A

N
T
Tracking Radar
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Tracking Functions and Parameter Estimation
T
E
N Radar Parameter Estimation
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S • Location
O
T • Azimuth Angle
R
• Elevation Angle
Y
• Range
& • Motion
D • Radial Velocity
E • Radial Acceleration
S • Rotation
I • Size
G • Amplitude (RCS)
N • Radial Extent (Length)
• Cross Range Extent (Width)
A
N Tracking Radar: Functions & Parameter Estimation
T
• A tracking radar has a pencil beam to receive echoes from target.
E
N • A tracking-radar system
N
• measures the coordinates (r,,) of a target
A
• provides data(fd, vr) which used to determine the target path
T
I • predict its future position.
H
I
E • used to measure the trajectory of the moving target [Ex:
S
O
T missile] and to predict future position.
R
Y • Types:
&
• STT Radar
D
E • MTT Radar
S
• ADT
I
G • Phased Array Radar Tracking
N
• TWS Radar
A
N • STT [Single Target Tracker] Radar designed to
T
E • Continuously track a single target at a high data rate
N • Ex: Weapon control radar [guided missile targets]
N
A • ADT[Automatic Detection and Track] Radar
• Lower data rate
T
I • Ex: Air Surveillance Radar [Military and Civilian]
H
I
E • Phased Array Radar
S
O
T • High data rate
R
Y • Electronically steered phase array antenna
&
D • Used on time sharing basis
E • Ex: Air-defense weapon radar system [MOTR]
S
I • TWS [Track while Scan] Radar
G • Moderate data rate
N
• Ex: Aircraft Landing Radar (Airborne Radar)
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N TRADEX MTT Radar System
T
• Multl-Target Tracker (MTT), Target Resolution and Discrimination
E
N Experiment (TRADEX) is a
N
• high-power,
A
• high-sensitivity instrumentation radar system
T
I • is unique because it utilizes a large, steered, pencil-beam antenna.
H
I
E • designed to detect and track [> 63 targets] within the beam of the
S
O
T radar.
R
Y • It provides data necessary for determining the angular locations and
&
ranges of all of these targets, as well as signature data necessary for
D
E target identification.
S
• It automatically processes received signals, reports targets, initiates
I
G and maintains target track files, and presents target information to the
N
radar operators through real-time interactive graphical displays.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I C-band monopulse precision tracking radar [NASA Wallops Island Station ]
G
N
It has a 29-ft-diameter antenna with capable of 0.01 mil tracking accuracy.
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N ARPA [Marshall Islands] Long-Range Tracking and Instrumentation Radar
(ALTAIR)
A
N Angle Tracking
T
E • A tracking radar has a pencil beam to receive echoes from target.
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R AB
Y
& AA
D
E
S
I
G
T
N 0
A
N
T
E • Methods to extract error signal may be classified as
N • Sequential lobing
N
A • Conical scan
• Simultaneous lobing or monopulse
T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Single beam on time sharing basis. Multiple beam.
N
N • Sequential lobing Radar and • Simultaneous lobing or monopulse
A
• Conical scan Radar Radar]
T • Simpler • Complex
I
H
I • One antenna • Multiple antennas
E
S
O • Less equipment • More equipments
T
R
• Not accurate • Accurate
Y
& • RCS scintillation • Single pulse is used to
D
• Angle scintillation determine the angular error.
E
S • No of pulses are • Amplitude comparison
I
required to extract the • Phase comparison
G
N error signal
A
N Sequential Lobing [switching the antenna beam between two positions]
T
E
N
N
A

T
I AB
H
I
E
S AA
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
Polar representation Rect. representation of switched antenna patterns
N
Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension).
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O AB
T
R
Y
& AA
D
E
S
I
G
N
error signal
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O Target located on the antenna axis
T
R
Y
&
D Angle error sensing in one
E
S coordinate by switching the
I antenna beam position from one
G
side of the target to the other,
N
Target at one side of the antenna axis.
A
N Conical Scan Tracking
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G T (Target angle):angle between the axis of rotation and the direction to the target.
N q (Squint angle):angle between the antenna-beam axis and the axis of rotation
 (Beamwidth):angular separation two half power points
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Block diagram of conical-scan tracking radar
A
N
T
E Why AGC is required
N
N The echo-signal amplitude at the tracking-radar receiver will not be constant but
A will vary with time.
The three major causes of variation in amplitude are due to
T
I
H (1) target cross section (Pr  )
I
E (2) range i.e. Pr  (1/R4)
S
O
T (3) the conical scan modulation (angle-error signal), and
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E Function of AGC
N
N • to maintain the d-c level of the receiver output constant
A • to smooth or eliminate as much of the noise like amplitude fluctuations as
possible without disturbing the extraction of the desired error signal at the
T
I
H conical-scan frequency.
I
E • Results in an error signal that is a true indication of the angular
S
O
T pointing error
R
Y • to prevent saturation by large signals.
& • Scanning modulation and the error signal would be lost if the receiver
D
E were to saturate
S
I
G
N
A
N AGC
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E Block diagram of the AGC portion of a tracking- radar receiver
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D The angle-error signal voltage vs function (T / B)
E
S T (Target angle):angle between the axis of rotation and the direction to the target.
I
q (Squint angle):angle between the antenna-beam axis and the axis of rotation
G
N B (Beamwidth):angular separation two half power points
A
N
T
E Observation:
N
• Greater the slope of the error signal, More accurate will be the tracking of
N
A the target.
• The maximum slope occurs for a value T / B slightly greater than 0.4 that
T
I corresponds to a point on the antenna pattern (the antenna crossover) about
H
I 2 dB down from the peak.
E
S
O • It is the optimum crossover for maximizing the accuracy of angle tracking.
T
R
• It has been suggested that the compromise value of T / B be about 0.28,
Y
& corresponding to a point on the antenna pattern about 1.0 dB below the
D peak.
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Monopulse Radar
T
Monopulse Antenna pattern
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S Sum patterns
O Overlapping antenna patterns
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Difference patterns Error Signal
A
N Monopulse Radar [since the 1960s]
T
E Limitations in conical scan radar:
N • The conical scanning radar compares the return from two directions to
N
directly measure the location of the target.
A
• It creates confusion by rapid changes in signal strength.
T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E • Monopulse radar is a radar system that compares the received signal from
N a single radar pulse against itself in order to compare the signal as seen in
N
multiple directions, polarizations, or other differences.
A
• In this technique,
T • The RF signals received from two offset antenna beams are combined
I
H
I so that both the sum and the difference signals are obtained
E
S
O simultaneously.
T
R • The sum and difference signals are multiplied in a phase-sensitive
Y
& detector to obtain both the magnitude and the direction of the error
D signal.
E • To determine the angular error is obtained on the basis of a single
S
I pulse; hence the name monopulse is quite appropriate.
G
N
A
N Amplitude-Comparison Monopulse Radar
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar (one angular coordinate)
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Block diagram of amplitude-comparison monopulse radar (Two angular coordinate)
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I (a) Angle error information contained in the envelope of the received
G
N pulses in a conical-scan radar. (b) Reference signal derived from the
drive of the conical-scan feed.
A
N Phase-Comparison Monopulse Radar
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Phase-Comparison Monopulse Radar
T
E
N
N (a) Wave front phase relationships in a phase
A
comparison monopulse radar

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
(b) Block diagram of a phase comparison monopulse radar (one angle coordinate).
A
N Limitations to Tracking Accuracy
T
E • Major effects that determine the accuracy of a tracking radar:
N • Glint or angle noise or angular scintillation: which affects all
N
A tracking radars especially at short range.
• Receiver noise: affects all radars and mainly determines tracking
T
I accuracy at long range.
H
I
E • RCS scintillation or Amplitude fluctuations of the target echo that
S
O
T bother conical scan and sequential lobing trackers but not
R
Y monopulse.
&
D • Servo noise
E
S
I
G
N
A
N TRACKING ANTENNAS
T
E • Most popularly used antennas are:
N
N • Parabolic Reflector Antennas
A • Planar Phased Arrays

T • Electronically steered Phased array antennas

I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Advantages of Beam Forming
T
E • Increases coverage and reduces the number of antennas.
N
• Improves SNR
N
A • Improves signal quality
ELECTRONIC BEAMFORMING
T • Increase in system capacity
H
E
O
R
Y
&
SCANNING ADAPTIVE SWITCHED/FIXED
D
E
S
I
G Multi
N Beam Fixed
Arrays Butler Matrix
Selector
A
N Components of Beam Forming Systems
T
E •Element Array: Consist of antennas. Efficient transmission through
N
N the array of elements is the primary design aim.
A
•Phase Shifters: An electronic phase shifter feeds each element and
T each value is set so that the array radiates a plane wave of
H
wavelength λ₀.
E
O •Feed System: It collects or distributes the energy from the elements
R
Y and phase shifters.
& Methods for Beam Steering
D
• Time delay – delay lines/buffers
E
S • Phase Shifts – phase shifters
I
G • The Butler Matrix – hybrid junctions and static phase shifters
N
• Digital Beam Forming – use of signal processing to form beams
A Corporate Feed Series Feed
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Parabolic Reflector Antennas / Dish Antennas
T
E • Demands of reflectors for use in
N
• Radar Application
N
A • Radio astronomy,
• Wireless communication
T
I • deep-space communication, such as in the space program and
H
I
E especially their deployment on the surface of the moon.
S
O • Reflector antennas take many geometrical configurations, some of the most
T
R
Y popular shapes are the
& • plane,
D • corner, and
E
S • curved reflectors (especially the paraboloid).
I • It provides pencil beam optimizing illumination over their apertures so as to
G
maximize the gain.
N
A
N Parabolic Reflector Antennas / Dish Antennas
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O • The surface of a paraboloidal
T
R
Y reflector is formed by rotating a
& parabola about its axis.
D
• The parabolic surface is illuminated
E
S by a source of radiated energy called
I the feed, which placed at the focus of
G
parabola.
N
• It generates pencil beam.
A
N Surface Geometry
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
Two-dimensional configuration of a paraboloidal reflector
A
N
T
E From the geometry
d /2
N  0  tan 1

N  z0 
A

 z'  f
 x '   y ' 
2 2

T
I 4f
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S  multiply f /d2
I
G
N
where z0 is the distance along the axis of the reflector from focal point to the edge of the rim
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N  z'  f
 x '   y '
2 2

4f
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R Another form
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
Direcivity
N Aperture Efficiency 
T Gain
E
N
N
A
• The aperture efficiency is generally the product of the
T • fraction of the total power that is radiated by the feed, intercepted, and
I
H collimated by the reflecting surface (known as spillover efficiency: )
I
E
S • uniformity of the amplitude distribution of the feed pattern over the surface
O
T
R of the reflector (generally known as taper efficiency )
Y • phase uniformity of the field over the aperture plane (generally known as
&
D phase efficiency )
E • polarization uniformity of the field over the aperture plane (generally
S
known as polarization efficiency )
I
G • blockage efficiency
N • random error efficiency over the reflector surface
A
N Types of Feeds
T
E
Axial or front feed –
N
N • Feed antenna located in front of the dish at the focus, on the beam
A
axis, pointed back toward the dish.
T • A disadvantage: Block some of the beam,
I
H
I • Aperture efficiency : 55–60%.
E
S
O Off-axis or offset feed –
T
R
• The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a paraboloid, so the
Y
& focus, and the feed antenna, are located to one side of the dish.
D
• Purpose of this design: does not block the beam
E
S • Widely used in home satellite television dishes.
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Cassegrain Reflector Antenna by Hannan
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
Cassegrain arrangement
E
S • Larger (main) reflector is parabola • Primary reflector is parabola
I • Secondary reflector is hyperboloid • Secondary reflector is ellipsoidal
G
(Convex) (Concave)
N
• Aperture efficiency: 65–70% • Over 70%
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N Gain increases as aperture becomes electrically larger
(diameter is a larger number of wavelengths)
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N ARPA [Marshall Islands] Long-Range Tracking and Instrumentation Radar
(ALTAIR)
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N Array Controls
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
• Geometrical configuration
N
N • Linear, rectangular,
A
triangular, circular
T grids
H
• Element separation
E
O • Phase shifts
R
• Excitation amplitudes
Y
& • For sidelobe control
D
• Pattern of individual
E
S elements
I
• Isotropic, dipoles, etc.
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N High Gain Antenna- Structures
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
59
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N  Gain increases with increase in
N superstrate resonant height and
A
number of superstrate layers.
T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
62
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
63
A
N Directional-antennas MSA array
T
E
N
N
A

T
H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I Low efficiency due to dielectric and line losses
G High cross-polar radiation due to the feed-line network.
N
64
A
N
T
E 1. M.I. Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw hill, 2000.
N
N 2. M.I. Skolnik, Radar Handbook, McGraw hill, 2nd edition, 1990.
A 3. A.K. Sen and A.B. Battacharya, Radar Systems andRadar Aids to

T Naviation, Khanna Publications, 1988.

H
E
O
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N
A
N
T
E
N
N
A

T
I
H
I
E
S
O
T
R
Y
&
D
E
S
I
G
N