RBI GRADE B-2020

Table of Content

S.no. Chapters

1. Multiculturalism

2. Urbanization

3. Indian Social Structure

4 Social and Religious Movement

5 Demographic Trend In India

 (Multiculturalism)

Multiculturalism is a recent development which emerge due to various

challenges faced by contemporary society.
Definition : Multiculturalism is defined both as descriptive and normative
term. In descriptive sense, multiculturalism refers to cultural diversity
arising from existence of 2 or more society. As normative terms,
multiculturalism endorses the cultural diversity and holds, maintains that
such differences should be respected and publicity affirm. In this sense,
it means to accept various believes and ways of life as a values.In this
way, multiculturalism is different from pluralism, because multiculturalism
not only recognizes fact of cultural diversity but it also holds that such
differences should be publicly affirmed.Central theme of multiculturalism
is that individual identity is culturally embedded. It means that people
largely derive their understanding of world and their framework of moral
belief from culture in which they live and developed. Therefore different
cultures deserved to be strengthened.Liberal – individual – autonomous
identity, Marx – class – shapes our identity, on basis of culture
perspective, we shape our moral belief – culture bound.Since, cultural
diversity exist in form of religion, language, customs and traditions origin,
therefore multiculturalism recognizes the collective identity or group
identity based on these factors.

Will Kymlica

He defined multiculturalism as claims of various ethnic groups.

Bhiku Parekh

Multiculturalism is a much wider concept which has 3 components-

1) There is a close relationship between human nature and culture.
Culture shapes and moulds human nature beliefs therefore culture
should be recognized.
2) Different cultures have different understanding of this world and good
life but these distinction does not make them superior or inferior
therefore all cultures should be recognised.
3) Culture is a dynamic with the changing circumstances it changes
therefore, Multiculturalism is a dynamic idea.
Emergence of Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism started in decade of 1960’s. In 1971, Canada and in

1993. Australia declared it multiculturalism. Today, most of countries
accept multiculturalism as their official policy.
Factors responsible:
1) Decolonization: The process of decolonization resulted in
emergence of various new state in Asia and Africa. These post colonial
states were plural state. Post colonial theory challenge euro-centric
values and emphasize the value system of these societies which were
plural in nature. e.g.
i) Edward Said – gave concept of orientalism which emphasized on
these societies.
ii) Franz Fanon – decolonization not merely a political process but it is
birth of new species.
2) World War-II: Second World war lead to the problem of refuges
specially in the fascist countries like Germany and Italy – minorities were
forced to leave their own country and settle in other countries due to this,
homogenous societies of Europe were confronted with problem of
immigrants at international level, this problem was tackled by United
Nations but at national level it was addressed by accepting
multiculturalism.
3) Globalisation: The process of globalization which encourage free
flow of labour from one country to other also resulted in problem of
immigrant in these countries.
4) Disintegration of U.S.S.R.: Due to collapse of USSR ethnic
nationalism emerge victorious. Later on ethnic groups made demand for
separate statehood as in Yugoslavia. This fear also forced various
countries to accept multiculturalism.
5) Accommodation to Minority Groups: Liberal democracy in 20th
century could not address problems of minority group properly. This
dissatisfaction for democracy also strengthen demand for
multiculturalism.
Major assumption / Themes

Multiculturalism rejects the controversial notion of equality, politics,

universal citizenship, democracy, notion of individual. And formulates its
assumptions regarding these.
Equality

In conventional political philosophy, equality is treated as sameness.

Equality means to treat people equally irrespective of their religion, race,
sex language etc. If there are deviation from sameness, then they must
be logical, justifiable and as an exception.
But, multiculturalism considers equality as a difference they define
equality as a recognition of difference because all political ideals
including equality is culture bound.
Politics

The conventional notion of politics is politics of distribution. The main

purpose of political system is distributive justice which means “who gets
what?” Elimination of socio-economic inequality is its main concern.
But, according to multiculturalism identity politics and politics of
recognition is more important, elimination of cultural injustice instead of
socio economic injustice is more important.
Citizenship

Conventional political philosophy supports universal citizenship.

Citizenship is a cementing force which creates a uniform identity from
the diversity. Universal citizenships strengthens national identity instead
of ethnic identity.
But, multiculturalism supports differentiated citizenship which believes in
different set of right for different ethnic groups, people should be
accepted as citizens with their distinct identity. The purpose of
citizenship is not to strengthen national sentiment but to recognize
cultural diversity.
Individual Identity

Multiculturalism criticizes the liberalist notion of autonomous individual.

According to liberalist tradition, individuals are autonomous creatures
who take decision rationally. Therefore individual and his freedom more
emphasized. Therefore, liberalism support individual identity as against
group identity but multiculturalism believed that individual identity can
not be separated from the group which he belongs.
Notion of Democracy

Multiculturalism also criticizes the conventional notion of democracy

which is based on majority rule but multiculturalism emphasizes on
minority rights in democracy.
Liberal Multiculturalism

It is based on idea of freedom and toleration. The basic argument of

liberal multiculturalism one is free to choose its moral beliefs whether it is
approved by other or not.
It has 3 main assumptions:

i) It supports toleration which means willingness to accept even those

views with which one disagrees but liberal multiculturalism is unwilling to
tolerate certain principles like forced marriage, Hizaab, Parda, female
dress code.
ii) Liberal multiculturalism differentiate between public of private life. In
private life individuals are free to express their language, religious
identities etc. But in public, there must be some shared civic values.
iii) Liberal multiculturalism views liberal democracy as only legitimate
political system which ensures freedom.
2) Pluralist Multiculturalism: Pluralist multiculturalism is different from
liberal multiculturalism because it is based on value – pluralism which
means to recognize various values therefore pluralist multiculturalism
believes though the values of various cultures are different, all should be
respected hence it is called.
3) Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism: It reflects influence of globalization
on culture. It believes culture is dynamic globalization has resulted in
integration of various cultures. Therefore they believe that each culture
learns from another culture and water tight compartments can not be
made in various cultures.
According to liberal thinkers, multiculturalism emphasizes on group,
instead of individual therefore, it is another form of collectivism which
can jeopardize individual freedom.
 Multiculturalism has become a plea to justify many defective traditions,
like female circumcision, child marriage, dress code may be part of
culture and may be defended on ground of multiculturalism.
Multiculturalism has posed serious threats before modern nation state,
Recognition of various cultural groups has lead to social conflict and
instability which ultimately promotes separatism. Disintegration of
Yugoslavia and ethnic conflicts in various countries are its example.
Multiculturalism fails to address interest of disadvantaged sections of
societies as it emphasizes on cultural injustice instead of socio-
economic injustice. According to Marxist, real issue confronting minority
groups is not the lack of cultural issues but lack of their control over
socio-economic resource therefore multiculturalism divides people who
have common socio-economic interest people become more aware of
what divides them than what unites them.
Feminist have also criticize multiculturalism. According to feminism,
central concern of is gender injustice. Sussan Millar Okin in her essay ‘Is
multiculturalism bad for women?’ opines that, it neglects gender issues
due to its overemphasis on culture. Other feminist also believes that
women are most disadvantaged section in every society. Both minority
group and majority group discriminate with women. But multiculturalism
treats these issues non-seriously.
• According multiculturalism individual have multiple identity e.g. class
identity which is different from cultural identity. Individuals should have
freedom to select this identity but multiculturalism asserts on cultural
identity only.
• Multiculturalism views on equality, politics, democracy, individual are
full of shortcomings.
Significance

1) Multiculturalism highlighted issue of cultural discrimination even in

democratic state.
2) Multiculturalism has addressed problems of refugees and immigrants.
In era of globalization these groups have become very important.
3) Multiculturalism emphasizes on minority rights which is essential for
healthy democratic system.
4) Multiculturalism gives importance to various cultural groups when
these minorities are treated in a just way in the society then there
belongingness with political system strengthens, in this way instead of
being divisive, it becomes a means of national integration. (assimilation
{uniformity} Vs unity {belongingness}, Unity in diversity & diversity in
unity).
Purpose of Indian democracy is also to bring unity in diversity and at the
same time to protect diversity in unity Multiculturalism also aims at
protecting this diversity.
Concept

‘Like medicine good in limited dose’.

Crime means violation of Law
If a person harms the other member of society or disturb social order
which is against law then it is crime. Therefore, in various societies and
various times, the notion of crime is different. One important aspect of
crime is misuse of free will, if a person intentionally harms other then
only it is crime.
There are various interpretalion of crime.
1) Biological Interpretation: According to this, crime is the result of
certain biological disorders therefore so called criminal is biologically a
sick person, therefore he does not misuse his free will.
2) Psychological Interpretation: According to Sigmund Freud, criminal is
a psychologically sick person. This view also believes that psychological
disorder forces criminal to commit crime.
3) Social Interpretation: According to this, society is responsible for
crime.
Robert K. Merton

Society puts individual certain goals, it also provide means to achieve

these goals. When these means are insufficient then frustration
develops in individual which forces him to commit crime.
Marx

Crime is the result of capitalism. Capitalism alienates individual and

exploits him which results in crime. Labour class does not commit crime
but his acts are interpretated as crime.
All these interpretations believes that criminal does not use his free will
while committing crime.
Punishment

Punishment means to make someone suffer some way or other way

because he has committed some crime. Punishment is a means of
social order is maintained in a 2 ways-
i) Through socialization
ii) Through social control
Socialisation means internalization of social values by in individual and
its means are mass media, education system, family etc.
‘Social control is of 2 types
i) Positive sense - Reward
ii) Negative sense – Punishment
In positive sense, it is to reward. The purpose of reward is to encourage
desired behaviour.
In negative sense, it is punishment and its purpose is to discourage
undesired behaviour.
There are three theories of punishment
1) Retributive Theory
2) Determent Theory
3) Reformative Theory
Retributive Theory is based on notion of retributive justice. It is corrective
or rectificative in nature. It believes punishment should be proportionate
to the crime committed.
In practice it means – “An Eye for an eye”

Deterrent Theory – Punishment should be more than the crime

committed. The purpose of punishment is to deter or prevent other
individual from committing crime therefore, punishment should be too
harass and exemplary, so that criminals as well other members of a
society deterred from committing crime.
Reformative Theory – believes that instead of punishment, criminal
should be reformed so that they could become responsible member of
society. This is based on idea – ‘hate crime, not the criminal’. They
support their view point with the help of modern interpretation of crime.
Retributive theory treats punishment as a moral act because it rectifies
or correct some mistakes. In word of Hegel, it is duty of criminal to be
punish so that crime committed by him is rectified.
Deterrent theory treats punishment in utilitarian sense.
Reformative theory does not believe in making criminal to suffer. Instead
of suffering it supports reforms.
Corruption

N. Vitthal has defined corruption as a financial terrorism.

According to world bank, it means use of pubic office for private profit.
Bribe is its most obvious form. “Corruption can be defined as exploitation
of one’s official position for one’s own interest at the cost of public good.”
Corruption means

1) Misuse of official position or authority

2) Deviation from rules, norms or law
3) Non action when action is required
4) Harm to public good
Causes of corruption

1) Erosin of moral and ethical values in the society.

2) Scarcity of goods and resources
3) Declining real salaries
4) Red Tapism
5) Lack of transparency
6) Lack of awareness in people for their rights
7) Certain social evils like Dowry
8) Inadequate laws for dealing corruption and non implementation of
laws.
9) Culture of tolerance is also responsible for growing corruption.
Corruption is legitimized in society.
Kaushik Basu
Sanskritisation of corruption – which means, in society corruption is
legitimized and people of lower class try to follow, imitate lifestyle and
ways of corrupt people (must be zero tolerance , most grievous cause of
corruption materialistic and consumeristic culture erosion of value and
ethics need and greed).
Evils

1) Corruption is against security of nation

2) Corruption is always anti – poor and government plans and scheme,
which are for poor does not reach to them. It is believed that one third of
Public (PDS) distribution system is sold in Black Market Former Prime
Minister Rajiv Gandhi also confessed less than 50 paise reaches poor.
3) Corruption is anti-economic development it leads to increasing of
Black money High level of corruption discourages foreign investment.
4) Corruption demoralizes the honest persons.
5) It promotes social evils like dowry, prostitution.
Mass Violence

Mass violence means to perform act of violence at mass level or against

masses and today terrorism its most obvious form.
Terrorism is defined as a use of violence in order to terrorise people to
achieve certain political objective. According to Columbis and Wolfe.
Terrorism is the use of violence to attain certain political objective.
According to Walter Lequer – Terrorism is a use of violence to induce a
state of fear in the victim.
Features

1) It is well thought out strategy hence it is planned and organized use of

violence.
2) Terrorism has certain political objectives.
3) Terrorism creates terror and fear among the people.
4) Even innocent people can be killed in a terrorist attack. Innoscent
people are used as a messenger to convey message of terrorists to its
opponent.
Terrorism is different from other forms of violence like extremism
(Nagaland)
1) Extremism is within country but terrorism may be international.
2) Extremism is against one’s own government but terrorism may be
against other state also.
Extremism is always against the state but terrorism is may or may be
state sponsored. Extremism is based on some local support but
terrorism may not have local support.
Terrorism Vs Revolutionary Violence

Revolutionary violence is against foreign rule. It is against autocratic and

unjust government but terrorism is may be against democratic
government. Revolutionary also uses violence but it does not kill
innocent people.
Forms of Terrorism

There are various types of terrorism Audrey Kurth Crowin has described
4 forms of terrorism.
1) Left wing terrorism
2) Right
3) Separatist
4) Religious

1) Left wing terrorism is based on ideology of Marxism, its main

examples are the terrorist methods used by Bolshevik party in Russia
and Naxalities in India.

2) Right wing terrorism is influenced by conservative or rightist ideology

e.g. Holocaust by Nazi Party.

3) Separatist terrorism is that form of terrorism whose purpose is to

separate statehood e.g. Terrorist acts of L.T.T.E. and in Chechenya.

4) Religious terrorism has emerged as a most dangerous form of

terrorism Religious terrorism is based on religious fundamentalism. e.g.
Terrorism by Al. Queda. Like this there are other form of terrorism.

5) Cross Border Terrorism It has roots in one country and it operate with
support of country of its origin but it performs terrorist activity in another
country eg. Israel Gaza Pok – India.
6) International Terrorism Cross Border Terrorism is a form of
international but it is different from it. In cross border terrorism, terrorist
outfit operates only in one county but in international terrorism. Terrorism
has its victim in several other countries e.g All Queda.
7) State sponsored terrorism In a state sponsored terrorism, state
become directly or indirectly involved in terrorist activity e.g. Bolshevik
violence.
Factors responsible Why terrorism emerged?

According to liberals terrorism is a result of socio-economic deprivation

and bad government. When a particular section of society is exploited
then it may lead to growth of terrorism.
According to realist, terrorism is the result of competition between
nation-state. According to conservative philosophers they attributes to
national stress of nation building. New systems of laws and institution
backed by government creates fear under certain groups which lead to
growth of terrorism.
According to Amarty Sen, terrorism is the result of identity disregard.
When a particular section of society feels that its identity has not been
recognised by system then that section may adopt terrorist method, to
make its presence felt.
Growing ethnic consciousness is also a reason for growth of terrorism.
Increasing ethnic consciousness encourages the separatist tendencies
which may lead to growth of terrorish e.g. Irish republican army fighting
for separate nation state.
Religious fundamentalism has emerged most important factor for growth
of terrorism.
Impacts of Terrorism

Terrorism creates an atmosphere of fear and uncertainty, therefore it is

psychologically disastrous. Terrorism victimizes, innocent people, e.g
killing of bread earner.
Financial support for terrorism mainly come from various illegal traits of
which drug trafficking is main.
Terrorism is against economic development of country because if there
is not peace, all economic activities disrupted.
To counter terrorism, huge amount of national wealth is used, which
otherwise might had been used for developmental activities.
In counter terrorist activities military and paramilitary forces, police force
is used, mainly many soldiers loose their life which is lost of skilled man
power.
 How terrorism should be controlled?

There are 2 models to control terrorism

1) To control terrorism with use of violence, force. This model does not
believe in peace talks to terrorist organisation and their sympetizer
nations e.g. USA and Israel supports this strategy of tackling terrorism
with iron hand.
2) This model believes in peaceful talks with terrorist organisation.
• Socio-economic disparities should be mitigated.
• Recognition of identity
• Strengthening intelligent system
• Strict laws for terrorist activities
• Ban on drug traffic – effectively
• Use of latest technology to curb terrorism.
Genocide
Genocide consist of 2 words-Genos + cide
Family / tribe to kill
Hence literal meaning of genocide is to fill a particular ethnic or racial
group.
The term genocide was coined by Raphel Lemkin. Lemkin, in his book,
“Axis rule in occupied Europe” defined Genocide as destruction of nation
or ethnic group i.e. murder on vastly greater state. (Axis rule refers to
Germany, Italy, Japan, Elite powers to support nation of and Britain).
In 1948, United nations general convention defined “Genocide means
any of the following acts – committed with the intention to destroy in
parts or whole a national, ethnic or racial group.
i) Killing members of group.
ii) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of group.
iii) Deliberately performing those acts which may lead to extinction of a
particular group. e.g. assimilation of group into other group.
iv) Imposing measures intended to prevent birth within group e.g. Mass-
sterilization.
v) Forcefully transferring the children of group to other group.
Explanations

1) Socio biological explanation: Some groups posses certain genes

which forces them to eliminate other group. But, today science has
disapproved this thesis by E.O. Wilson.

2) Economic Explanation:
i) When the victim population is in the possession of valuable resources
e.g. Holocaust – jews (10%) possession of resources (90%).
ii) According to Marxist, greed of capitalist class is responsible for large
scale killing of a particular group. e.g. colonial rule in Africa.

3) Psychological explanation: Human psychology motivates

individuals to participate in genocide. Some people become tolerant and
some become authoritarian based on their socialization. These
authoritarian personalities participate in genocidal activities. Sigmand
freud also indicated that all of us have aggressiveness in our
psychology. When this aggressiveness is encouraged through
socialization process, then people may participate in genocide.
Lifton has explained individuals participation in genocide with help of
idea of doubling. According to Lifton doubling is a process through which
individuals develop a second self which is capable of demoniacal
behaviour.

4) Amarty Sen: In his book “Identity and violence illusion of destiny” Sen
has discussed genocide on the basis of identity. An individual has a
multiple identity but when a single identity is emphasized then genocidal
violence occur. Eg. Rawanda – Tribal conflict of Sen explains that Hutu
person has many identities, he is a Kigali – Rawanand – African –
Labourer – But when other identities neglected and Hutu identity
emphasized then genocide occurs (Vs Tulsi Tribe).

5) Structural Explanation: Leo Kuper, contemporary genocide takes

place within divided societies when the autocratic state seeks to defend
its monopoly over other groups and there is challenge from other group.
Types of Genocide

1) Instrumental Genocide: It is basically utilitarian in nature. In

instrumental genocide, purpose of genocidal violence is to achieve some
pragmatic goal.
2) Ideological Genocide: Targeted population is destroyed for reasons of
ideology principles.
There are 2 other types with different perspective as follow—
1) Active genocide: Direct killing or mass strelisation, so that a particular
group is eliminated.
2) Passive Genocide: Those acts which leads to indirect elimination of
the group. E.g. Blockade hence starvation death reorganization of
resources scorched earth – destruction of resources in a territory.
Stages of Genocide

According to Gregory standon, There are 8 phases of genocide

i) Classification: To classify and separate targeted group ‘we & they’
concept introduced.
ii) Symbolizaton: Various symbols are used to generate hatred against
targeted population.
iii) Dehumanization: Targeted group is not recognised as a human
being. They are treated as sub-humans.
iv) Organisations: Masses are organized and even military training is
given.
v) Polarization ‘we & they’ feeling of isolation consolidated. Hatredness
widened.
vi) Preparation – This is beginning of genocide e.g. collection of arms.
vii) Destruction – Actual killings of people of particular race.
viii) Negation – Those who performed genocide will fail to accept they
have done any wrong.
POSITIVE DISCRIMINATION: CONCEPT AND MEANING IN CONTEXT
TO INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The need to discriminate positively in favour of the socially

underprivileged was felt for the first time during the nationalist
movement. It was Mahatma Gandhi, himself a devout Hindu and a
staunch believer in the caste system, who was the first leader to realise
the importance of the subject and to invoke the conscience of the upper
castes to this age-old social malady of relegating whole communities to
the degrading position of “untouchables”. He also understood the
political logic of inducting this large body of people into the political
mainstream in order to make the freedom movement more broad based.
By renaming these untouchables as “Harijans” (people of God) he tried
to give this policy a religious sanction so as not to disturb the traditional
sensitivities of the caste Hindus more than was really necessary.

The Constitution of independent India which largely followed the pattern

of the Government of India Act, 1935, made provisions for positive
discrimination in favour of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
(SCs & STs) which constituted about 23% of the divided India’s
population. Besides reserving parliamentary seats for them they were
given advantages in terms of admission to schools and colleges, jobs in
the public sector, various pecuniary benefits for their overall
development, and so on. The constitution indeed guaranteed the
fundamental right of equality of all citizens before the law but it also
categorically laid down that nothing in the constitution “shall prevent the
State from making any special provision for the advancement of any
socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the
Schedules Castes and the Scheduled Tribes”.

The policy of reservation pursued by the state to bring about social

transformation of the scheduled castes is also known as “Protective
discrimination”. For various socio-cultural reasons, the Scheduled
Castes popularly called (Harijans) could not even think of occupational
mobility which could give them a better status in society.[1]

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS

Seats are reserved in the proportion of the population of SC’s and ST’s
to the total population.[2] The seats are “reserved” in the sense that
candidates who stand for them must belong to the designated
groups.[3] These legislative reservations are the only ones that are
subject to a constitutional time limit. It was originally provided that such
reservations should expire ten years after the commencement of the
Constitution.[4] However, a glance at the Constitution of India shows that
the SC’s and the ST’s have been enjoying the facility of reservation in
promotion since 1955.

The ISC in its judgment dated 16th November, 1992 in the case of Indra
Sawhney and Others v Union of India and Others[5] observed that
the reservation of appointments or posts under Article 16(4) of the
Constitution is confined to initial appointment and cannot extend to
reservation in the matter of promotion. In view of the commitment of the
government to protect the interest of the SC’s and ST’s, the government
decided to continue the existing policy of reservation in promotion for the
SC’s and the ST’s.[6] To carry out this the Seventy Seventh
Amendment Act of 1995 inserted a new clause in Article 16 to the
effect that Article 16(4A), will provide for reservations in promotion for
the SC’s and ST’s.

Protective discriminatory laws can be passed in favour of SC’s and

ST’s. Article 15 bars discrimination but Article 15(4) permits the
legislature to make special provisions for the members of the SC’s and
ST’s. Article 15(4) provision was incorporated into the IC through the
Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951 and has enabled several
states to reserve seats for SC’s and ST’s in educational institutions,
including technical, engineering, and medical colleges.

The most outstanding of all preferential policies is the reservation of

seats in elective legislative bodies. The IC specifically provides reserved
seats in proportion to their numbers for the SC’s and ST’s in the Lok
Sabha (the lower house of Parliament)[7] and the Vidhan Sabhas (lower
house of the state legislatures).[8] There are however, no reservations
in legislatures for OBC’s.[9] All of the other constitutional provisions for
preferences are merely authorisations empowering the State to make
special provision for disadvantaged groups.[10] The Constitution also
provides for the reservation of seats for the SC’s and ST’s in every
Municipality.[11] Articles 330-340 focus on seat reservations and special
representation for SC’s and ST’s in the Lok Sabha and the Legislative
Assembly of every state.[12]

The Supreme Court in Bhaiya Lal V. Hari Kishan Singh[13] made

observed that under Article 341 the President might well come to the
conclusion that not the whole caste, race or tribe but parts of or groups
within should only be specified and thus the same caste has been
included in same districts of the same State and excluded in other
districts. It is not necessary here to incorporate as to why two schedules
are as scheduled castes and the other as scheduled tribes were made.
Again in Kishorilal’s case the Supreme Court referring to the Tenth
Report of the Commissioner for schedule castes and schedule tribe, laid
emphasis on socio-economic conditions in classifying a particular caste
as scheduled caste or scheduled tribe. The expression ‘backward
classes’ is not defined anywhere in the
Indian Constitution. The scheduled caste and scheduled tribes are no
doubt backward classes. The Indian Constitution clearly shows that
there are other backward classes besides the schedule castes and
schedule tribes. The Constitution recognizes three categories of
backward classes, namely,

• scheduled castes,
• scheduled tribes, and
• other backward classes.

The other backward classes, are those which are not as backward as
the schedule castes and schedule tribes, but who are backward as
compared to the other advanced sections of the society. Sub-clauses
(24) and (25) of Article 366 define scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes respectively but there is no clause defining socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens. The Constitution used
different terminology for the other backward classes. For example,
Articles 15(4) and 340 use the words ‘socially and educationally
backward classes; Article 16(4) speaks of just ‘backward classes’, and
Article 46 is concerned with the ‘weaker sections of people. Even now,
the term ‘backward classes’ is differently defined in the reports of the
different backward classes commissions and the judgements of various
High Courts and the Supreme Court of India.[14]

Article 16(4) covers not only preferences in initial recruitment into

government services, but also preferences in promotions within the
service. After some hesitation in case of Rangachari Vs. The General
Manager Southern Railway[15] the Supreme Court reluctantly held that
the “post” referred to in Article 16(4) included promotions as well as
initial appointments, but indicated that the preference permissible under
Article16(4) would not extend to other aspects of employment covered
by Articles 16(1) and (2) e.g., salary, increment, pension, retirement age.
Such matters are absolutely protected by the doctrine of equality of
opportunity and… do not form part of the subject matter of Article 16(4).
While the dissenting judges argued that the reservation was limited to
securing adequacy of quantitative representation of the favoured group,
the majority held that reservation could legitimately be used to secure
representation in the posts of highergrades. In the appeal of
Rangachari[16], the Court had pointed to the language of Article 335,
requiring the State to take into account the efficiency of the services in
making provisions for scheduled castes and tribes, and declared the
necessity of striking a reasonable balance between the claims of these
classes and efficiency of the services. In Balaji[17], the court
emphasized that the public interest in the efficiency of government
services set limits to reservation in promotions, putting outside the scope
of Article 16(4) any unreasonable, excessive, or extravagant
reservation,” for that would, by eliminating general competition in a large
field and by creating widespread dissatisfaction among the employees,
affecting efficiency. Thus the Court gave notice that it would carefully
scrutinize the reasonableness of reservations in the area of promotions.

[1] Mumtaz Ali Khan, Reservation for Scheduled Castes, Uppal

Publishing House, New Delhi, 1994, p. 7.

[2] Pradip Tandon v State of Uttar Pradesh (1975) AIR 200 (SC) —
where the state contended that its reservations for hill and rural areas
were “made………to provide medical service…………to people of those
areas”. The court here appears to assert that reservations have to be
based on the deservingness of the recipients rather than on some
beneficial consequences for a backward class

[3] Galanter M Competing Inequalities — Law and the Backward

Classes In India (1984) at 374-375 (Galanter).

[4] Article 334 of the Constitution of India.

[5] Indra Sawhney vUnion of India (1993) AIR (SC) 447.

[6] The Constitution (Seventy-Seventh) Amendment Act 1995.

[7] Article 330 of the Constitution of India.

[8] Article 332 of the Constitution of India.

[9] The Constituent Assembly definitively rejected political safeguards for
religious and other minorities.

[10] Article 243D of the Constitution of India

[11] Article 243T of the Constitution of India

[12] Article 330 of the Constitution of India. Reservation of seats for

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People
— (1) Seats shall be reserved in the House of the People for
— (a) the Scheduled Castes; (b) the Scheduled Tribes except the
Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam;
and (c) the Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam.

[13] AIR 1965 SC 1557

[14] S.N. Singh, Reservation Policy for Backward Class, Rawat

Publications,

New Delhi, 1996, p. 76.

[15] AIR 1961 Madras 356

[16] AIR 1962 SC 36.

[17] AIR 1963 SC 649.

Gender Inequality In India

The reality of gender inequality in India is very complex and diversified,

because it is present in many ways, many fields and many classes. Over
the past decade, gender equality and women‘s empowerment have been
explicitly recognized as key not only to the health of nations, but also to
social and economic development. India‘s National Population Policy
2000 has e ̳ mpowering women for health and nutrition‘ as one of its
crosscutting strategic themes. Additionally, the promotion of gender
equality and empowering of women was one of the eight Millennium
Development Goals (MDG) to which India was a signatory. Three
important aspect of gender can be identified :

1. Gender tends not be value neutral. The roles, rights, and obligations
assigned to each sex are not just different, but also unequal with
male roles and rights generally being valued more highly than
female roles and rights.
2. Gender involves differences in power, both power to and power
over”. The concept of power to encompasses legal and informal
rights, access to resources, and pursuit of knowledge and personal
goals, and cuts across most domains of human functioning,
including familial, cultural, and institutional domains.
3. Gender is not static or immutable. Being socially constructed,
gender roles, rights, and expectations can change over time and
across geographical space as societal needs, opportunities, and
customs change.

In the ancient India women were held in high esteem and the position of
a woman in the Vedas and the Upanishads was that of a mother (maata)
or goddess (Devi). In the Manusmriti, woman was considered as a
precious being and in the early Vedic age, girls were looked after with
care.
Then practice of polygamy deteriorated the status of woman and in the
medieval period, the practices of purda system, dowry and sati came into
being.
With the passage of time, the status of woman was lowered. After the
development of science and technology, female foeticide is being
practiced on a large scale. This has led to a drop in the female ratio.
According to the census 2001, the sex ratio in India is 927 females
to 1,000 males. And then dowry have become common and started
Female infanticide practices in few areas.
In many parts of India, women are viewed as an economic liability despite
contribution in several ways to our society and economy. The crime graph
against women is increasing at an alarming rate. The condition of an
Indian widow is quite deplorable. At home, the woman’s contribution
towards home as a housewife is not recognized. Domestic Violence,
Rape, Sexual Exploitation, molestation, eve-teasing, forced prostitution,
sexual harassment at workplaces etc are a common affair today and in
some cases, it’s too tragic that it gets the global attention. The major
reasons for this inequality are identified as the need of a male heir for the
family, huge dowry, continued financial support to a girl child, poverty,
domestic violence, farming as a major job for poor and the caste system.
At work, the disparity is visible through a different working environment for
women, unequal wages, undignified treatment, sexual harassment, higher
working hours, engagement in harmful industries, occupational hazards,
working roughly twice as many hours as men and a nearly 27 percentage
of women are accounted by unpaid activities. Violence against women
is also prominent in India which leads to every 42 minutes a sexual
harassment occurring, every 43 minutes a woman kidnapped and every
93 minutes a woman is burnt for dowry. And by the pre-quarter of reported,
rapes involve girls under the age of 16 years. Every 26 minutes a woman
is molested and every 34 minutes a rape take place. Poor health care is
another attitude towards women which makes them neglected during
illness, recognition of illness by herself, health services as a last resort
and reluctance to be examined by male doctors.
Lack of education in women has lead to poor literacy leading to gthe
ender gap in literacy rate and no higher education. Discriminative
socialization process is another aspect of inequality towards women which
leads to customary practices, more involvement in household activities
only (boys not allowed), restricted to play , isolation, separation in schools
and public places and restrictions to move freely. Detrimental cultural
practices like after marriage husbands dominating the family , dominance
from In-laws family , members , never or rarely considered for any decision
making, limitations in continuing relationships with brothers , sisters ,
relatives, child or early marriage, patriarchal attitudes and not able to
continue girl or boy friendship after marriage are also contributing factor
to the inequality.
In Governance this inequality is visible, after over sixty years of
independence women are still exploited , the 73rd and 74th constitutional
amendments have provided 33 percent reservation for women in the
Panchayati Raj System ,Panchayat and Parliament totally 790 seats by
filling 6.6-8.4 percentage , women Reservation bill delayed, cast disparity
and the men domination in administration.
Strategies for advancement of women should be higher literacy, more
formal education, greater employment opportunity. In education it needs
to be reducing primary and secondary dropout of female child. In post
literacy, the basic literacy skills at speaking, reading, and writing and
problem solving shall be imparted. Women learners should educate their
children which further enhances social advancement. In job opportunities
there shall be reservation or expenditure or provision of services or special
provisions. In governance all rights and all legal measures should be
available for women’s protection and support. Human rights education ,
know how to take control of their circumstance , help to achieve their own
goals, helping themselves, enhancing their quality of life and motivating
for lobbying or advocacy are also enablers for their
advancement. Collaborators such as NGO, INGOs, NPOs, SHGs, CBOs
, policy makers, local leaders , information disseminators ,health care
providers , teachers and family members should help in the social
advancement of women.
Social Infrastructure?

Infrastructure can broadly be defined as long-term physical assets that

operate in markets with high barriers to entry and enable the provision of
goods and services. Social services include, education, sports, art and
culture; medical and public health, family welfare, water supply and
sanitation, housing; urban development; welfare of Schedule Castes
(SCs), Schedule Tribes (STs) and Other Backward Castes (OBCs),
labour and labour welfare; social security and welfare, nutrition, relief on
account of natural calamities etc. Expenditure on ‘Education’ pertains to
expenditure on ‘Education, Sports, Arts and Culture’.

Status of Social Sector in India

The expenditure on social infrastructure like health and education is a

critical indicator of the commitment of the government towards these
sectors. Public investment in social infrastructure has a critical role in
providing access to social services for the people, especially the
marginal and vulnerable sections of the society. The expenditure on
social services by the Centre and States as a proportion of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) has registered an increase of more than 1
percentage points during the period 2014-15 to 2018-19 (BE), from 6.2
per cent in 2014- 15 to 7.3 per cent in 2018-19 (BE). The increase was
witnessed across all social sectors especially education where the public
expenditure as a per cent of GDP increased from 2.8 per cent in 2014-
15 to 3 per cent in 2018-19. The share of expenditure on social services
out of total budgetary expenditure increased from 24.9 per cent in 2013-
14 to 26 per cent in 2018-19.

Education in India: As per Educational Statistics at a Glance (ESAG),

2018, the thrust on providing primary education has yielded results
across social categories and gender in Gross Enrolment Rate (GER).
Over the years, remarkable progress has been made in respect of
female participation up-to secondary level and GER for girls has
exceeded that of boys. But girls’ enrolment rate is lower than that of
boys at the higher education level. At this level, the gap is visible across
the social categories too. The Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) at national
level for primary schools is 23, 17 for upper primary, 27 for secondary
and 37 for senior secondary schools.

Gender Parity Index (GPI) based on GER: GPI based on GER

indicates increasing trend of female participation at all levels. At the
higher education level the GPI is low. Although, enrolment of girls is
higher than that of boys in government schools, the pattern gets
reversed in private schools. The gender gap in enrolment in private
schools has consistently increased across age groups.

Status of Health: Public health expenditure (centre, states and local

bodies), as a percentage of Total Health Expenditure (THE) increased
from 22.5 per cent in 2004-05 to 30.6 per cent in 2015-16. The National
Health Mission (NHM), with its two sub-missions National Urban Health
Mission (NUHM) and National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) envisages
achievement of universal access to equitable, affordable and quality
healthcare services that are accountable and responsive to peoples’
needs. Under this Mission, support is provided to States/UTs to provide
accessible, affordable, accountable and effective healthcare up to
District Hospital level. Major programme components under NRHM are
Reproductive-Maternal- Neonatal-Child and Adolescent Health and
Communicable and Non- Communicable diseases.

Skill Development: The schooling system improves the educational

level of the population. It is skill training that equip the youth to enter the
labour market and improves their employability. According to NSSO
Report 2011-12, only 2.3 per cent of the total workforce in India had
formal sector skill training. Keeping in view the predominance of young
population, the government had formulated the National Policy on Skill
Development & Entrepreneurship, 2015 under which the Skill India
Mission by 2022 was formulated.

Human Development Index

India’s Human Development Index (HDI) has improved significantly over

the years between 1990 and 2017. The country’s HDI value increased
from 0.427 to 0.640, but its position is still lowest among its peer
countries (Asian and developing economies). As per the UNDP Human
Development Index (HDI), India is ranked 130 among 189 countries.
Moreover, India also reflects inter-State disparities in regional and
human development which are reflected by state level HDIs.

The Key Announcement of Union Budget 2019

Naari Tu Narayani/Women: Approach shift from women-centricpolicy

making to women-led initiatives and movements. A Committee proposed
with government and private stakeholders for moving forward on Gender
Budgeting.
New National Education Policy: It proposed, major changes in both
school and higher education, Better governance systems and greater
focus on research and innovation. 'Study in India' proposed to bring
foreign students to study in Indian higher educational institutions.

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-Urban): Under this

scheme, over 26 lakh houses completed of which nearly 24 lakh houses
delivered to the beneficiaries.

• More than 95% of cities also declared Open Defecation Free (ODF).
• Target of achieving Gandhijis resolve of Swachh Bharat to make
India ODF by 2nd October 2019. To mark this occasion, the
'Rashtriya Swachhta Kendra' to be inaugurated at Gandhi Darshan,
Rajghat on 2nd October, 2019.

Grameen Bharat / Rural India: Ujjwala Yojana and Saubhagya Yojana

have transformed the lives of every rural family, dramatically improving
ease of their living. Electricity and clean cooking facility to all willing rural
families by 2022.

Under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Gramin : Eligible beneficiaries

to be provided 1.95 crore houses with amenities like toilets, electricity
and LPG connections during its second phase (2019-20 to 2021-22).

Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY)

• A robust fisheries management framework through Pradhan Mantri

Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) to be established by the
Department of Fisheries.
• To address critical gaps in the value chain including infrastructure,
modernization, traceability, production, productivity, postharvest
management, and quality control.

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)

• Target of connecting the eligible and feasible habitations advanced

from 2022 to 2019 with 97% of such habitations already being
provided with all weather connectivity.
• 30,000 kilometers of PMGSY roads have been built using Green
Technology, Waste Plastic and Cold Mix Technology, thereby
reducing carbon footprint.
• 1,25,000 kilometers of road length to be upgraded over the next five
years under PMGSY III with an estimated cost of Rs. 80,250 crore.
Government Initiatives

The government has been committed to provision of social security

which is evident in the initiation of major social sector schemes by the
Government of India during the last five years given below:

Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana, 2015 - It offers a one-year

accidental death and disability cover with annual premium of Rs. 12. It is
available to people in the age group 18 to 70 years.

Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana, 2015 - It is government-

backed life insurance scheme with annual premium of Rs. 330. It is
available to people between 18 and 50 years of age.

Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana, 2018 - It is a pension scheme

exclusively for the senior citizens aged 60 years and above.

PM-KISAN, 2019 - It offers income support of Rs. 6000 per annum in

three equal instalments to all eligible farmers irrespective of land
holdings.

National Nutrition Mission (POSHAN Abhiyaan) - It ensure attainment

of malnutrition free India by 2022. Targeted intervention in areas with
high malnutrition burden.

Mission Indradhanush (MI) and Intensified Mission Indradhanush

(IMI) - To vaccinate unreached/ partially reached pregnant women and
children so as to reduce vaccine preventable under-5 mortality rate. The
drive is foucused on pockets of low immunization average and hard to
reach areas where proportion of unvaccinated and partially vaccinated
children and pregnent women is high.

Samagra Shiksha - A comprehensive programme subsuming Sarva

Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
and Teacher Education (TE). For first time, it also includes provisions for
support at preschool level, library grants and grants for sports and
physical equipment.

ICT Driven Initiatives - Shaala Sidhi (to enable all schools to self-
evaluate their performance), e-Pathshala (providing digital resources
such as textbooks, audio, video, periodicals etc.) and Saransh (an
initiative of CBSE for schools to conduct self-review exercises).
LaQshya - 'LaQshya - Quality Improvement Initiative' was launched in
December, 2017 with the objectives of reducing preventable maternal
and new born mortality, morbidity and stillbirths associated with the care
around delivery in Labour room and Maternity OT (Operation Theatre)
and to ensure respectful maternity care.

Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA): PMSMA was

launched in 2016 to provide comprehensive and quality Ante- Natal Care
(ANC) to pregnant women on the 9th of every month. Under PMSMA,
doctors from both the public and private sector examine pregnant
women on 9th of every month at Government health facilities.

Skilling Ecosystem - Skilling ecosystem in India is equipping the youth

to meet the challenges of a dynamic labour market by providing various
short term and long term skilling under programmes like 'Pradhan Mantri
Kaushal Vikas Yojana' (PMKVY). PMKVY has had positive impact on
employment and incomes of the youth as per evaluation studies.

Rural Infrastructure - Connectivity is critical for rural areas to improve

quality of lives of the poor by enhancing access to various social
services, education, health and access to markets. PMGSY has played
a crucial role in connecting the unconnected in rural India and enhanced
their livelihood opportunities. Government has accorded highest priority
to rural housing, by providing dwelling with all basic facilities to the most
needy under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Gramin) (PMAY-G).
Government has also prioritized employment programmes like
MGNREGS which is reflected in the upward trend in budget allocation
and release of funds to the States in the last four years.

Financial Inclusion - Financial inclusion of women is considered as an

essential tool for empowerment of women as it enhances their
selfconfidence and enables financial decision-making to a certain extent.
As far as financial inclusion in India is concerned, significant progress
has been made during the last decade. At all India level, the proportion
of women having a bank or saving account that they themselves use
have increased from 15.5 per cent in 2005-06 to 53 per cent in 2015-16.
 Health and Physical Education in India

Health occupies an important place in the life of human beings.

Man’s happiness in life, depends upon good health. Life without
health is a misery, a virtual death. So health is wealth. Health is
man’s normal conditions, his birth right. It is the result of living in
accordance with the natural laws pertaining to the body, mind and
environment.

These laws relate to fresh air, sun-light, balanced diet regular

exercise, rest, relaxation and sleep, cleanliness, right attitudes of
mind, good habits and good patterns of living. A man with excellent
health will not only be happy but also serve himself, his family
friends, community and the nation better. So it is desirable to
maintain and promote health.

Health is a state of body, mind and spirit, by health, a layman

understands a strong body which does not suffer from any disease.
There is no such agreed definition of health, though there have been
many definitions. According to Aristotle health implies, “a sound
mind in a sound body’. Again it has been said that health is poor
man’s wealth and rich man’s blessing.

The widely accepted definition of health is given by the World

Health Organisation (WHO). It states that, “Health is state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely an
absence of disease or informality.”

According to this definition, the concept of health has three

dimensions – physical, mental and social.
1. Physical health:
It implies bodily health. Body health is maintained, if all the
internal systems are functioning properly. It implies good appetite,
sound sleep, proper blood-pressure, good body movements etc.

2. Mental health:
Mental health is related with physical health. That is why it is said,
‘sound mind in a sound body’. A mentally healthy person feels
satisfied with himself. He feels happy, calm and cheerful. He is well-
adjusted. He does not get angry easily. He accepts criticism and is
not easily upset. He keeps patience, when he is confronted with
difficult situations. He has control over emotions and feelings.

3. Social health:
Social health refers to the abilities of the individual relating to
socially considerate behaviour. A socially healthy person is expected
to be cooperative, aware of his needs as well as the needs of the
other members of the community. He finds satisfaction, success and
happiness in discharging everyday tasks. He makes friendships that
are satisfying and lasting. He assumes his own responsibilities in
accordance with one’s capacities.

From the above discussion, it is found that health is related deeply

to life-style. It is essential for everybody. In this context, health and
physical education is of great help for the children.

On the other hand, physical education is the education that a person

undertakes, so as to develop a healthy and strong body. The
physical body and its functions are governed by method, order,
discipline an procedure. Hence, the health and physical education,
in order to be effective, has to be rigorous meticulous, foreseeing
and methodical, in order to be effective, has to be rigorous
meticulous, foreseeing and methodical. Hence, body should
normally be able to develop desired habits control and adopt then
according to changing needs of the circumstances and varying
needs of the growing individual.

Therefore, the health and physical education has to develop a total

methodical and harmonious development of the various parts of the
human body. Unless the physical education contributes not only to
physical fitness but also to physical efficiency, mental alertness and
the development of various qualities necessary for a balanced
human being.

Aims and Objectives:

Following are the aims and objectives of Health and
Physical Education:
(a) Organic development:
The objectives of health and physical education is to provide
physical and mental satisfaction through movements of various
types and creative physical activities.

(b) Neuro-muscular development:

The objectives of health and physical education is to provide
physical and mental satisfaction through movements of various
types and creative physical activities.

(c) Interpretive development:

The aim is to stimulate respiration and circulation and ensure good
health.
(d) Personal and social development:
The objective is to encourage to be happy and independent in the
society.

According to Kothari Commission, “physical education contributes

not only to the physical activity.

Physical Education Programmes:

Realising the importance of Physical Education, the
Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 recommended
that:
1. Physical activities should be made to suit the individual and his
capacity for physical endurance.

2. All teachers below the age of 40 should actively participate in the

physical activities of the students.

3. Full records of the activities of the students should be

maintained.

4. The training in Physical Education should be comprehensive.

5. Teachers of Physical Education should be associated with the

teaching of subjects like physiology, hygiene and given the same
status to other teachers of similar qualification.

6. Aids may be given to the training centres by the state and centre.

One of the most important suggestions made by a Committee set up

by the Union Minister of Education on May 28th, 1959 under the
chairmanship of Sri Hurdaynath Kunzru, M.P., is that at the school
stage, there should be an integrated programme of physical
education woven into the fabric of the educational system.

1. The physical education programme should be planned for

desirable outcomes keeping in the mind the interest and capacity of
the participants.

2. The programme should be within the financial means.

3. A sense of sharing responsibility in a spirit of democratic

cooperation should grow from experience and play – ground.

4. The programme should reach to all rather than a selected few.

5. Special instruction and coaching should be provided for students

with talent and special aptitude.

6. The traditional forms of play, indigenous games and physical

activities of our country should receive due emphasis in the
programme.

In the secondary stage, there should be provision for simple team-

play and finer forms of skills. They should be given sports and
games in their standard from. Physical education for all stages
should be planned separately keeping in mind their respective
interest and abilities.

National Policy on Education, 1986 has also recommended

the following:
1. Sports and physical education are integral part of learning
process.
2. There should be provision of play-fields, equipments, coaches
and trained teachers.

3. Open spaces in urban areas should be reserved for playground by

the legislation and at the same time hostel facilities should be
provided for physical education programme.

4. Sports activities and sports-related studies should be given to the

students by the trained Physical Education Teachers.

5. Efforts will be made to include’ Yoga’ in all schools.

6. Stress will be given on indigenous traditional games which

promote integrated development of body and mind.

The main function of any subject in a school is to plan educational

experience which will enrich the whole personality of the child with
a special emphasis on the subject, medium of expression. The
contribution made by physical activity will seem to be relevant and
essential part of the school curriculum and important means for
preparing child for the society in which they live.

The programme should be directed towards the needs of the

individual, his aptitudes and ability and should be related to his
physical, mental, social and emotional characteristics. The teacher
should plan to make the best use of all resources involving many
members of the staff and the facilities and equipment’s which may
be available both at the school and surroundings.