THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

⚫ Converts food into raw materials that build and fuel our body’s cells.

⚫ This system takes in food, breaks it down physically and chemically into nutrient molecules
and absorbs the nutrients into the bloodstream, then it rids the body of the indigestible
remains.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ingestion

2. Propulsion – includes the process of swallowing and peristalsis, the involuntary contraction
and relaxation of the muscles.

3. Mechanical Digestion – prepares food for further degradation by enzymes.

4. Chemical Digestion – large food molecules are broken down into smaller enzymes.

5. Absorption – transport of digested foods to the blood or lymph.

6. Defecation – elimination of indigestible residues.

ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

⚫ Divided into two main groups: the alimentary canal and the accessory digestive organs.

⚫ The alimentary canal performs the whole menu of digestive functions.

⚫ The accessory organs assist the process of digestive breakdown in various ways.
ORGANS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

⚫ Also called gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is a continuous, coiled, hollow, muscular tube that winds
through the ventral body cavity and is open at both ends.

I. MOUTH – also called an oral cavity, a mucous-membrane-lined cavity.

⚫ The uvula is a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft palate.

⚫ The vestibule is the space between the lips and cheeks externally and the teeth and gums
internally.
II. PHARYNX – or throat. Subdivided into nasopharynx, part of the respiratory passageway;
oropharynx, posterior of the oral cavity; and the laryngopharynx, continuous with the esophagus.

III. ESOPHAGUS – or gullet, runs from the pharynx through the diaphragm to the stomach. It is a
passageway that conducts food to the stomach.

IV. STOMACH – located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver and
diaphragm.

⚫ Divided into cardiac region, fundus, body and pylorus.

⚫ The cardiac region is named for its position near the heart, receiving the food from the
esophagus.

⚫ The fundus is the expanded part of the stomach lateral to the cardiac region.

⚫ The body is the midportion.

⚫ The pylorus is the terminal portion and is continuous with the small intestine. It is also the site
where most digestion takes place.
 ⚫ The stomach acts as a temporary storage tank for food as well as a site for food breakdown.
Chemical breakdown of proteins also begins in the stomach.

⚫ II. PHARYNX – or throat. Subdivided into nasopharynx, part of the respiratory passageway;
oropharynx, posterior of the oral cavity; and the laryngopharynx, continuous with the
esophagus.

⚫ III. ESOPHAGUS – or gullet, runs from the pharynx through the diaphragm to the stomach. It is
a passageway that conducts food to the stomach.

IV. STOMACH – located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver and
diaphragm.

⚫ Divided into cardiac region, fundus, body and pylorus.

⚫ The cardiac region is named for its position near the heart, receives the food from the
esophagus.

⚫ The fundus is the expanded part of the stomach lateral to the cardiac region.

⚫ The body is the midportion.

⚫ The pylorus is the terminal portion and is continuous with the small intestine. It is also the site
where most digestion takes place.

The stomach acts as a temporary storage tank for food as well as a site for food breakdown. Chemical
breakdown of proteins also begins in the stomach

⚫ Chief cells produce protein-digesting enzymes.

⚫ Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid which makes the stomach contents acidic and
activates the enzymes.
 ⚫ The mucous cells produce a sticky alkaline mucus which clings to the stomach mucosa and
protects the stomach wall from being damaged by the acid.

⚫ Enteroendocrine cells produce gastrin.

V. SMALL INTESTINE – is the body’s major digestive organ. It is also the longest section of the
alimentary canal.

⚫ It has 3 subdivisions: the duodenum or twelve finger widths, jejunum or empty, and the ileum
or twisted intestine.

⚫ It has four layers:

1. MUCOSA – innermost layer, a moist membrane that lines the cavity.

2. SUBMUCOSA – a soft connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph
nodules, and lymphatic vessels.

3. MUSCULARIS EXTERNA – or muscle layer.

4. SEROSA – outermost layer of the wall.

VI. LARGE INTESTINE – much larger in diameter than the small intestine but shorter in length.

⚫ Its major functions are to dry out indigestible food residue by absorbing water and to eliminate
these residues from the body.

⚫ It has 5 subdivisions: the cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal.

⚫ The anus has an external voluntary sphincter and an internal voluntary sphincter.
VI. LARGE INTESTINE – much larger in diameter than the small intestine but shorter in length.

⚫ Its major functions are to dry out indigestible food residue by absorbing water and to
eliminate these residues from the body.

⚫ It has 5 subdivisions: the cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal.

⚫ The anus has an external voluntary sphincter and an internal voluntary sphincter.
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS

I. SALIVARY GLANDS – has three pairs located in the mouth.

⚫ The parotid gland lies anterior to the ears.

⚫ The submandibular glands and the sublingual glands empty their secretions into the floor of
the mouth.

⚫ Functions of saliva includes:

◦ Moistens and helps to bind food together.

◦ Begins the process of starch digestion in the mouth

◦ Inhibits bacteria

◦ Dissolves food chemicals so that they can be tasted.

II. TEETH – tear and grind the food, breaking it down into smaller fragments through mastication or
chewing.

III. PANCREAS – is a soft, pink, triangular gland that extends across the abdomen from the spleen to
the duodenum. It produces enzymes that break down all categories of digestible food.
IV. GALLBLADDER – is a small, thin-walled green sac. Temporary storage of bile that is needed to
digest fats.

V. LIVER – is the largest gland in the body. It produces bile.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

� The respiratory system organs oversee the gas exchanges that occur between the blood and
external environment.

� Passageways of the respiratory system purify, humidify, and warm incoming air.

� Divided into upper and lower respiratory tract.

FUNCTIONS OF THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

1. Transport of gases to the lower airways.

2. Protection of the lower airway from foreign matter.

3. Warming, filtration, and humidification of inspired air.

� Functions of the Lower Respiratory Tract

1. Pulmonary protection to injury

2. Clearance mechanism

3. Immunologic responses

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

I. NOSE – the only externally visible part of the respiratory system.

• Air enters the nose by passing through the nostrils, or external nares.

• The interior of the nose consists of the nasal cavity or vestibule, divided by a midline nasal
septum.
 • The respiratory mucosa warms the air as it enters the body because it rests on a rich network
of thin-walled veins.

• The sticky mucus produced by the mucosa’s glands moistens the air and traps incoming
bacteria and other foreign debris.

• The ciliated cells of the nasal mucosa create a gentle current that moves contaminated mucus
posteriorly toward the throat where it is swallowed and digested by stomach juices. These
cilia becomes sluggish during cold weather allowing mucus to accumulate in the nasal cavity.

• The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity below by a partition, the palate. Hard palate
is supported by a bone, thus, a soft palate is unsupported by a bone.

II. PARANASAL SINUSES – located in frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones. These sinuses
lighten the skull, and they act as resonance chambers for speech. They also produce mucus, which
drains into the nasal cavities.
III. PHARYNX – is a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 inches) long. Commonly called the throat,
which serves as a common passageway for food and air.

• Tonsils are also found in the pharynx. The pharyngeal tonsils, often called adenoid, are located
high in the nasopharynx. The palatine tonsils are in the oropharynx at the end of the soft
palate; the lingual tonsils are at the base of the tongue.
IV. LARYNX – or voice box, routes air and food into the proper channels and plays a role in speech.

• The epiglottis or “guardian of the airways” protects the superior opening of the larynx.

V. TRACHEA – or windpipe. It measures 10-12 cm or 4 inches. They open parts of the rings about the
esophagus and allow it to expand anteriorly when we swallow a large piece of food.

LOWER Respiratory tract

VI. MAIN BRONCHI – is divided into left and right. These are formed by the division of the trachea. The
right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left. It is the more common site for an inhaled
foreign object to become lodged.
VII. LUNGS – occupies the entire thoracic cavity except for the most central area, the mediastinum.

• The narrow superior portion of each lung, the apex, is located just deep to the clavicle.

• The broad lung area resting on the diaphragm is the base.

• Each lung is divided into lobes, the left lung has 2 lobes, and the right lung has 3.

• The surface of each lung is covered with a visceral serosa called the pulmonary or visceral
pleura and the walls of the thoracic cavity are lined by the parietal pleura.
 • The pleural membranes produce pleural fluid, a slippery serous secretion which allows the
lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing movements and causes the two
pleural layers to cling together.

VIII. BRONCHIOLES – smallest conducting passageways. The branching and debranching network
formed is often referred to as the bronchial or respiratory tree.

IX. ALVEOLI – or air sacs. Is the site of a gas exchange. Functional unit of the respiratory system.

X. DIAPHRAGM – is the main respiratory muscle for inspiration and it is supplied by the phrenic nerve.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

� The main purpose is to produce offspring.

� The gonads or primary sex organs for males is the testes and for the females are the ovaries.

� The gonads produce sex cells or gametes.

ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

I. OVARIES – are pretty much the size and shape of almonds.

� Contains saclike structures called the ovarian follicles which consist of oocyte or immature
egg.

II. DUCT SYSTEM

1. UTERINE (FALLOPIAN) TUBES – from the initial part of the duct system. They receive the
ovulated oocyte and provide a site where fertilization can occur.

2. UTERUS – or womb, located in the pelvis between the urinary bladder and rectum, is a
hollow organ that functions to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized egg.

⚫ The uterus has 3 parts: the body, which is the major portion; the fundus is the superior
rounded region above the entrance of the uterine tubes; and the cervix which is the
narrow outlet which protrudes into the vagina below.

⚫ The uterus has three layers:

⚫ Endometrium – inner layer or mucosa. It is the site of implantation for the

fertilized egg.

⚫ Myometrium – is the bulky middle layer. The layer that contracts during
childbirth.

Perimetrium – outermost layer or the visceral peritoneum

⚫ The uterus has three layers:

� Endometrium – inner layer or mucosa. It is the site of implantation for the

fertilized egg.

� Myometrium – is the bulky middle layer. The layer that contracts during
childbirth.

� Perimetrium – outermost layer or the visceral peritoneum.

III. VAGINA – is a thin-walled tube. It lies between the bladder and rectum and extends from the
cervix to the body exterior.

� Also called the birth canal, since it provides a passageway for the delivery of an infant and for
the menstrual flow to leave the body.

� It is also the female organ of copulation since it receives the penis during intercourse.

� HYMEN – is a thin fold of mucosa partially closing the vagina. It is vascular and tends to bleed
when it is ruptured during the first sexual intercourse.

IV. EXTERNAL GENITALIA – also called vulva includes the mons pubis, labia, clitoris, urethral, vaginal
orifice, and the greater vestibular glands.

1. MONS PUBIS – or mountain of pubis. Is a fatty, rounded area overlying the pubic symphysis.
It is also the area for the growth of pubic hair during puberty.

2. LABIA MAJORA – two elongated hair-covered skin folds.

3. LABIA MINORA – two delicate hair-free folds.

4. VESTIBULE – contains the external openings of the urethra.

 5. BARTHOLIN’S GLANDS – lubricates the distal end of the vagina during intercourse.

6. CLITORIS – a small, protruding structure that corresponds to the male penis. It is hooded by
a prepuce and is composed of sensitive erectile tissue that becomes swollen with blood during sexual
excitement.

7. GRAFENBERG SPOT (G SPOT) – is an elusive spot that when reached during sexual
intercourse will be pleasurable for women.

8. SKENE’S GLANDS – known to be the source of female ejaculation.

� MAMMARY GLAND – it is to produce milk to nourish a newborn baby, they are actually
important only when reproduction has already been accomplished. Estrogen causes female
mammary glands to increase in size at puberty.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS

1. OOGENESIS – production of female gametes or sex cells.

2. UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE – are the cyclic changes that the endometrium, or mucosa of the
uterus, goes through month after month as it responds to changes in the levels of ovarian hormones
in the blood.
ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

I. TESTES – olive-sized and is approximately 4 cm long. It is the site where the sperm cells are being
produced.

� SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES – are the actual sperm-forming factories.

� INTERSTITIAL CELLS – produces testosterone.

II. DUCT SYSTEM – transports sperm from the body, are the epididymis, ductus deferens, and urethra.

1. EPIDIDYMIS – provides a temporary storage site for the immature sperm that enter it from the
testes. Maturity of the sperm cell is achieved within the 20 days of travel.

2. DUCTUS DEFERENS or VAS DEFERENS – propels live sperm from their storage sites into the urethra.
It is also the site for vasectomy.
 ⚫ Spermatic Cord – made up of a connective tissue and an enclosed tube with blood
vessels and nerves.

⚫ Ejaculatory Duct – end of vas deferens where it is being emptied and merged with the
urethra.

3. URETHRA – terminal part of the male duct system. It carries both urine and sperm to the body

exterior.

III. ACCESSORY GLANDS

1. SEMINAL VESICLES – located at the base of the bladder, produces 60% of the fluid volume of
semen.

2. PROSTATE GLAND – secretes a milky fluid that plays an important role in activating sperm.

3. BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS – formerly called as cowper’s glands. Produces a thick, clear

mucus that drains into the penile urethra. This secretion is the first to pass down the urethra when a
man becomes sexually excited. It serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse.
 � SEMEN – is a milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions.
This provides a transport medium and nutrients and contains chemicals that protect the
sperm and aid their movement. It also dilutes the sperm for motility.

IV. EXTERNAL GENITALIA

1. SCROTUM – or pouch. Is a divided sac of skin that hangs outside the abdominal cavity,
between the legs and at the root of the penis.

2. PENIS – or tail. Is designed to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract.

⚫ Parts of the penis includes:

� SHAFT – or body

� GLANS PENIS – enlarged tip

� PREPUCE or FORESKIN – loose, skin covering and is surgically removed during

circumcision.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS

1. SPERMATOGENESIS – sperm production which begins at puberty.

2. TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION – responsible for secondary male sex characteristics.
THE URINARY SYSTEM

ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

I. KIDNEYS – small, dark red organs with a kidney-bean shaped.

� Extends from the T12 to L3 vertebra.

� The right kidney is positioned slightly lower than the left because of the liver.

� Divided into three regions: the renal cortex, which is the outer region; the renal medulla,
which is a darker reddish-brown area; and the renal pelvis, which is continuous to the ureters.

� The renal pelvis contains calyces which collects urine.

� Nephrons are the functional unit of kidneys and are responsible for the formation of urine.

� Functions of the Kidneys includes:

� Maintain the purity and constancy of internal fluids.

� Filters fluid, thus allowing waste to leave the body.

 � Eliminates nitrogenous wastes, toxins, and drugs from the body.

� Regulates blood’s volume.

� Produces the enzyme renin that helps regulate blood pressure.

� Converts vitamin D to its active form.

II. URETERS – are slender tubes each 25 to 30 cm long. Serves as passageways that carry urine from
the kidneys to the bladder.
III. URINARY BLADDER – is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine temporarily.

� Trigone is a smooth, triangular region of the bladder. It is important because infections tend
to persist in this region.

II. URETERS – are slender tubes each 25 to 30 cm long. Serves as passageways that carry urine from
the kidneys to the bladder.
III. URINARY BLADDER – is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine temporarily.

� Trigone is a smooth, triangular region of the bladder. It is important because infections tend
to persist in this region.

IV. URETHRA – is a thin-walled tube that carries urine by peristalsis from the bladder to the outside of
the body.

� Internal urethral sphincter – an involuntary sphincter that keeps the urethra closed when
urine is not passed.

� External urethral sphincter – voluntary controlled.

URINE FORMATION

� Is a result of three processes:

1. Filtration – is a nonselective, passive process. The filtrate that is formed is essentially blood
plasma without blood proteins.

2. Tubular Reabsorption – begins as soon as the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule.

3. Tubular Secretion – getting rid of substances not already in the filtrate, such as certain drugs,
or as an additional means for controlling blood pH.

Micturition – or voiding is an act of emptying the bladder

 NORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF URINE

� COLOR – amber/straw

� ODOR – aromatic – upon voiding

� TRANSPARENCY – clear

� pH – slightly acidic

ALTERED URINE COMPOSITION

� RBC / WBC – hematuria

� PUS – pyuria

� BACTERIA – bacteriuria

� ALBUMIN – albuminuria

� PROTEIN – proteinuria

� GLUCOSE – glycosuria

� KETONES – ketonuria
� ALTERED URINE PRODUCTION

� POLYURIA – excessive urination or 2,500 ml/day

� OLIGURIA – decreased urination or 500 ml/day

� ANURIA – absence of urine or 10 ml/day

ALTERED URINARY ELIMINATION

� FREQUENCY – voiding at frequent intervals

� NOCTURIA – increased frequency at night

� URGENCY – strong feeling that the person wants to void.

� DYSURIA – painful or difficult urination

� HESITANCY – difficulty initiating urine

� ENURESIS – repeated involuntary voiding beyond 4 or 5 years of age.

� POLLAKURIA – frequent, scanty urination.

URINARY INCONTINENCE

� TOTAL INCONTINENCE – continuous and unpredictable loss of urine

� STRESS INCONTINENCE – leakage of urine as a result of a sudden increase in intra-abdominal

pressure.

� URGE INCONTINENCE – sudden strong desire to urinate

� FUNCTIONAL INCONTINENCE – involuntary, unpredictable passage of urine

� REFLEX INCONTINENCE – involuntary loss of urine

NURSING INTERVENTIONS

� Provide privacy

� Provide fluids to drink.

� Allow the patient to listen to the sound of running water.

� Pour warm water over the perineum.