VITAMINS

These are tasteless but organic compounds

They are physiologically required in small amounts
This is because they are catalytic in their action
Vitamins are micronutrients
Most are not synthesized in the body hence are obtained from the diet
Only few are synthesized in the body
The precursor form of vitamins is called provitamins.in the body the
provitamins are converted to vitamins.

VITAMIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

All contain C, H and O
Some contain N and S
The chemical structure of each vitamin is unique
Vitamins are absorbed intact
They perform numerous essential functions

NAMING OF VITAMINS
The naming of vitamins follows the letters of the alphabet starting with
letter A
Currently we are up to letter K
Vitamin B has many subscripts hence a vitamin B complex
F, G and H were dropped and are not used to designate any vitamin
CRITERIA FOR VITAMINS
-they cannot be synthesized in the body in ample amounts
-chronic deficiency is likely to cause physical symptoms
-symptoms will disappear once the vitamin level in the body is restored
-deficiency can cause permanent damage

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS solubility influences a

vitamin
Is based on solubility -digestion -excretion
-absorption -storage
(a)fat soluble vitamins -transportation
-are vitamins A, D, E and K
-their intake must be limited since there is toxicity with overconsumption
Common properties
-are fat soluble
-they require bile salts for absorption
-are stored in the liver
-stable to normal cooking conditions
-Excreted in face’s

(b)water soluble vitamins

(b)Water soluble vitamins
Are soluble in water
Are members of vitamin B complex and vitamin C
Vitamin b complex consists of
 vitamin B1 vitamin B6
vitamin B2 vitamin B7
vitamin B3 vitamin B9
vitamin B5 vitamin B12
Water soluble vitamins are required daily in diet. They are not stored
intensively hence are continuously excreted in urine
Common properties
-water solubility
-except vitamin B12 and others are not stored
-unstable to normal cooking
-are excreted in urine
GENERAL ROLES OF VITAMINS
-antioxidants vitamin C and E
-blood clotting and RBC synthesis e.g. vitamin B9, B6, B12 and K
-bone health e.g. vitamin C, D, A, K
-energy e.g. vitamin B, B2, B3, B6, B12
-growth and reproduction e.g. vitamin A and D
-immune function e.g. vitamin A, C and D
-protein metabolism e.g. vitamin B6, B9 and B12
VITAMIN ABSORPTON AND STORAGE
All absorption occurs in the small intestines
(a) fat soluble vitamins
are absorbed in the duodenum
they are transported to the intestinal cells as part of the micelles. Once
inside the cells fat soluble vitamins are packaged with fat and other lipids
into a chylomicron which travel through the lymph system to the main
circulation vitamin A is mainly stored in the liver
vitamin K and E are partially stored in the liver
vitamin D is mainly stored in fat and muscle tissue
these vitamins can build up in the body to point of toxicity
(b) water soluble vitamins
most are absorbed in duodenum and jejunum
they are absorbed with water and enter directly into the bloodstream to
the portal vein and transported to the liver where they are either stored or
sent out I in circulation
most are not stored in the body
excess intake of water-soluble vitamins is excreted through the urine
BIOAVAILABILITY
Varies based on:
-amount present in food
-preparation
Vitamins dissolve easily in water and can be lost through poor preparation,
storage or overcooking of food.
-efficiency of digestion and absorption of food
-individual nutritional status
-natural or synthetic form
Fat soluble vitamins are generally more bioavailable the water-soluble
vitamins
Vitamins from animal foods are generally more bioavailable than those in
plant foods
DESTRUCTION OF VITAMINS
 Fat soluble vitamins tend to be more stable
Water soluble vitamins may be destroyed by: exposure to air, UV light,
change in pH, heat and food preparation techniques
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
A. VITAMIN A
Refers to a group of compounds which exhibit vitamin A activity
Occur in three forms in animals
 retinol-vitamin A alcohol
 retinoic acid- vitamin A acid
 retinal- vitamin A aldehyde
-they are collectively called retinoids and are all found in animals
-retinol is the major transport form of vitamin A
-retinal and retinoic acid are formed from retinol
-retinal and retinol are inter convertible but retinoic acid cannot be
converted either to retinal or retinol
in plants it occurs in provitamin forms known as carotenes
these carotenes are called carotenoids and they are:
 beta carotenes
 alpha carotenes
 gamma carotenes
beta carotenes are the most potent source of retinol since one molecule of
beta carotene yield two molecules of vitamin A
sources of vitamin A
retinol-liver, cheese, butter, whole milk, egg yolk
 carotenoids -orange, sweet potatoes, melon, mangoes, broccoli, carrots,
spinach
functions of vitamin A
-retinal is required for normal and color vision
-promotes growth of skin, hair, bones and teeth
-Carotenoids act as antioxidants that prevent some cancers and fight heart
disease
-retinol is required for reproduction and growth, it supports
spermatogenesis, oogenesis and placental development
-treatment of skin disorders like acne and psoriasis
Vitamin A toxicity-hyper vaginosis
Occurs when mega doses of vitamin A are given about 10 times of RDA or
when any other vitamin A source is taken in excess
Adults are Recommended to take 750 micrograms or 3 milligrams
Effects of deficiency
 Night blindness
 Poor bone and teeth growth
 Dry and rough skin
 Infertility and trouble conceiving
 Acne and breakout
 Poor wound healing
 Throat and chest infections
 Nerve growth is also affected since there is degeneration of myelin sheath
 Characteristic toad skin appearance due to deposition of keratin in skin

Application in the field of medicine

-retinol is used in cases of night blindness and vit A deficiencies. The rods in
the retina of the eye contain a visual pigment rhodopsin which is made up
of 11-cis retinal and opsin a glycoprotein.
-vitamin A is used in medicine to prevent second tumors in patients
following treatment of primary squamous cell carcinoma of the head and
neck
-tretinoin can be used to induce remission in conjunction with
chemotherapy in acute promyelocytic leukemia which involves
chromosomal translocation of the retinoic acid receptor alpha gene.
-tazarotene, a topical retinoid is effective in treatment of chronic stable
plaque psoriasis. Acitretin is a retinoic acid derivative that is used in severe
psoriasis. Tretinoin is a retinoic acid derivative that is used in acne by
topical application.

VITAMIN B1-THIAMINE/THIAMIN
It’s a Sulphur containing vitamin
The active form of thiamine is thiamine pyrophosphate formed from
thiamin in presence of ATP and thiamin kinase in the liver
It contains a pyrimidine ring and thiazole ring joined by a methylene
bridge.it is also highly sensitive to alkalis
Sources of thiamine
Mainly in food grains like rice wheat yeast
Cereals, pulses, nuts
Meat, liver egg and fish
Green leafy vegetables, beets
Functions of thiamine
-it helps the body to convert carbohydrates to energy
-it aids in the functioning of heart muscles and nervous system
Effects of deficiency
-Beriberi. signs of beriberi include loss of appetite, muscle weakness, pain
in limbs, shortness of breath ,edema
-peripheral nerve damage
-enlarged heart or fast heart rate
-infantile beriberi.in infants thiamine deficiency causes infantile beriberi
-Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Thiamine deficiency in chronic alcoholics leads to this. Symptoms are
irregular eye and leg movement, polyneuritis and memory disturbances
Application in the field of medicine
-used in medicine to treat thiamine deficiencywhich when severe can lead
prove fatal.it can cause beriberi ,Wernicke kor sakoff syndrome,optic
neuropathy,leighs disease
-women who are pregnant are given thiamine to promote growth and
development of the foetus
-thiamine helps in hexose monophosphate shuntthat generates
nicotineamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate(NADP) and pentose for
nucleic acid synthesis

VITAMIN B2-RIBOFLAVIN
It containns heterocyclic isoalloxazine ring and ribitol a sugar alcohol
Its sensitive to light and alkali but stable to haet and acidiv medium
Has two active forms -flavine mononucleotide( FMN)
-flavine adenine dinucleotide(FAD)
When in cells it exists in these two forms,FAD and FMN
Metal ions such as cu2+,zn2+fe2+ and mn2+ chelate riboflavin and
decrease absorption
Sources of vitamin B2
Liver eggs yoghurt
Kidney meat cheese
Heart milk whole grain cereals
Dark green leafy vegetables
Functions of vitamin B2
-helps in RBC production
-aids in metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into ATP
-helps in body growth
Effects of deficiency
-magenta mouth and tongue
-dermatitis of nasolabial region
-cheliosis-red swollen and cracked lips
-scaly patches on the head
-angular stomatitis-lesions on the mouth partivularly at corners of the
mouth
-vascularization of the cornea and conjunctiva and blood shot eyes
-Scrotal and vulval lessions
Daily requirement
Depends on carbohydrate intake or calorie requirement.
A sedentary adult worker needs 1.3 mg daily
A heavy worker needs 1.8mg a day
Application in medicine
-a condition called cornea ectasia is the progressive thinning of the cornea.
Collagen cross linking by applying riboflavin topically then shining UV light is
a method to slow progression of corneal ectasia by strengthening corneal
tissue
-malnutrition resulting from alcoholism
Alcoholism can lead to vitamin B2 deficiency since the normal metabolism
of alcohol in the liver requires B vitamins especially thiamine
-peripheral neuritis
Leads to pain mainly in the arms or hands, legs or feet. Riboflavin is
important in the maintenance of the nervous system
-riboflavin is given to pregnant women to prevent preeclampsia, a
condition that causes high blood pressure in late pregnancies
-recent studies also show that riboflavin could be used to ease migraines

VITAMIN B3-NIACIN
Niacin refers to two two pyrimidine derivatives i.e. -nicotinic acid
Nicotinamide as NAD
and NADP
Both are highly stable to heat and stable to alkali and acid
The body uses niacin in the form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide as
the primary form
The secondary form the body uses is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate
Nicotinic acid from the diet is first converted to nicotinic acid ribose
phosphate by phosphoribosyl transferase using ATP which is then
converted to NAD in a pathway for the synthesis of niacin from tryptophan.
A cytoplasmic kinase converts NAD to NADP using ATP as a phosphate
donor. Both NAD and NADP are co-enzymes for several dehydrogenases
that catalyze redox reactions. They act as carriers of hydrogen groups.
Sources of vitamin B3
Rich sources-liver whole grains
-fish peanuts
-meat legumes
Milk and eggs are poor sources
Vegetables and fruits are poor sources of niacin avocado, figs, date,
prunes, nuts
Can also be obtained in synthesized form as tryptophan
Functions of vitamin B3
-it lowers level of cholesterol in the body
-it eases arthritis
-it boosts brain function
-it helps keep nervous and digestive system healthy
effects of deficiency
-niacin deficiency in man causes pellagra usually characterized by:
Dermatitis-occurs in light exposed areas due to photosensitivity. These
areas develop sunburn which then progress to pigmentation and
ulceration. Mainly affects neck, forearms and fingers
Diarrhea-it occurs due to inflammation of mucous membranes of
GIT.death may occur if it is prolonged
Dementia-occurs in chronic cases where neurological disturbances like
depression, headache, delirium and memory loss are seen
-swollen mouth and bright red tongue
-vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, apathy, fatigue, depression, disorientation
Application in medicine
-in patients with high cholesterol niacin has been used to lower the level
by 5-20% in people who can’t tolerate statins. This has helped in preventing
progression to heart diseases.
-niacin is also used to prevent oxidative stress and inflammation both of
which are involved in arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
-patients with some types of schizophrenia can be given niacin.it helps to
undo the damage to brain cells that occur as a result of deficiency. Brain
cels need niacin as part of coenzymes NAD and NADP to get energy and
function properly
-niacin reduces symptoms of arthritis. This is so by improving joint mobility
and reducing the need for Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
 -patients with pellagra resulting from severe niacin deficiency take niacin
supplements.

VITAMIN B5-PANTOTHENIC ACID

it is a combination of β-alanine and pantoic acid
it has no other forms
it is stable to heat but unstable to alkali or acid
it is a starting compound in synthesis of coenzyme A, a cofactor for many
enzyme processes
sources of pantothenic acid
liver kidney
meat of chicken and beef whole cereals
egg yolk milk
potatoes broccoli
tomatoes mushrooms
can also be synthesized by intestinal microorganisms
functions of vitamin B5
-synthesizes coenzyme A necessary for fatty acid, lipid and carbohydrate
metabolism
-required for synthesis of phosphopantotheine of fatty acid synthases
complex. these serve as carriers of acyl groups during fatty acid
biosynthesis
Effects of deficiency
-numbness and burning sensation in hands and feet
-early greying and hair loss
-muscle cramps
-irritability and restlessness
-disturbed sleep
-fatigue and headache
-nausea, vomiting and stomach crumps
Application in medicine
-it is applied to skin to prevent itchiness and promote healing from skin
conditions like eczema, insect bites ,poison ivy
-its used in synthesis of coenzyme A necessary in the citric acid cycle the
bodies primary catabolic pathway
 -patients who have undergone radiation therapy use vitamin B5 form of
dexpanthenol to prevent and treat skin reactions
-coronary heart disease risks can be lowered by taking daily doses of
pantherine for up to 16 weeks.it lowers bad cholesterol(LDLC)

VITAMIN B6-PYRIDOXINE
Occurs in three forms
 Pyridoxal
 Pyridoxine
 Pyridoxamine
Its stable to heat and sensitive to light and alkali
All three forms can be converted into coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate
(PLP). This is the active form. Its formed from pyridoxal by
phosphorylation catalyzed by pyridoxal kinase
PLP transfers amino groups from amino acids to make non-essential
amino acids, an action that is valuable in protein and urea
metabolism.it also participates in synthesis of heme compound in
hemoglobin and of nucleic acids in DNA and of lecithin-a fatty
compound that provides structure to our cells.
Sources of pyridoxine
Chicken maize
Liver of cattle or pig bananas
Fish especially salmon and tuna potatoes
Nuts -peanut and walnuts green leafy vegetables
Functions of vitamin b6
-metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates
-creation of red blood cells and neurotransmitters
-may prevent and treat anemia by aiding in hemoglobin production
-its used in cases of heart disease and premenstrual syndrome
-treatment of peripheral neuropathy caused by certain medications i.e.
isoniazid
-may promote brain health and prevent Alzheimer’s disease
Effects of deficiency
--dermatitis of the nose eyes and mouth with cheilosis which causes
cracks at the corners of the mouth, scaling on lips and glossitis
-microcytic anemia
-electroencephalographic abnormalities
-depression and confusion
-weakened immune function
Drug induced pyridoxine deficiency
-isoniazid, an anti-tuberculosis drug forms a hydrazine complex with
pyridoxal phosphate which is an inhibitor of pyridoxal kinase. This
results in decreased level of PLP leading to convulsions.
-penicillamine, used in the treatment of arthritis and Wilson’s disease
forms complex with PLP thus leading to deficiency
-oral contraceptives and alcohol consumption also cause vitamin B6
deficiency

Application in medicine
-itchy rash called seborrheic dermatitis can appears on scalp, face, and
upper chest results from vit b6 deficiency.it can be treated by taking
vitamin B6.vitamin B6 helps synthesize collagen which is needed for
healthy skin
-cheilosis characterized by sore red and swollen lips with cracked
mouth corners can result from vitamin B6 deficiency. Cracked areas
may bleed and become infected. Correcting vitamin B6 deficiency with
foods rich in pyridoxine or supplements may clear up these symptoms.
-vitamin b6 may also be used in treatment of peripheral neuropathy
which results due to vitamin b6 deficiency.it exhibits as a burning,
shooting and tingling pain in your arms, legs and hands and feet. Also
taking too much of the inactive form of vitamin b6 from supplements
may cause neuropathy.
-pyridoxal phosphate aids in the synthesis hemoglobin by serving as a
coenzyme for the enzyme ALA synthase.it also binds on hemoglobin to
enhance the oxygen binding of hemoglobin.
-high homocysteine levels are lowered by taking vitamin B6.
homocysteine is a byproduct created during protein digestion. Vitamin
B6 helps to process homocysteine. Increased levels of homocysteine
can be linked to heart disease and stroke as well as Alzheimer’s
disease.it can also damage nerves and blood vessels.

VITAMIN B7-BIOTIN
Is a Sulphur containing vitamin
Its stable to heat but alkaline sensitive
When in food its bound to lysine as biocytin
Biotin is involved in many cellular reactions especially fat and protein
metabolism of hair roots, finger nails and skin.
Sources of biotin
Eggs cereals nuts-almond, walnuts and peanuts
Milk liver soybeans
Vegetables kidneys
Its also synthesized in the intestines
functions of biotin
-involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins
-strengthens hair and nails
-used in skin care
-aids in cell growth and maintenance of mucous membranes
-promotes appropriate function of the nervous system
-assist the liver in metabolism
Effects of deficiency
-Hair loss or alopecia
-seborrheic dermatitis (scaly red rush around the eyes, nose, mouth
and genitals)
-lethargy
-hallucination
-seizures
-numbness and tingling in hands and feet
-ataxia (loss of control of bodily movements)
Application in medicine
-patients receiving dialysis tend to have muscle cramps. Taking biotin
by mouth may help reduce these muscle crumps
-biotin is taken to help prevent biotin deficiency. Low biotin levels in
blood can cause thinning of hair and rash around the eyes, nose and
mouth.
VITAMIN B9-FOLATE
a class of biologically active compounds related to and including folic
acid
has many forms and related compounds
-tetrahydro folic acid
-methyl tetrahydrofolate
-Metheny tetrahydrofolate
-folinic acid
-folacin
-pteroyl glutamic acid
Sources of folic acid
Dark green leafy vegetables oranges
Beans-soybeans peanuts
Liver of chicken and cattle strawberries
Chicken asparagus
Beef wheat germ
Functions of folic acid
-helps in tissue growth and working of cells
-works with vitamin B12 and ascorbic acid to help breakdown, create
and use new proteins
-it helps form red blood cells hence prevent anemia
-helps to prevent changes in DNA that may lead to cancer
-taken by pregnant women to prevent neural tube defects
Effects of deficiencies
-megaloblastic anemia(very large red blood cells that crowd out
healthy blood cells causing anemia)
-poses heart disease risk
-tiredness, fatigue and lethargy
-muscle weaknesses
-peripheral neuropathies which causes numbness in the extremities.
Application in medicine
-folate is given to pregnant women 400mg a day to prevent neural tube
defects like spina bifida by 72-100%.it promotes the closure of the
lamina
-folic acid together with biotin and cobalamin helps protects the heart.
People with high levels of amino acid homocysteine are more likely to
develop coronary artery disease and stroke. They do this by lowering
homocysteine levels
-folic acid supplements help to prevent progression of age-related
hearing loss in elderly people with high homocysteine levels and low
folate in the diet.
-taking 2500mg of folic acid along with 500mg of vitamin B6 and
1000mg of cyanocobalamin daily reduces the risk of age-related
macular degeneration, an eye disease that causes vision loss.
VITAMIN B12-CYANOCOBALAMIN
Is the largest and most structurally complex vitamin
Unlike other water-soluble vitamins, vitamin B12 is stored in the liver
and other tissues. This is unique to vitamin B 12
it exists in four nearly identical chemical forms named according to R-
group attached to central cobalt
Cyanocobalamin-R group is cyanide
Hydroxocobalamin-R group is hydroxyl
deoxyadenosylcobalamin-R group is deoxyadenosine
Methyl cobalamin-R group is methyl
It is absorbed by two processes
(i) B12 specific intestinal mechanism using intrinsic factor
(ii) Passive diffusion process
Vitamin B12 is usually bound to proteins forming a complex. Proteins
are digested by proteases releasing vitamin B12 which then binds to
intrinsic factor and is then absorbed in the ileum.it forms intrinsic
factor/B12 complex
Sources of vitamin B12
Meat cheese
Fish eggs
Milk some fortified cereals
Functions of vitamin B12
-Keeps body’s nerve and blood cells healthy
-it helps to make DNA
-prevents pernicious anemia which makes people tired and weak
Effects of deficiencies
-nerve problems like numbness and tingling
-muscle weakness
-difficulty in walking
-vision loss
-memory loss or behavioral changes
-loss of appetite
Application of vitamin B12
-its used in combination with sodium thiosulphate in case of cyanide
poisoning. A large amount of vitamin B12 is injected intravenously. The
hydroxocobalamin hydroxide ligand is displaced by the toxic cyanide
ion and the resulting non-toxic cyanocobalamin is excreted in urine.
-its used to lower the concentration of homocysteine hence reduce the
risk of coronary heart disease in patients.
VITAMIN C-ASCORBIC ACID
Found in food as ascorbic acid
It’s a sugar acid known as hexuronic acid
Its easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to form dehydroascorbic acid
High temperatures, light and alkali promote oxidation
It is readily absorbed in the intestines by sodium dependent active
transport mechanism from where it reaches body tissues through
circulation
Sources of vitamin C
Guava, coriander and cabbage are rich sources
Citrus fruits like oranges mango
Peppers tomato
Strawberries
Pineapple
Papaya
Functions of vitamin C
-helps in growth and repair of tissues in all parts of the body
-forms an important protein used to make skin, tendon, ligament and
blood vessels
-helps wound to heal and form scar tissue
-assists in proper functioning of the immune system
-bile acid synthesis
-absorption of iron in the intestine
-it acts as an antioxidant by combining with free radicals
Effects of deficiency
-scurvy:symptoms include general weakness and anaemia,swollen
joints,swollen gums and weak tooth,delayed wound
healing,haemorrhages in various tissues particularly in inside of
thigh,calf and forearm,bone fragility.
-pain in the muscles
-fatigue, fever, loss of appetite and malaise
-bleeding gums or tooth loss
-dry hair and skin
application of vitamin c
-in medicine congenital methaemoglobinanaemia can be treated long
term with vitamin C.a reducing agent is needed to convert
methaemoglobin(ferric ion) into oxyhaemoglobin(ferrous iron)
-application of high dose IV vitamin C improves the quality of life for
vancer patients.it improves physical ,mental and
emotionalfunctions,symptoms of fatigue, nausea and vomitting.
-post diagnosisuse of vitamin C supplementation may be associated
with reduced mortality in breast cancer patients
-vitamin C is applied to reduce the incidence, severity and occurrence
of common cold a viral infection of upper respiratory tract since there
are no medicines to cure it
-vitamin C suppliments are given to treat scurvy which results due to
deficiency of vitamin C
-vitamin C is taken to reduce incidences of cancer and cardiovascular
diseases since it is an antioxidant

VITAMIN D-CALCIFEROL
It refers to a group of compouds that exhibit vitamin D activity
It has two forms-ergocalciferol (D2)
-cholecalciferol (D3)
The active forms of D2 and D3 are formed from provitamins which are
sterols. The provitamin of D2 is ergosterol which is found in ergot and
yeast, and is a derivative of cholesterol. The provitamin of D3 is 7-
dehydrocholerstol found in animals, also a derivative of cholesterol.
The provitamins are converted to active forms on exposure to
ultraviolet light present in sunlight or in any other light.it involves
opening the Bring of steroid nucleus. They are thus also called sunshine
vitamins
In human 7-dehydrocholesterol present beneath skin is converted to
vitamin D3 on exposure to sunlight.
Sources of vitamin D
Mostly present in foods of animal origin: marine fish liver oils eg.cod
liver oil,halibut liver oil and shark liver oil are good sources
Red meat,liver and fortified foods
Egg yolk, butter and sardines contain a small amounts
Functions of vitamin D
-promotes healthy bones an teeth
-supports immune, brain and nervous systemhealth
-regulates insulin levels and supporting diabetes management
-supports lung function and cardiovascular health
-it influences the expression of genes involved in cancer development
Effects of deficiency
-`weak immune system
-fatigue and tiredness
-rickets-softening and weakening of bones
-osteomalcia-bone demineralization
-delaayed mineralization of cranial bones are observed in infants
 Application in medicine
-Calcitriol and tacalcitol are vitamin D analogues available as creams or
ointments available for the treatment of psoriasis
-vitamin D is applied in the treatment of nutritional rickets which
results from serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D of less than 12ng/ML. Vitamin
D rapidly restores 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and is faster orally than
I.M
-it’s a good supplement for bone health especially among the old and
athletes.it helps to prevent osteoporosis. for older people with
osteoporosis its used to prevent hip fractures
- Calcitriol is an immuno regulatory hormone. It stimulates cell
mediated immunity. It plays a vital role in macrophage activation.it also
impairs growthy of mycobacterium tuberculosis

VITAMIN E-TOCOPHEROLS
Refers to a group of four compounds that exhibit vitamin E activity
These are: alpha tocopherol,
beta tocopherol,
gamma tocopherol
delta tocopherol
-They differ in methyl groups in positions 5, 7, and 8 of chroman ring. α-
tocopherol has three methyl groups in positions, 5, 7 and 8 of chroman
ring. The chroman ring of β and γ tocopherols contain two methyl
groups in 5, 8 and 7, 8 respectively. However δ-tocopherol has one
methyl group in position 8 of chroman ring
Tocopherols are alkaline sensitive and their vitamin activity is destroyed
by oxidation
Alpha tocopherol is the most potent and most available
It is absorbed from the diet in the small intestines with lipids and there
is no specific transport chain.it is packed in the chylomicrons and in the
circulation, it is associated with lipoproteins.
Sources of vitamin E
-edible vegetable oils especially wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, corn germ
oil, palm oil, peanut oil, mustard oil and cotton seed oil, cotton seed oil
and soybean oil are rich sources
-other good sources are leafy green vegetables-spinach, chard
-nuts-almonds and peanuts
-avocado
Sunflower seeds
Mango
-kiwifruit
Functions of vitamin E
-acts as antioxidants especially in cell membranes
-boosts the immune system
-helps to widen blood vessels and keep blood from clotting within them
Effects of deficiency
-nerve and muscle damage that results in loss of feeling in the arms and
legs
-loss of body movement control
-vision problems
-weakened immune system
-muscle weakness (muscular dystrophy)
-causes hemolytic anemia in infants
Application in medicine
-widely given to older patients and people because of its antioxidant
properties.it combines with free radicals thus protecting the cell against
its effects. Free radicals are produced when the body breaks down food
or is exposed to tobacco smoke and radiation.
-vitamin E is given to people with low immunity to keep the immune
system strong and suppress virus and bacteria
-vitamin E and selenium are used in combination to prevent hepatic
necrosis and prostate cancer.
VITAMIN K-PHYLLOQUINONE
Refers to a group of compounds that exhibit vitamin K activity
These are:
vitamin K1-phylloquinone-is the major form of vitamin K found in plants
especially green leafy vegetables
vitamin K2-menaquinone, -is the vitamin K present in animals and
synthesized by intestinal flora
both are derived from naphthoquinone and differ in side chain
Phylloquinone contain phytylside chain and has three repeating subunits
in its structure whereas menaquinone contains polyisoprene side chain
made up of 7 isoprene units
Vitamin K also has a synthetic form called menadione .it was used to be
used in supplements, injections post birth for infants.
Sources of vitamin K
-green leafy vegetables-spinach, cabbage, collar green, turnip green,
peas and soybeans are rich sources
Also contained in small amounts in rice, whole wheat, oats, tomatoes ,
peaches, banana and potatoes
Also contained in dairy products like cheese, butter and farm products
like eggs and liver
Functions of vitamin k
-needed for synthesis of blood clotting factors like prothrombin,
proconvertin or cothromboplastin.it is involved in the post translational
modification of these factors.
-used as an antioxidant.it protects cell membranes from damage due to
free radicals in a process called peroxidation
-it participates in metabolism of bone proteins most notably osteocalcin.
without vitamin K osteocalcin cannot bind to the minerals that form
bones, resulting in poor bone mineralization
-it is also a necessary cofactor in oxidative phosphorylation being
associated with mitochondrial lipids

Effects of deficiency
-impaired blood clotting
-hemorrhagic disease
-osteoporosis
-coronary heart disease
-intestinal dysbacteriosis
Application in medicine
-treating vitamin deficiency in newborns. Vitamin K intramuscular
injections are given shortly after birth to prevent vitamin K deficiency
bleeding
-managing warfarin therapy. Warfarin is an anticoagulant, it functions by
inhibiting an enzyme that is responsible for recycling vitamin K to a
functional state. Thus, proteins that should be modified by vitamin K are
not including those of blood proteins.
-treating rodenticide poisoning.in pharmacy, coumarin is used as a
precursor reagent in the synthesis of a number of anticoagulants.one
subset 4-hydroxycoumarins acts as a vitamin K antagonist. Some of the
4-hydroxycoumarins are used as rodenticides. Treatment of these
rodenticide poisoning is done by large doses of vitamin K