Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

Review

Corrosion of alloys used in dentistry: A review

Deepti Upadhyay a,∗ , Manoj A. Panchal b , R.S. Dubey b , V.K. Srivastava c,1
a
Department of Chemistry, UP College, Varanasi 221001, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Center of Advanced Study, Institute of Technology,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India
c Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India

Received 19 February 2006; received in revised form 14 April 2006; accepted 4 May 2006

Abstract
For regaining the normal functions of the dentition, artificial materials are often used to restore the missing part or structure, these are known as
dental materials. Metals and alloys, e.g., gold alloys are commonly used dental materials, due to their high strength and other desirable properties.
Due to high cost of gold, alloys are being increasingly used in dental applications. Many substitutes for gold alloys have also been employed and
some of them possess superior mechanical properties. Increasing knowledge about interaction of dental materials with oral tissues has resulted in
evolution of high performance dental materials to meet the various requirements of the oral environment. Leaching of metallic ions and food habits
are the main cause of corrosion of metallic dental implants and restorations. Therefore, corrosion has been considered as the most important factor
in the selection of metallic materials, hence it deserves special emphasis and must be evaluated in ever-changing oral environment.
The main objective of the present review is to describe the importance of corrosion of dental metals and alloys. Different dental materials together
with oral environments and various types of corrosion have been described and related reported findings have also been reviewed briefly.
© 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Dental; Metal alloys; Corrosion; Pitting; Leaching; Cavitation

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Metals and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Oral environment and effects on metals and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4. Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1. Uniform or general corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2. Galvanic or two-metal corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3. Crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4. Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5. Intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.6. Selective leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.7. Erosion corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.8. Stress corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 542 2368427; fax: +91 542 2368428.
E-mail addresses: upadhyay deepti@rediffmail.com (D. Upadhyay), vk sa@yahoo.co.in (V.K. Srivastava).
1 Tel.: +91 542 2368157; fax: +91 542 2368174.

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.msea.2006.05.003
2 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
1. Introduction
The field of dental materials is highly catholic in nature, in
the sense it covers a wide variety of materials from fairly exotic
resin systems, elastomers, metals, alloys to ceramic materials,
and many others. Metal alloys have high strength and have
been found to be competitive among other dental materials.
For selecting a material for dental application, it is necessary
to remember that the choice of material depends on a number
of factors like corrosion behavior, mechanical properties includ-
ing strength and fabricability, cost, availability, biocompatibility,
and aesthetic values. The corrosion behavior of metallic materi-
als usually is the most important property because of biocompat-
ibility and cytotoxicity of the products of the corrosion process.
However, from aesthetic considerations, appearance is the most
important factor to be considered. The mechanical properties of
the materials are equally important even though the materials
may have enough corrosion resistance. Cost and availability are
also important for the selection of the materials.
To better understand the effect of corrosion in the mouth, it
is essential to become familiar with metals and alloys normally
used, their composition, the environment in which they must
function and also its effect. The main interest of the present arti-
cle is to review briefly the corrosion behavior of various dental
alloys as reported by various research workers.
2. Metals and alloys
Metals have been used as dental materials for over a century.
Generally, most metals are strong enough to withstand maxi-
mum possible oral forces. Despite the fact that metals showed
deterioration, before the availability of techniques to evaluate
materials performance in biological systems, other high perfor-
mance materials could not be developed to improve implant life
and properties. Advent of innovative technologies and aseptic
surgical procedures enabled researchers to ascertain the reason
of failure of dental materials and consequentially development
of high performance and cost effective materials.
The irritability or cytotoxicity of a metal to cells is closely
related to its location in the periodic table. Gold is the commonly
used metal because of its high resistance to tarnish and corrosion
[1]. In its pure form, gold is too soft for most dental applications.
Under certain circumstances where mechanical properties are
not important, pure gold is used in the form of gold leaf, pow-
Table 1
Types and classes of metallic dental materials and their applications [2,3]
S. no. Type Class
1. Amalgam Low copper
High copper
2. Noble alloys Gold (non-heat-treatable)
Gold (heat-treatable)
Palladium–silver
3. Base alloys Nickel
Cobalt
Iron
dered gold, and crystalline gold. Although no other metal can
withstand the fluctuating oral conditions like gold but the alter-
native alloys available in the market also possess the properties
approaching near to the ideal properties needed for dentistry. A
variety of alloys with physical properties suitable for specific
applications have been developed to meet the requirements of
various functions and properties. A general classification of den-
tal materials, their class and broad application areas are listed in
Table 1 and their compositions are given in Table 2 [2,3].
3. Oral environment and effects on metals and alloys
Structures in the mouth are constantly exposed to an ever-
changing physical and chemical environment that includes tem-
perature and components like saliva, salts, foods, liquids, and
drugs. Plaques and food adhere to teeth and filling materials,
which means several forms of bacteria and their products are
always present inside mouth. Mechanical forces also vary with
respect to the type of food consumed, temperament of person,
and location in the mouth.
The average biting force of a person with natural dentition
is approximately 77 kg in the posterior part of mouth. It repre-
sents approximately 0.193 GPa on a single cusp of molar tooth.
Similarly the temperature in the mouth fluctuates rapidly. When
one drinks coffee immediately after ice cream, change in tem-
perature is as great as 65 ◦ C and pH also changes widely in the
mouth. Moist environment in the mouth also varies and affects
dental materials. Under these circumstances, corrosion of met-
als and alloys in the mouth is expected and it does occur. Some
experimental observations reported by different researchers are
summarized below.
Laing et al. [4] observed that the tissue reaction was pro-
portional to the amount of constituent elements released by
corrosion of a pure metal or alloy. On the other hand, inter-
metallic compounds, e.g., Ag–Sn and Cu–Sn have oxidized
films on their surface protecting them from corrosion in liv-
ing tissue [5]. Also, electro-deposited gold is provided with
a passive protective surface [6]. Several corrosion products of
metal alloys like nickel carbonyl, nickel subsulfide, and nickel
sulfide have been shown to produce carcinogenesis [7,8]. The
presence of components of the posts in dark gingival discol-
orations has been reported adjacent to restorations [9]. Many
heavy metals likes nickel, chromium, and beryllium are clas-
sified as carcinogenic, hazardous, and priority toxic pollutants
Principal application
Posterior restoration of teeth
Posterior restoration of teeth
Restoration of single teeth
Fixed bridges
Restoration of single teeth
Restoration of single and missing teeth, partial denture frameworks
Partial denture framework and implants
Orthodontic appliances and endodontic instruments
 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
Table 2
Composition of dental restorative materials [2,3]
S. no. Type Class
1. Amalgam Low copper
High copper
2. Noble alloys Gold (non-heat-treatable)
Gold (heat-treatable)
Gold (heat-treatable)
Gold (heat-treatable)
Palladium–silver
3. Base alloys Nickel base
Cobalt base
Iron base
[10]. The corrosion products of copper–aluminum alloys are eas-
ily removed by brushing [11,12]. According to Anusavice [13]
alloys with chromium in their formulation must contain a mini-
mum of 12% of this element to achieve an adequate passivating
film. Lucas and Lemons [14] have reported that the formation
of oxide film on titanium provides corrosion-resistance under
static conditions, but the oxide film is not sufficiently stable
to prevent galling and seizing under loading conditions. Tita-
nium is attractive in dentistry due to its low weight to volume
ratio, high strength to weight ratio, fatigue resistance, and corro-
sion resistance [15]. The titanium forms a relatively stable oxide
layer, and this is the basis for the corrosion–resistance property
and biocompatibility. Titanium is a reactive metal but the thin
oxide film that instantly and spontaneously forms in air on its
surface transforms the metal from an active to a passive con-
dition. Corrosion–fatigue life of pure titanium and Ti–6Al–4V
alloys in different storage environments indicated no significant
difference between the corrosion–fatigue life for dry specimens
of either metal. But, fatigue life got significantly reduced when
aqueous solutions were present probably because of the produc-
tion of corrosion pits caused by superficial reactions [16].
A passive layer of oxide or sulfide and a protective col-
loidal membrane from saliva gradually covers the surfaces of
restorations [17,18]. Mateer and Reitz [19] reported a layer-like
corrosion product at the tooth-restoration interface, which sug-
gested that the compounds were formed gradually by reaction
of the amalgam and oral fluids. The metal alloys could release
nickel and beryllium as a result of corrosive activity at various
pH levels [20]. The interaction of dental plaque with restora-
tive materials has been studied using Auger spectroscopy [21].
Adsorbed layers of plaque on gold alloy, dental amalgam, and
composites formed in vivo were found to contain copper, tin, and
silicon, respectively, indicating an interaction with the restora-
tive materials. However, the biodegradation of metals within the
complex in vivo milieu has, for the most part, been found to
be less in amount and rate than determined for the same speci-
mens in vitro test systems. This phenomenon has been generally
held to reflect the presence of various proteins and other organic
substances in vivo that coat and protect the metals. Published
literature has supported this general finding [22,23]. Therefore,
3
Composition
63–70% Ag, 26–28% Sn, 2–7% Cu, 0–2% Zn, Mercury—100% Hg, set amalgam contains
Ag2 Hg3 , Ag3 Sn, and Sn8 Hg
40–60% Ag, 22–30% Sn, 13–30% Cu, 0–5% In, 0–1% Pd
Mercury—100% Hg, Set amalgam contains Ag2 Hg3 , Ag3 Sn, Ag–Cu eutectic, and Cu6 Sn5
76–78% Au, 1–3% Pd, 3–8% Ag, 8–12% Cu, 1% Zn maximum
73–75% Au, 2–4% Pd, 9–15% Ag, 12–18% Cu, 1% Zn maximum
50–62% Au, 1–3% Pd, 16–26% Ag, 8–11% Cu
35–50% Au, 3–10% Pd, 0–3% Pt, 13–30% Ag, 11–30% Cu
54–60% Pd, 28–38% Ag, 7–9% Sn
17% Cr, 5% Mo, 5% Al, 5% Mn, 0.5% Fe, 0.1% C, 1% Be, 0.5% Si, balance Ni
27–30% Cr, 0–13% Ni, 4–5% Al, 1–1.5% Fe, 0.2–0.5% C, 0.5–0.6% Si, 0.5–0.7% Mn,
0–0.05% Ga, balance Co
18% Cr, 8% Ni, 0.08–0.2% C, minor % of Ti, Mn, Si, Mo, balance Fe
emphasis has recently been placed on adding proteins and/or
other organic species to saline for in vitro electrochemical cor-
rosion solutions. This provides the opportunity to more fully
evaluate possible in vivo correlations [24].
4. Corrosion
Discussed in earlier section that the corrosion behavior is
important because poor biocompatibility and toxicity of the
products may make the materials worst for implantation pur-
poses. This section discusses the corrosion behavior of metals
and alloys used in dentistry. Corrosion is defined as the destruc-
tion or deterioration of a material because of reaction with its
environment [25]. Also, corrosion shows the oral environment
as a chemical or electrochemical process through which a metal
is attacked by natural agents, such as air and water, resulting
in partial or complete dissolution, deterioration, or weakening
of any solid substance [13]. Fontana [25] and Jones [26] have
classified corrosion into eleven distinct forms as shown in Fig. 1.
Out of these only those occurring in the oral environment will
be discussed in the following pages. Furthermore, it is impor-
tant to know that the purity, casting and melting techniques also
affect the corrosion behavior of alloys. Corrosion resistance of
stainless steel posts changes with the heat treatment and it is
reported that prefabricated posts after burnout procedures had a
noticeable reduction in corrosion resistance [27].
4.1. Uniform or general corrosion
This type of corrosion is defined as a chemical or elec-
trochemical reaction that proceeds uniformly over the entire
exposed surface or over a large area. This produces the normal
flux of ions from an implant, which can interact with tissue.
Nagai et al. [28] tested the corrosion resistance of some alloys
and concluded that the spherical-particle amalgam was more
resistant to corrosion than the conventional amalgam. The cor-
rosion resistance of conventional alloy, spherical-particle alloy,
and dispersion-phase alloy was clinically evaluated and it was
concluded that dispersion-phase alloy offered more resistance to
corrosion than either the conventional or the spherical-particle
4 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of various forms of corrosion.
alloys [29]. Corrosion process released tin ions from tin based
alloys to form ␥2 (Sn8 Hg) phase, which then reacted with non-
metallic ions in saliva to produce tin salts [19,30]. Copper and
zinc alloys showed large corrosion in non-self-cleaning sites in
the mouth, such as proximal surfaces [31]. Nickel–chromium
alloys exhibited good corrosion resistance in the oral cavity
[32], where as, copper–zinc alloy (Progold) showed apprecia-
ble corrosion when it was immersed in a chloride solution [33].
But, corrosion resistance of low gold casting alloys decreased in
chloride solutions using potentiodynamic polarization measure-
ments when compared with other conventional gold alloys [34].
The effect of chloride ions was observed on the corrosion behav-
ior of five silver–palladium dental casting alloys in a 1% NaCl
solution using potentiodynamic polarization measurements and
microstructure analysis [35].
Gettleman et al. [36] measured in vivo corrosion rate in
baboons, and correlated with in vitro rates. Corrosion rates of
metal alloys were observed in vitro and in vivo in artificial
saliva [37,38], whereas corrosion of stainless steel, gold-plated
stainless steel, and cast gold pins were studied in vitro and in
vivo [39]. Guastaldi [40] studied potentiostatic polarization of
copper–aluminum alloys and observed passivation in artificial
saliva and Na2 S (5 g/L) solutions. Copper and silver-enriched
alloys were readily corroded because of the action of sulfide
ions. Benatti Oscar et al. [32] studied in vitro and in vivo cor-
rosion of nickel–chromium and copper–aluminum based alloys
and reported high resistance to corrosion for nickel–chromium
alloy and considerable corrosion of copper–aluminum alloy in
the sulfide solution.
4.2. Galvanic or two-metal corrosion
This type of corrosion occurs due to the galvanic coupling
of dissimilar metals involved. Less corrosion-resistant metals
become anode and usually corrode. The dentist knows about
the danger of this type of corrosion and asks for homogeneous
 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
metals with respect to chemical composition and metallurgical
state.
Researchers reported that the galvanic current could be sus-
pected of having a harmful effect on soft tissues [41]. However,
this was contradicted by clinical observations, which found no
difference between gum tissues adjacent to and away from such
dissimilar metals that were in contact with each other [42].
Schoonover and Souder [43] reported that gold restorations were
corroded by mercury released from amalgam fillings because of
an electrochemical reaction. The corrosion of gold and amalgam
placed in contact with each other was also investigated and it
was observed that silver-colored stains formed on the surface of
gold inlays that had got into contact with fresh amalgam mix or
fillings. Researchers demonstrated that the ␥2 phase (Snx Hgy )
of the silver amalgam was most susceptible to breakdown by
electrolytic action [44,45].
According to Jorgensen [30], concentration cell currents
occurring along the margins of amalgam restorations are, in part,
responsible for marginal breakdown and ditching that are com-
monly seen in dental amalgams in the mouth. Dental amalgam
subjected to high pressure resulted in the complete disappear-
ance of ␥2 phases by the transfer of tin to ␥1 phase. Rotating
ring-disc electrode was used to detect the soluble species pro-
duced during anodic polarization of dental amalgam [46]. The
degradation interactions between oral fluids and brazed joints
were mostly attributed to galvanic coupling due to differences
in the composition of castings and brazed alloys [47]. The metal-
lic restorations in contact allow the release of components into
the oral environment because of the formation of an electro-
galvanic cell. Shigeto et al. [48] evaluated corrosion properties
of solder joints using galvanic current analysis between dental
solder and dental nickel–chromium alloy and concluded that in
soldering Ni–Cr alloy, use of gold solder and a high-resistance
Ni–Cr alloy should be preferred for corrosion resistance. They
also studied corrosion properties of solder joints by analyzing
corrosion pattern of dental solder and dental nickel–chromium
alloy and conformed the previous findings of combination of
gold solder and a high-resistance Ni–Cr alloy for corrosion resis-
tance [49]. Angelini et al. [50] explained influence of corrosion
on brazed joint’s strength using 60 days immersion experiments
and observed dramatically reduced tensile strength for the sam-
ples brazed with the gold alloy because of galvanic corrosion
phenomena. Palaghias et al. [51] studied in vivo behavior of
gold-plated stainless steel titanium dental retention pins, and
reported that in vivo corrosion resistance of the titanium pins
was superior to that of gold-plated stainless steel pins.
4.3. Crevice corrosion
Crevices on the material surface cause the regions of stagnant
solutions, and attack the material. This type of attack is gener-
ally defined as crevice corrosion. Crevices are unavoidable with
surgical implants where a screw or plate contacts the bone. The
local flux of ions is drastically enhanced at crevice sites and
tissue impregnation follows.
Implants never have simple shapes and are never exposed to
a homogeneous environment. The contact region of a screw or
5
implant material can form the crevice. In the small space the liq-
uid and oxygen exchanges are severely limited, and surface in
the crevice undergoes active corrosion and cause further deterio-
ration of the milieu. Failures in soldered joints, especially when
stainless steel is soldered with silver solder, are often caused by
corrosion. In this instance, either the residual fluoride flux or the
dissimilarity of the metals results in crevice corrosion. Crevice
corrosion of silver soldered stainless steel was studied and estab-
lished its convenience by using 316 L stainless steel [52,53].
4.4. Pitting
Pitting is a form of extremely localized attack that results in
holes on the surface. The localized breakdown of the protecting
passive layer causes pitting and this is termed a ‘bad habit’ of
aluminum and low-grade stainless steel.
This is already discussed in the earlier section on metals and
alloys that Zavanelli et al. [54] studied corrosion–fatigue life of
pure titanium and Ti–6Al–4V alloys in different storage envi-
ronments, and observed no significant difference between the
corrosion–fatigue life for dry specimens of either metal. But,
they observed significantly reduced fatigue life when solutions
were present probably because of the initiation of corrosion pits
caused by superficial reactions.
4.5. Intergranular corrosion
Due to more reactive nature of grain boundaries, intergranular
corrosion occurs adjacent to grain boundaries with relatively
little corrosion of grains. This type of corrosion occurs due to
the inhomogeneity and mainly technological errors. It has been
demonstrated that heating 18-8 stainless steel between 400 and
900 ◦ C may negate its resistance to corrosion [3]. This corrosive
tendency was attributed to the precipitation of chromium carbide
at the grain boundaries at elevated temperatures.
4.6. Selective leaching
Selective leaching is the removal of one element from a solid
alloy by corrosion process. This process is generally not that
important in dentistry. Tai et al. [55] studied leaching of nickel,
chromium, and beryllium ions from base metal alloy in an artifi-
cial oral environment for simulated 1-year period of mastication
and showed that nickel and beryllium metals were released both
by dissolution and occlusal wear.
4.7. Erosion corrosion
Erosion corrosion is the acceleration or increase in rate of
deterioration or attack on a material because of relative move-
ment between a corrosive fluid and the material surface. It
includes cavitation damage and fretting corrosion. Cavitation
damage is not important in dentistry. Fretting is described as the
corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under
load subjected to vibration and slip.
During insertion of an implant, some degree of abrasion
between fixing screws and implants or between tools (screw-
 6
Table 3
Summary of the available experimental work on the corrosion of dental materials
S. no. Reference Dental alloys Medium Temp, pH, exp. Method Remarks
period, etc.

1. Fusayama et al. [44] Gold and amalgam restorations Air, artificial saliva 1 day to 6 months In vitro and in vivo (a) Contact of gold inlays with old
amalgam fillings in air or saliva did
not cause any significant corrosion of
the restorations but with fresh
amalgam fillings produced silver
colored stains on the contact area
(b) Contact with fresh amalgam

D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

fillings less than 1 h old in saliva
produced silver-colored stains of
negligible thickness
(c) On amalgam filling surfaces no
significant corrosion was found
2. Taylor and Jordan [57] Chrome–cobalt alloy Domestic chlorine 9 months In vitro Steeping of chrome–cobalt dentures
bleach in domestic bleach had to be avoided,
due to the inherently poor resistance
of this alloy to attack in solutions
containing chlorine
3. Duperon et al. [29] Conventional alloy, dispersion-phase Saliva, etc. 1 year In vivo (a) Amalgam made with
alloy, spherical-particle alloy dispersion-phase alloy maintained a
significantly higher degree of lustre
than amalgam made with
spherical-particle alloys. No
significant differences were evident
compared with conventional alloy
(b) Amalgam made with
dispersion-phase alloy maintained a
smooth surface texture to a
significantly greater degree than did
amalgams of the conventional or
spherical-particle type
(c) Ditching of the margins was
significantly less evident with either
conventional alloy or
spherical-particle alloy
(d) There was no difference in
discoloration of tooth structure at the
margins of the restorations
4. Tuccillo and Nielson [18] Gold base alloy 0.5% sodium sulfide 15 and 45 s Rotating wheel with Silver rather than copper appears to
aqueous solution eight holes of 2.54 cm be the principal element rendering
each, speed 1 rpm gold–copper–silver alloys susceptible
to tarnish
5. Holland and Asgar [7] Amalgam restorations
6. Sarkar and Greener [33] Dental amalgam (Ag2 Hg3 ) and
(Sn7–8 Hg)
7. Rogers [52] Silver-soldered stainless steel;
silver-soldered nickel-plated stainless
steel; silver-soldered gold-plated
stainless steel; silver-soldered
stainless steel, gold plated after
soldering; silver-soldered,
gold-plated stainless steel, re-plated
with gold after soldering
8. Do Duc and Tissot [46] Dental amalgam, Sn ring–amalgam
disc electrode
Saliva 200 s SEM and electron The corrosion process yielding Sn
microprobe ions that can react with non-metallic
ions present in saliva attacks the y2
phase selectively. Sn released from
this process can migrate to area
within the amalgam that is
continuous with the oral
environment. Corrosion process
yields two distinct new phases with
amalgam: a dark gray phase
consisting primarily of Sn and Cl and
blue gray phase consisting primarily
of Sn. The corrosion process yields a
corrosion layer at the tooth amalgam
D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
interface consisting of Sn, S, P, and
Cl
Ringer’s solution and 25,000 psi, Potentiostatic anodic The electrochemical behavior of ␥1
KCl solution 7 days, T = 37 ◦ C polarization phase of dental amalgam (Ag2 Hg3 )
and ␥1 containing dissolved Sn is
compared with that for the ␥2 phases
in dental amalgam (Sn7–8 Hg). The
results indicate that when tin is
dissolved in ␥1 it did not affect the
electrochemical behavior of that
phase
Aqueous solution 4h Accelerated corrosion Electroplating with gold before and
containing anhydrous test (electrochemical) after silver soldering the stainless
Fe2 (SO4 )3 , HF, dist. steel prevented crevice corrosion.
H2 O The stainless steel surface was
activated and protected by the first
layer of electro-deposited gold. The
silver solder alloyed with this gold
layer so a second application of
electro-deposited gold was required
to protect the joint from electrolytic
action
Ringer’s solution, T = 37 ◦ C Anodic polarization During anodic polarization of the
0.1 M chloride dental amalgam in chloride solution,
solution there is evidence that soluble species
are formed prior to passivation
Deaerated Ringer’s T = 37 ◦ C, pH 7 Anodic polarization An occluded corrosion cell and
solution polarization program has been
developed. It is free from unwanted
crevices and gives reproducible
results
7
 8
Table 3 (Continued)
S. no. Reference Dental alloys Medium Temp, pH, exp. Method Remarks
period, etc.

9. Sarkar et al. [34] Dental gold alloys: (a) Forticast, (b) 1% NaCl solution 4h Potentiodynamic Decreased chloride corrosion
Midas, (c) Lab-44, (d) Minigold, (e) polarization resistance, when compared with
Midigold, (f) Maxigold, (g) Ney cast (−200 mv to ADA Type III and Type IV gold
III, (h) Firmlay, and (i) Jelenko No.7 +400 mv); controlled alloys characterizes low-gold alloys
potential polarization
at +200 mv, reverse

D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

10. Sarkar et al. [35] Ag Pd alloy system: (a)
Ag–Pd–In–Zn, (b)
Ag–Pd–Au–In–Zn, and (c)
Ag–Pd–Au–Cu. (1) CB-1, (2) CB-2,
(3) Paliney CB, (4) WLW, (5)
Albacast
11. Gettleman et al. [36] Cu–Ni–Mn alloy, dental amalgams,
dental casting gold alloys, wrought
implant alloys, porcelain casting
alloys
12. Wiegman-Ho and Ketelaar [58] (a) Stainless steel 316, (b) Rexillium,
(c) Pure nickel, (d) Bio-Cast, (e)
Novanex, (f) NP2, (g) Ultratec, (h)
Ceramalloy
13. Bapna and Mueller [59] Stainless steel burs and carbide burs
14. Shigeto et al. [48] Dental Ni–Cr alloys, gold and silver
dental solder
polarization
1% NaCl solution 4h Potentiodynamic Silver-rich matrix is preferentially
polarization attacked in a 1% NaCl solution, the
substitution of silver by gold
improves the chloride corrosion
resistance and the addition of copper
may adversely affect the corrosion
resistance
Artificial saliva T = 37 ◦ C, 1080 h (45 Back to −200 mv Gold and chromium containing alloys
days) from +400 mv Linear corroded the least and amalgams
polarization generated the highest corrosion
currents. Micro Bond NP2 and
vitallium2 corroded the least, 316 L
stainless steel corroded more and Ti,
and Ti–6Al–4V corroded most
Aerated artificial T = 20, 37 and 50 ◦ C, Linear polarization Low corrosion in near neutral
saliva, 0.22 g CaCl2 pH 6.65 aqueous solutions; stainless steel 316,
was added before use biocast, novanex and NP2 corrode
100 times slower than Rexillium,
nickel, ultratech and ceramalloy
Buffer and activator, SEM, anodic Relative degree of corrosiveness on
Sterall, Sporicidin, polarization and stainless steel burs showed Omni II
Glutarex, Omni II, energy depressive and Omnicide solutions the best,
and Omnicide (EDX) microanalysis Sterall and Sporicidin solutions the
poorest, and Glutarex solution
intermediate. Omnicide and Glutarex
solutions showed the least degree
Saline solution of pH 7, 120 days Polarization Corrosiveness on the carbide burs.
0.9% NaCl SEM analysis showed corrosion
deposition over the soldered joint of
the carbide burs
15. Sorensen et al. [27] Stainless steel posts divided into five
groups: (1) control; (2)
gypsum-bonded investment, bench
cooled; (3) gypsum-bonded
investment, quenched; (4)
phosphate-bonded investment, bench
cooled; and (5) phosphate-bonded
investment, quenched (Heat
treatment at 300, 600 and 700 ◦ C for
30 min)
16. Shigeto et al. [49] Dental Ni–Cr alloy, dental solder
17. Angelini et al. [50] (i) Base metal alloys: Crutanium (A)
and Wisil (B) (ii) Brazing materials:
Au Cr I (sI) and Co/Cr (sII)
18. Palaghias et al. [51] Gold plated stainless steel and
titanium dental retention pins (six
paired pins)
19. Zavanelli et al. [54] Pure titanium, titanium alloy
(Ti–6Al–4V)
Ringer’s solution 30, 180 and 600 days SEM, energy Two groups of Ni–Cr alloys: (a) high
dispersive X-ray resistance alloy [high % of Cr], (b)
spectroscopy, optical low resistance Ni–Cr alloy [low % of
emission spectroscopy Cr]. Corrosion was observed in the
and optical silver solder coupled with high
microscopy resistance Ni–Cr alloy, but was not
found in the gold solder coupled with
both alloys
Investment and heat treatment altered
the metallic structure of stainless
steel posts. Heat treatment in gypsum
or phosphate bonded investments
D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
negatively alters the corrosion
resistance of stainless steel posts.
Direct casting to stainless steel posts
is contraindicated
Saline solution 100 days, pH 7, Immersion tests at No corrosion was observed in the
T = 37 ◦ C 37 ◦ C high-resistant Ni–Cr alloys with high
Cr content. Pitting corrosion was
seen on low resistant Ni–Cr alloy,
which had less Cr content. Elution of
Ni ions was detected in all of the
combination of Ni–Cr alloys and
solders with exception of the
combination of high-resistant Ni-Cr
alloys and gold solder. Elution of Cu
ions was detected in all of the
combinations with silver solder but
not with gold solder
Artificial saliva and pH 2, T = 37 ◦ C, 60 In vitro, SEM with an The tensile strength of the samples
Ringer’s solution days energy dispersive brazed with the gold alloy was
electron microprobe reduced because of galvanic
corrosion phenomena. High short
circuit currents were only produced
with the gold brazing material
Half pins restored 3 months In vivo, emprobe Ti pin exhibited superior corrosion
with high copper resistance than gold plated pins.
admixed type Traces of Hg, Sn, Cu, S, Zn, Ca, K,
Cl, P and S were observed on
gold-plated pins. On tin pins only Ca
and P (from dentin) were observed
Air, synthetic saliva, At room temperature Scanning electron Ti–6Al–4V alloy had the highest
fluoride + synthetic microscope (SEM) mean values of fatigue; however,
saliva there were no significant differences
when compared with commercially
pure titanium
9
10 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11

drivers, grips, etc.) and implants is bound to occur. Another

alloys showed considerable corrosion

gold-plated pins. On tin pins only Ca

in the sulfide solution and clinically

Traces of Hg, Sn, Cu, S, Zn, Ca, K,

and P (from dentin) were observed

Ti pin exhibited superior corrosion

corrosion. Both copper–aluminum

Nickel and beryllium metals were
source, more or less continuous, of abrasion on implant struc-

released both by dissolution and

resistance than gold plated pins. tures, is functional loading, which induces relative movement

Cl, P and S were observed on

The nickel–chromium alloy

presented high resistance to

in the non-self cleaning site

between the material (screw hole) and the screw head. In fact,
the (local) elasticity of the implant differs from that of the tooth
material causing fretting corrosion. The mechanical component
of fretting, i.e., the rubbing movement, disrupts the protective

occlusal wear
surface films and removes metal particles. This action stimu-
Remarks

lates the chemical activities at the surface, leading to oxidation,

or active corrosion, or repassivation as a result of the electro-
chemical aspect of the process [56].

4.8. Stress corrosion

environment, in vitro
MTS artificial oral

Stress-corrosion cracking refers to cracking caused by the

simultaneous presence of tensile stress and a specific corrosive
Method

In vitro

In vivo

medium. This process can dangerously impair the mechanical

integrity of an implant.
During mastication, restorations are subjected to heavy com-
pressive shear, and bending forces. Also, burnishing of surfaces
1 month and 3 months

sometimes results in localized deformation. Thus, an electrolytic

cell is formed between the stressed and unstressed metal por-
T = 37 ◦ C, 1 year
Temp, pH, exp.

tions. Grain boundaries of stressed metal are most vulnerable to

period, etc.

corrosion. The failure of the soldered joint or the flaking away

of a thin margin of gold occurs due to stress corrosion.
In mouth, the process of corrosion may be of several types. So,
the chances of correlating in vivo clinical results with in vitro
results seem less plausible. In spite of this, efforts have been
surface exposed to the
0.9% sodium chloride
and (iii) 1.0% sodium

made by researchers to generate experimental evidences under

close to oral mucosa;
Amalgam, rest with

(ii) towards the oral

aqueous solution of
For in vitro test: (i)
artificial saliva; (ii)

cavity; (iii) bottom

For in vivo test: (i)

in vitro and vivo conditions. Some of the reported experimental

BisGMA-POCl2

works are summarized in Table 3 together with the environments

oral cavity

and experimental methods used, and results obtained.

Medium

Most of the workers have used in vitro methods and employed

sulfide

modern electrochemical and surface scanning techniques to

examine the corrosive behavior of metallic dental materials. It
is seen that a large number of workers have investigated both in
vivo and in vitro corrosion of alloys and metals used as dental
Ni–Cr alloy (75% Ni, 13% Cr and

materials. Due to wide difference in the environmental condi-

<1.8% Be), acrylic resin teeth,
Crowns made of Rexillium III

tions under two situations, generalized conclusions are difficult

copper–aluminum-zinc alloy,

to arrive. Almost all reported work has been done by western

Copper–aluminum alloy,

nickel–chromium alloy

workers where food habits and food ingredients are different

than those used in India and other oriental countries. It would
be interesting to study the effect, if any, of the spices, etc. used
Dental alloys

in the oriental foods on in vivo corrosion of natural and artificial

tooth and restorations.

5. Concluding remarks
Benatti et al. [60]

The nature of dental metal alloys plays a major role in the

Tai et al. [55]

initiation and propagation of corrosion. Though a large number

Reference

of investigators have made efforts to investigate corrosion of

Table 3 (Continued)

dental materials, however, due to wide variation in the experi-

mental conditions used, generalized correlations are difficult to
arrive. Therefore, as for as possible corrosion free/least corro-
sive metal alloys should be used for the artificial tooth and repair
S. no.

20.

21.

of the cavities for good health.

 D. Upadhyay et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 432 (2006) 1–11
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