a building (or portion of a
building) from one point to multiple rooms. When combined with other systems in order to
control the building climate, the whole system may be an HVAC (heating, ventilation and air
conditioning) system.

Central heating differs from space heating in that the heat generation occurs in one place,
such as a furnace room or basement in a house or a mechanical room in a large building
(though not necessarily at the geometrically "central" point). The heat is distributed
throughout the building, typically by forced-air through ductwork, by water circulating
through pipes, or by steam fed through pipes. The most common method of heat generation
involves the combustion of fossil fuel in a furnace or boiler.

In much of the temperate climate zone, most detached housing has had central heating
installed since before the Second World War. Where coal was readily available (i.e. the
anthracite coal region in northeast Pennsylvania) coal-fired steam or hot water systems were
common. Later in the 20th century, these were updated to burn fuel oil or gas, eliminating the
need for a large coal storage bin near the boiler and the need to remove and discard coal
ashes. Coal-fired systems are now mostly reserved for larger buildings.

A cheaper alternative to hot water or steam heat is forced hot air. A furnace burns fuel oil,
which heats air in a heat exchanger, and blower fans circulate the warmed air through a
network of ducts to the rooms in the building. This system is cheaper because the air moves
through a series of ducts instead of pipes, and does not require a pipe fitter to install. The
space between floor joists can be boxed in and used as some of the ductwork, further
lowering costs.

Electrical heating systems occur less commonly and are practical only with low-cost
electricity or when ground source heat pumps are used. Considering the combined system of
thermal power station and electric resistance heating, the overall efficiency will be less than
for direct use of fossil fuel for space heating.[1]

Some other buildings utilize central solar heating, in which case the distribution system
normally uses water circulation.

Alternatives to such systems are gas heaters and district heating. District heating uses the
waste heat from an industrial process or electrical generating plant to provide heat for
neighbouring buildings. Similar to cogeneration, this requires underground piping to circulate
hot water or steam.

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The four different generations of district heating systems and their energy sources

HISTORY
Ancient Korea:

Use of the ondol has been found at archaeological sites in present-day North Korea. A
Neolithic Age archaeological site, circa 5000 BC, discovered in Unggi, Hamgyeongbuk-do,
in present-day North Korea, shows a clear vestige of gudeul in the excavated dwelling.

The main components of the traditional ondol are an agungi (firebox or stove) accessible
from an adjoining room (typically kitchen or master bedroom), a raised masonry floor
underlain by horizontal smoke passages, and a vertical, freestanding chimney on the opposite
exterior wall providing a draft. The heated floor, supported by stone piers or baffles to
distribute the smoke, is covered by stone slabs, clay and an impervious layer such as oiled
paper.

Early ondols began as gudeul that provided the heating for a home and for cooking. When a
fire was lit in the furnace to cook rice for dinner, the flame would extend horizontally

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because the flue entry was beside the furnace. This arrangement was essential, as it would not
allow the smoke to travel upward, which would cause the flame to go out too soon. As the
flame would pass through the flue entrance, it would be guided through the network of
passages with the smoke. Entire rooms would be built on the furnace flue to create ondol
floored rooms.

Ondol had traditionally been used as a living space for sitting, eating, sleeping and other
pastimes in most Korean homes before the 1960s. Koreans are accustomed to sitting and
sleeping on the floor, and working and eating at low tables instead of raised tables with
chairs. The furnace burned mainly rice paddy straws, agricultural crop waste, biomass or any
kind of dried firewood. For short-term cooking, rice paddy straws or crop waste was
preferred, while long hours of cooking and floor heating needed longer-burning firewood.
Unlike modern-day water heaters, the fuel was either sporadically or regularly burned (two to
five times a day), depending on frequency of cooking and seasonal weather conditions.

An illustration of the ondol system

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Ancient Rome and Greece:

The ancient Greeks originally developed central heating. The temple of Ephesus was heated
by flues planted in the ground and circulating the heat which was generated by fire. Some
buildings in the Roman Empire used central heating systems, conducting air heated by
furnaces through empty spaces under the floors and out of pipes (called Cali ducts)[4] in the
walls—a system known as a hypocaust.

The Roman hypocaust continued to be used on a smaller scale during late Antiquity and by
the Umayyad caliphate, while later Muslim builders employed a simpler system of under
floor pipes.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, overwhelmingly across Europe, heating reverted to
more primitive fireplaces for almost a thousand years.

In the early medieval Alpine upland, a simpler central heating system where heat travelled
through under floor channels from the furnace room replaced the Roman hypocaust at some
places. In Reichenau Abbey a network of interconnected under floor channels heated the 300
m² large assembly room of the monks during the winter months. The degree of efficiency of
the system has been calculated at 90%.

In the 13th century, the Cistercian monks revived central heating in Christian Europe using
river diversions combined with indoor wood-fired furnaces. The well-preserved Royal
Monastery of Our Lady of the Wheel (founded 1202) on the Ebro River in the Aragon region
of Spain provides an excellent example of such an application.

Ruins of the hypocaust under the floor of a Roman villa at La Olmeda, Province of
Palencia (Castile and León, Spain).

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MODERN CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM

The three main methods of central heating were developed in the late 18th to mid-19th
centuries:

Hot air:

William Strutt designed a new mill building in Derby with a central hot air furnace in 1793,
although the idea had been already proposed by John Evelyn almost a hundred years earlier.
Strutt's design consisted of a large stove that heated air brought from the outside by a large
underground passage. The air was ventilated through the building by large central ducts.

In 1807, he collaborated with another eminent engineer, Charles Sylvester, on the

construction of a new building to house Derby's Royal Infirmary. Sylvester was instrumental
in applying Strutt's novel heating system for the new hospital. He published his ideas in The
Philosophy of Domestic Economy; as exemplified in the mode of Warming, Ventilating,
Washing, Drying, & Cooking, in the Derbyshire General Infirmary in 1819. Sylvester
documented the new ways of heating hospitals that were included in the design, and the
healthier features such as self-cleaning and air-refreshing toilets.[10] The infirmary's novel
heating system allowed the patients to breathe fresh heated air whilst old air was channelled
up to a glass and iron dome at the centre.

Their designs proved very influential. They were widely copied in the new mills of the
Midlands and were constantly improved, reaching maturity with the work of de Chabannes
on the ventilation of the House of Commons in the 1810s. This system remained the standard
for heating small buildings for the rest of the century.

Sylvester's warm-air stove, 1819

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Steam:

The English writer Hugh Plat proposed a steam-based central heating system for a
greenhouse in 1594, although this was an isolated occurrence and was not followed up until
the 18th century. Colonel Coke devised a system of pipes that would carry steam around the
house from a central boiler, but it was James Watt the Scottish inventor who was the first to
build a working system in his house.

A central boiler supplied high-pressure steam that then distributed the heat within the
building through a system of pipes embedded in the columns. He implemented the system on
a much larger scale at a textile factory in Manchester. Robertson Buchanan wrote the
definitive description of these installations in his treatises published in 1807 and 1815.
Thomas Tredgold's work Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public Buildings delineated
the method of the application of hot steam heating to smaller, non-industrial buildings. This
method had superseded the hot air systems by the late 19th century.

Hot water:

Early hot water systems were used in Ancient Rome for heating the Thermæ. Another early
hot water system was developed in Russia for central heating of the Summer Palace (1710–
1714) of Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg. Slightly later, in 1716, came the first use of
water in Sweden to distribute heating in buildings. Mårten Triewald, a Swedish engineer,
used this method for a greenhouse at Newcastle upon Tyne. Jean Simon Bonnemain (1743–
1830), a French architect, introduced the technique to industry on a cooperative, at Château
du Pêcq, near Paris.

However, these scattered attempts were isolated and mainly confined in their application to
greenhouses. Tredgold originally dismissed its use as impractical, but changed his mind in
1836, when the technology went into a phase of rapid development.

Early systems had used low pressure water systems, which required very large pipes. One of
the first modern hot water central heating systems to remedy this deficiency were installed by
Angier March Perkins in London in the 1830s. At that time central heating was coming into
fashion in Britain, with steam or hot air systems generally being used.

Perkins' 1832 apparatus distributed water at 200 degrees Celsius (392 °F) through small
diameter pipes at high pressure. A crucial invention to make the system viable was the thread
screwed joint that allowed the joint between the pipes to bear a similar pressure to the pipe
itself. He also separated the boiler from the heat source to reduce the risk of explosion. The
first unit was installed in the home of Governor of the Bank of England John Horsley Palmer
so that he could grow grapes in England's cold climate.

His systems were installed in factories and churches across the country, many of them
remaining in usable condition for over 150 years. His system was also adapted for use by
bakers in the heating of their ovens and in the making of paper from wood pulp.

Franz San Galli, a Prussian-born Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg, invented the
radiator between 1855 and 1857, which was a major step in the final shaping of modern
central heating. The Victorian cast iron radiator became widespread by the end of the 19th

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century as companies, such as the American Radiator Company, expanded the market for low
cost radiators in the US and Europe.

Details of furnace and expansion tube from Perkins' 1838 Patent

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ENERGY SOURCES

The energy source selected for a central heating system varies by region. The primary energy source
is selected on the basis of cost, convenience, efficiency and reliability. The energy cost of heating is
one of the main costs of operating a building in a cold climate. Some central heating plants can switch
fuels for reasons of economy and convenience; for example, a home owner may install a wood-fired
furnace with electrical backup for occasional unattended operation.

Solid fuels such as wood, peat or coal can be stockpiled at the point of use, but are inconvenient to
handle and difficult to automatically control. Wood fuel is still used where the supply is plentiful and
the occupants of the building don't mind the work involved in hauling in fuel, removing ashes, and
tending the fire. Pellet fuel systems can automatically stoke the fire, but still need manual removal of
ash. Coal was once an important residential heating fuel but today is uncommon, and smokeless fuel
is preferred as a substitute in open fireplaces or stoves.

Liquid fuels are petroleum products such as heating oil and kerosene. These are still widely applied
where other heat sources are unavailable. Fuel oil can be automatically fired in a central heating
system and requires no ash removal and little maintenance of the combustion system.

However, the variable price of oil on world markets leads to erratic and high prices compared to some
other energy sources. Institutional heating systems (office buildings or schools, for example) can use
low-grade, inexpensive bunker fuel to run their heating plants, but capital cost is high compared to
more easily managed liquid fuels.

Natural gas is a widespread heating fuel in North America and northern Europe. Gas burners are
automatically controlled and require no ash removal and little maintenance. However, not all areas
have access to a natural gas distribution system. Liquefied petroleum gas or propane can be stored at
the point of use and periodically replenished by a truck-mounted mobile tank.

Some areas have low cost electric power, making electric heating economically practical. Electric
heating can either be purely resistance-type heating or make use of a heat pump system to take
advantage of low-grade heat in the air or ground.

A district heating system uses centrally located boilers or water heaters and circulates heat energy to
individual customers by circulating hot water or steam. This has the advantage of a central highly
efficient energy converter than can use the best available pollution controls, and that is professionally
operated. The district heating system can use heat sources impractical to deploy to individual homes,
such as heavy oil, wood by-products, or (hypothetically) nuclear fission. The distribution network is
more costly to build than for gas or electric heating, and so is only found in densely populated areas or
compact communities.

Not all central heating systems require purchased energy. A few buildings are served by local
geothermal heat, using hot water or steam from a local well to provide building heat. Such areas are
uncommon. A passive solar system requires no purchased fuel but needs to be carefully designed for
the site.

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Calculating output of heater required:

Heater outputs are measured in kilowatts or BTU per hour. For placement in a house, the
heater, and the level of output required for the house, needs to be calculated. This calculation
is achieved by recording a variety of factors – namely, what is above and below the room you
wish to heat, how many windows there are, the type of external walls in the property and a
variety of other factors that will determine the level of heat output that is required to
adequately heat the space. This calculation is called a heat loss calculation and can be done
with a BTU Calculator. Depending on the outcome of this calculation, the heater can be
exactly matched to the house.

Billing:

Heat output can be measured by Heat cost allocators, so that each unit can be individually
billed even though there is only one centralized system.

WATER HEATING

Circulating hot water can be used for central heating. Sometimes these systems are called
hydronic heating systems.

Common components of a central heating system using water-circulation include:

• A supply of fuel, electric power or district heating supply lines

• A Boiler (or a heat exchanger for district heating) which heats water in the system
• Pump to circulate the water
• Radiators through which the heated water passes in order to release heat into rooms.

The circulating water systems use a closed loop; the same water is heated and then reheated.
A sealed system provides a form of central heating in which the water used for heating
circulates independently of the building's normal water supply.

Active indirect water heater

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An expansion tank contains compressed gas, separated from the sealed-system water by a
diaphragm. This allows for normal variations of pressure in the system. A safety valve allows
water to escape from the system when pressure becomes too high, and a valve can open to
replenish water from the normal water supply if the pressure drops too low. Sealed systems
offer an alternative to open-vent systems, in which steam can escape from the system, and
gets replaced from the building's water supply via a feed and central storage system.

Heating systems in the United Kingdom and in other parts of Europe commonly combine the
needs of space heating with domestic hot-water heating. These systems occur less commonly
in the USA. In this case, the heated water in a sealed system flows through a heat exchanger
in a hot-water tank or hot-water cylinder where it heats water from the regular potable water
supply for use at hot-water taps or appliances such as washing machines or dishwashers.

Hydronic radiant floor heating systems use a boiler or district heating to heat water and a
pump to circulate the hot water in plastic pipes installed in a concrete slab. The pipes,
embedded in the floor, carry heated water that conducts warmth to the surface of the floor,
where it broadcasts heat energy to the room above. Hydronic heating systems are also used
with antifreeze solutions in ice and snow melt systems for walkways, parking lots and streets.
They are more commonly used in commercial and whole house radiant floor heat projects,
whereas electric radiant heat systems are more commonly used in smaller "spot warming"
applications.

Expansion tank in a sealed system

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STEAM HEATING

A steam heating system takes advantage of the high latent heat which is given off when steam
condenses to liquid water. In a steam heating system, each room is equipped with a radiator
which is connected to a source of low-pressure steam (a boiler). Steam entering the radiator
condenses and gives up its latent heat, returning to liquid water. The radiator in turn heats the
air of the room, and provides some direct radiant heat. The condensate water returns to the
boiler either by gravity or with the assistance of a pump. Some systems use only a single pipe
for combined steam and condensate return. Since trapped air prevents proper circulation, such
systems have vent valves to allow air to be purged. In domestic and small commercial
buildings, the steam is generated at relatively low pressure, less than 15 psig (200 kPa) [citation
needed]
.

Steam heating systems are rarely installed in new single-family residential construction
owing to the cost of the piping installation. Pipes must be carefully sloped to prevent trapped
condensate blockage. Compared to other methods of heating, it is more difficult to control the
output of a steam system. However, steam can be sent, for example, between buildings on a
campus to allow use of an efficient central boiler and low cost fuel. Tall buildings take
advantage of the low density of steam to avoid the excessive pressure required to circulate
hot water from a basement-mounted boiler. In industrial systems, process steam used for
power generation or other purposes can also be tapped for space heating. Steam for heating
systems may also be obtained from heat recovery boilers using otherwise wasted heat from
industrial processes.

ELECTRIC HEATER

Electric heating or resistance heating converts electricity directly to heat. Electric heat is
often more expensive than heat produced by combustion appliances like natural gas, propane,
and oil. Electric resistance heat can be provided by baseboard heaters, space heaters, radiant
heaters, furnaces, wall heaters, or thermal storage systems.

Electric heaters are usually part of a fan coil which is part of a central air conditioner. They
circulate heat by blowing air across the heating element which is supplied to the furnace
through return air ducts. Blowers in electric furnaces move air over one to five resistance
coils or elements which are usually rated at five kilowatts. The heating elements activate one
at a time to avoid overloading the electrical system. Overheating is prevented by a safety
switch called a limit controller or limit switch. This limit controller may shut the furnace off
if the blower fails or if something is blocking the air flow. The heated air is then sent back
through the home through supply ducts.

In larger commercial applications, central heating is provided through an air handler which
incorporates similar components as a furnace but on a larger scale.

A data furnace uses computers to convert electricity into heat while simultaneously
processing data.

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HEAT PUMPS

In mild climates an air source heat pump can be used to air condition the building during hot
weather, and to warm the building using heat extracted from outdoor air in cold weather. Air-
source heat pumps are generally uneconomic for outdoor temperatures much below freezing.
In colder climates, geothermal heat pumps can be used to extract heat from the ground. For
economy, these systems are designed for average low winter temperatures and use
supplemental heating for extreme low temperature conditions. The advantage of the heat
pump is that it reduces the purchased energy required for building heating; often geothermal
source systems also supply domestic hot water. Even in places where fossil fuels provide
most electricity, a geothermal system may offset greenhouse gas production since most of the
heat is supplied from the surrounding environment, with only 15–30% as electrical
consumption.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

From an energy-efficiency standpoint considerable heat gets lost or goes to waste if only a
single room needs heating, since central heating has distribution losses and (in the case of
forced-air systems particularly) may heat some unoccupied rooms without need. In such
buildings which require isolated heating, one may wish to consider non-central systems such
as individual room heaters, fireplaces or other devices. Alternatively, architects can design
new buildings which can virtually eliminate the need for heating, such as those built to the
Passive House standard.

However, if a building does need full heating, combustion central heating may offer a more
environmentally friendly solution than electric resistance heating. This applies when
electricity originates from a fossil fuel power station, with up to 60% of the energy in the fuel
lost (unless utilized for district heating) and about 6% in transmission losses. In Sweden
proposals exist to phase out direct electric heating for this reason (see oil phase-out in
Sweden). Nuclear, wind, solar and hydroelectric sources reduce this factor.

In contrast, hot-water central heating systems can use water heated in or close to the building
using high-efficiency condensing boilers, biofuels, or district heating. Wet under floor
heating has proven ideal. This offers the option of relatively easy conversion in the future to
use developing technologies such as heat pumps and solar comb systems, thereby also
providing future-proofing.

Typical efficiencies for central heating (measured at the customer's purchase of energy) are:
65–97% for gas fired heating; 80–89% for oil-fired, and 45–60% for coal-fired heating.

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AIR CONDITIONING

An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and/or humidity
control for all or part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows,
because open windows would work against the system intended to maintain constant indoor
air conditions. Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into a mix air
chamber for mixing with the space return air. Then the mixture air enters an indoor or
outdoor heat exchanger section where the air is to be cooled down, then be guided to the
space creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can
usually be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about
10% of the total supply air.

Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be
removed through radiation, convection, or conduction. The heat transfer medium is a
refrigeration system, such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A
refrigerant is employed either in a heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive
thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling system which uses pumps to circulate
a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix).

It is imperative that the air conditioning horsepower is sufficient for the area being cooled.
Underpowered air conditioning system will lead to power wastage and inefficient usage.
Adequate horsepower is required for any air conditioner installed.

Refrigeration cycle:

The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool, which are compressor,
condenser, metering device and evaporator.

• At the inlet of a compressor, the refrigerant inside the system is in a low pressure, low
temperature, and gaseous state. The compressor pumps the refrigerant gas up to a high
pressure and temperature.
• From there it enters a heat exchanger (sometimes called a condensing coil or
condenser) where it loses heat to the outside, cools, and condenses into its liquid
phase.
• An expansion valve (also called metering device) regulates the refrigerant liquid to
flow at the proper rate.
• The liquid refrigerant is returned to another heat exchanger where it is allowed to
evaporate; hence the heat exchanger is often called an evaporating coil or evaporator.
As the liquid refrigerant evaporates it absorbs heat from the inside air, returns to the
compressor, and repeats the cycle. In the process, heat is absorbed from indoors and
transferred outdoors, resulting in cooling of the building.

In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that switches from heating in
winter to cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump refrigeration
cycle is changed from cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows a facility to be heated and
cooled by a single piece of equipment by the same means, and with the same hardware.

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A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve,
3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor

Free Cooling:

Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with
seasonal thermal energy storage so that the cold of winter can be used for summer air
conditioning. Common storage mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock
mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter, heat-exchanger-equipped boreholes. Some
systems with small storages are hybrids, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and
later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump
is added-in because the storage acts as a heat sink when the system is in cooling (as opposed
to charging) mode, causing the temperature to gradually increase during the cooling season.

Some systems include an "economizer mode", which is sometimes called a "free-cooling

mode". When economizing, the control system will open (fully or partially) the outside air
damper and close (fully or partially) the return air damper. This will cause fresh, outside air
to be supplied to the system. When the outside air is cooler than the demanded cool air, this
will allow the demand to be met without using the mechanical supply of cooling (typically
chilled water or a direct expansion "DX" unit), thus saving energy. The control system can
compare the temperature of the outside air vs. return air, or it can compare the enthalpy of the
air, as is frequently done in climates where humidity is more of an issue. In both cases, the
outside air must be less energetic than the return air for the system to enter the economizer
mode.

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Packaged vs. split system:

Central, "all-air" air-conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor
condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in North American residences, offices, and
public buildings, but are difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to
receive it) because of the bulky air ducts required. (Minisplit ductless systems are used in
these situations.) Outside of North America, packaged systems are only used in limited
applications involving large indoor space such as stadiums, theatres or exhibition halls.

An alternative to packaged systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split
systems. Split systems are preferred and widely used worldwide except in North America. In
North America, split systems are most often seen in residential applications, but they are
gaining popularity in small commercial buildings. The split systems are a great choice for
small buildings where ductwork is not feasible or where the space conditioning efficiency is
of prime concern. The benefits of ductless air conditioning systems include easy installation,
no ductwork, greater zonal control, flexibility of control and quiet operation. In space
conditioning, the duct losses can account for 30% of energy consumption. The use of
minisplit can result in energy savings in space conditioning as there are no losses associated
with ducting.

With the split system, the evaporator coil is connected to a remote condenser unit using
refrigerant piping between an indoor and outdoor unit instead of ducting air directly from the
outdoor unit. Indoor units with directional vents mount onto walls, suspended from ceilings,
or fit into the ceiling. Other indoor units mount inside the ceiling cavity, so that short lengths
of duct handle air from the indoor unit to vents or diffusers around the rooms.

Split systems are more efficient and the footprint is typically smaller than the package
systems. On the other hand, package systems tend to have slightly lower indoor noise level
compared to split system since the fan motor is located outside.

Dehumidification:

Dehumidification (air drying) in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator.

Since the evaporator operates at a temperature below the dew point, moisture in the air
condenses on the evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the
evaporator in a pan and removed by piping to a central drain or onto the ground outside.

A dehumidifier is an air-conditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or

building. It is often employed in basements which have a higher relative humidity because of
their lower temperature (and propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing
establishments, large open chiller cabinets are highly effective at dehumidifying the internal
air. Conversely, a humidifier increases the humidity of a building.

Maintenance:

All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped with
internal air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauze-like material, and must be
replaced or washed as conditions warrant. For example, a building in a high dust
environment, or a home with furry pets, will need to have the filters changed more often than

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buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to replace these filters as needed will contribute to
a lower heat exchange rate, resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment life, and higher
energy bills; low air flow can result in iced-over evaporator coils, which can completely stop
air flow. Additionally, very dirty or plugged filters can cause overheating during a heating
cycle, and can result in damage to the system or even fire.

Because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor coil and the outdoor coil, both
must be kept clean. This means that, in addition to replacing the air filter at the evaporator
coil, it is also necessary to regularly clean the condenser coil. Failure to keep the condenser
clean will eventually result in harm to the compressor, because the condenser coil is
responsible for discharging both the indoor heat (as picked up by the evaporator) and the heat
generated by the electric motor driving the compressor.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make the
systems they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs,
and has more recently been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues.
Additionally, improvements to the HVAC system efficiency can also help increase occupant
health and productivity. In the US, the EPA has imposed tighter restrictions over the years.
There are several methods for making HVAC systems more efficient.

Heating energy:

In the past, water heating was more efficient for heating buildings and was the standard in the
United States. Today, forced air systems can double for air conditioning and are more
popular.

Some benefits of forced air systems, which are now widely used in churches, schools and
high-end residences, are

• Better air conditioning effects

• Energy savings of up to 15-20%
• Even conditioning

A drawback is the installation cost, which can be slightly higher than traditional HVAC
systems.

Energy efficiency can be improved even more in central heating systems by introducing
zoned heating. This allows a more granular application of heat, similar to non-central heating
systems. Zones are controlled by multiple thermostats. In water heating systems the
thermostats control zone valves, and in forced air systems they control zone dampers inside
the vents which selectively block the flow of air. In this case, the control system is very
critical to maintaining a proper temperature.

Forecasting is another method of controlling building heating by calculating demand for

heating energy that should be supplied to the building in each time unit.

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Ground source Heat Pump:

Ground source, or geothermal, heat pumps are similar to ordinary heat pumps, but instead of
transferring heat to or from outside air, they rely on the stable, even temperature of the earth
to provide heating and air conditioning. Many regions experience seasonal temperature
extremes, which would require large-capacity heating and cooling equipment to heat or cool
buildings. For example, a conventional heat pump system used to heat a building in
Montana's −57 °C (−70 °F) low temperature or cool a building in the highest temperature
ever recorded in the US—57 °C (134 °F) in Death Valley, California, in 1913 would require
a large amount of energy due to the extreme difference between inside and outside air
temperatures. A metre below the earth's surface, however, the ground remains at a relatively
constant temperature. Utilizing this large source of relatively moderate temperature earth, a
heating or cooling system's capacity can often be significantly reduced. Although ground
temperatures vary according to latitude, at 1.8 metres (6 ft) underground, temperatures
generally only range from 7 to 24 °C (45 to 75 °F).

An example of a geothermal heat pump that uses a body of water as the heat sink, is the
system used by the Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago, Illinois. This building
is situated on the Chicago River, and uses cold river water by pumping it into a recirculating
cooling system, where heat exchangers transfer heat from the building into the water, and
then the now-warmed water is pumped back into the Chicago River.

While they may be more costly to install than regular heat pumps, geothermal heat pumps can
produce markedly lower energy bills – 30 to 40 per cent lower, according to estimates from
the US Environmental Protection Agency.

Geothermal heat pumps still provide higher efficiency than air source heat pumps. Some
models provide 70% saving compared to electric resistance heaters.

Ventilation energy recovery:

Energy recovery systems sometimes utilize heat recovery ventilation or energy recovery
ventilation systems that employ heat exchangers or enthalpy wheels to recover sensible or
latent heat from exhausted air. This is done by transfer of energy to the incoming outside
fresh air.

Air conditioning energy:

The performance of vapour compression refrigeration cycles is limited by

thermodynamics.[26] These air conditioning and heat pump devices move heat rather than
convert it from one form to another, so thermal efficiencies do not appropriately describe the
performance of these devices. The Coefficient-of-Performance (COP) measures performance,
but this dimensionless measure has not been adopted. Instead, the Energy Efficiency Ratio
(EER) has traditionally been used to characterize the performance of many HVAC systems.
EER is the Energy Efficiency Ratio based on a 35 °C (95 °F) outdoor temperature. To more
accurately describe the performance of air conditioning equipment over a typical cooling
season a modified version of the EER, the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER), or in
Europe the ESEER, is used. SEER ratings are based on seasonal temperature averages instead
of a constant 35 °C (95 °F) outdoor temperature. The current industry minimum SEER rating

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is 14 SEER.[27] Engineers have pointed out some areas where efficiency of the existing
hardware could be improved. For example, the fan blades used to move the air are usually
stamped from sheet metal, an economical method of manufacture, but as a result they are not
aerodynamically efficient. A well-designed blade could reduce electrical power required to
move the air by a third.

Demand controlled kitchen ventilation:

Demand controlled kitchen ventilation (DCKV) is a building controls approach of controlling

the volume of kitchen exhaust and supply air in response to the actual cooking loads in a
commercial kitchen. Traditional commercial kitchen ventilation systems operate at 100% fan
speed independent of the volume of cooking activity and DCKV technology changes that to
provide significant fan energy and conditioned air savings. By deploying smart sensing
technology, both the exhaust and supply fans can be controlled to capitalize on the affinity
laws for motor energy savings, reduce makeup air heating and cooling energy, increasing
safety and reducing ambient kitchen noise levels.

AIR FILTRATION AND CLEANING

Air cleaning and filtration removes particles, contaminants, vapours and gases from the air.
The filtered and cleaned air then is used in heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Air
cleaning and filtration should be taken in account when protecting our building environments.

Clean air delivery rate and filter performance:

Clean air delivery rate is the amount of clean air an air cleaner provides to a room or space.
When determining CADR, the amount of airflow in a space is taken into account. For
example, an air cleaner with a flow rate of 30 cubic metres (1,000 cu ft.) per minute and an
efficiency of 50% has a CADR of 15 cubic metres (500 cu ft.) per minute. Along with
CADR, filtration performance is very important when it comes to the air in our indoor
environment. Filter performance depends on the size of the particle or fibre, the filter packing
density and depth and also the air flow rate.

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BOILERS USED IN HOSPITAL

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CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM

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AC SYSTEM IN HOSPITAL

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