Cell cycle

The cell cycle Key Concepts

● The cell cycle, or cell division cycle, comprises

the succession of events that culminates in the
asexual reproduction of a eukaryotic cell.
● The cell cycle is divided into two main parts:
interphase and M phase.
● Interphase is subdivided into three phases: gap
phase 1 (G1), synthesis (S), and gap phase 2 (G2).
● M phase, which follows interphase, consists of
mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cell
division).
● The proteins that regulate DNA synthesis, mitotic
entry, and mitotic exit appear to be well
conserved throughout eukaryotic evolution.

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The cell cycle ● The succession of events that culminates in the
asexual reproduction of a eukaryotic cell; also
known as the cell division cycle.
● The eukaryotic parent cell doubles its volume,
mass, and complement of chromosomes, then sorts
its doubled contents to opposite sides of the
cell, and finally divides in half to yield two
genetically identical offspring.
● This idea fits well with the behavior of many
unicellular organisms; however, for
multicellular organisms, the daughter cells may
differ from their parent cell and from each
other in terms of size, shape, and
differentiation state.

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The cell cycle ● The time required for completion of a eukaryotic

cell cycle varies enormously from cell to cell.

● Embryonic cells that do not need to grow between

divisions can complete a cell cycle in as little

as 8 min, whereas cycling times of 10–24 h are
typical of the most rapidly dividing somatic
cells (that is, the cells of the body of an
organism except the germ cells).
● Many somatic cells divide much less frequently:

liver cells divide about once a year, and mature

neurons never divide. Such cells may be thought
of as temporarily or permanently withdrawing
from the cell cycle.

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The eukaryotic phases ● The cell cycle is divided into two main
parts:
1. Interphase - During interphase, the cell
grows and replicates its chromosomes.
Interphase accounts for all but an hour or
two of a 24-h cell cycle, and is subdivided
into three phases:
a. gap phase 1 (G1)
b. synthesis (S)
c. and gap phase 2 (G2)
2.M phase - which consists of mitosis
(nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cell
division).

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The Interphase G1 phase
Gap phase 1 (G1) begins at the completion of mitosis
and cytokinesis and lasts until the beginning of S
phase. This phase is generally the longest of the
four cell cycle phases and is quite variable in
length. During this phase, the cell chooses either
to replicate its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or to
exit the cell cycle and enter a quiescent state (the
G0 phase). Late in G1 phase, the cell becomes
committed to replicating its DNA. In mammalian
cells, the time at which this commitment occurs is
called the restriction point.

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The Interphase S phase
Replication of the chromosomes is restricted to
one specific portion of interphase, called S phase
(DNA synthesis phase), which typically lasts about
6 h. In mammalian cells, the start of S phase (the
actual initiation of DNA synthesis) takes place
several hours after the cell has committed to
carrying out DNA synthesis. During S phase, each
chromosome replicates exactly once to form a pair
of physically linked sister chromatids. In animal
cells, a pair of centrioles is also duplicated
during S phase.

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116150
The Interphase G2 phase
The portion of interphase that follows S
phase is called gap phase 2 (G2). Some
cells can exit the cell cycle from G2
phase, just as they can from G1 phase.

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116150
The Interphase M phase
M phase includes the overlapping processes of mitosis and
cytokinesis. Mitosis is divided into five stages:

1. prophase,
2. prometaphase,
3. metaphase,
4. anaphase,
5. and telophase.

Cytokinesis usually begins during anaphase and ends at a

point after the completion of mitosis. At the end of
cytokinesis, the parent cell has formed its two G1 phase
progeny, and the cell is ready to repeat the cycle.

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The control cycle ● The network of proteins that regulate DNA
synthesis (G1/S), mitotic entry (G1/M), and
mitotic exit (the transition from mitotic
metaphase to anaphase and then out of mitosis)
appears to be well conserved throughout
eukaryotic evolution.
● At the heart of these cell cycle transitions is
the periodic activation and inactivation of
cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDK). In
addition, in multicellular eukaryotes, pathways
regulating entry into and exit from the cell
cycle entrain these central cyclin-dependent
kinases to extrinsic signals.

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The control cycle Cell cycle entry

● In multicellular eukaryotes, most cells spend most of

their time in the quiescent G0 state. In response to
peptide growth factors, cells initiate a signal
transduction cascade that culminates in entry into G1
phase. Components of these mitogenic signaling pathways
include receptor tyrosine kinases [such as the epidermal
growth factor (EGF) receptor], small G-proteins (such as
Ras), and signal-relaying protein kinases (such as MAP
kinase).
● Many components of these mitogenic signaling pathways
are capable of causing malignant transformation when
overexpressed or inappropriately activated. The
cancer-causing forms of these proteins are termed
oncoproteins, and their genes are termed oncogenes.

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The control cycle The events of the cell cycle must occur in the correct order,
even if the steps take longer than normal.

1. The red stop signs in represent three checkpoints when

the cell cycle possibly stops. Researchers have
identified proteins called cyclins that increase and
decrease as the cell cycle continues. The appropriate
cyclin has to be present for the cell to proceed from
the G1 stage to the S stage and from the G2 stage to
the M stage.
2. The first checkpoint during G1 allows the cell to
determine whether conditions are favorable to begin the
cell cycle. The cell needs to assess whether there are
building blocks available for duplication of the DNA
and if the DNA is intact. DNA damage can stop the cell
cycle at the G1 checkpoint.
The control cycle The events of the cell cycle must occur in the correct order,
even if the steps take longer than normal.

4. In mammalian cells, the p53 protein stops the cycle at the

G1 checkpoint when DNA is damaged. First, the p53 protein
attempts to initiate DNA repair, but if that is not possible,
the cell enters G0 phase and undergoes apoptosis.

5. The cell cycle stops at the G2 checkpoint if DNA has not

finished replicating. This prevents the initiation of the M
stage before completion of the S stage. Also, if DNA is
damaged, stopping the cell cycle at this checkpoint allows
time for the damage to be repaired. If repair is not
possible, apoptosis occurs.
The control cycle The events of the cell cycle must occur in the correct order,
even if the steps take longer than normal.

6. Another cell cycle checkpoint occurs during the mitotic

(M) stage. The cycle stops if the chromosomes are not going
to be distributed accurately to the daughter cells.

● These checkpoints are critical for preventing cancer

development. A damaged cell should not complete
mitosis, but instead should undergo apoptosis.
● Mammalian cells tend to enter the cell cycle only when
stimulated by an external factor. Growth factors are
hormones that are received at the plasma membrane.
These signals set into motion the events that result in
the cell entering the cell cycle. For example, when
blood platelets release a growth factor, skin
fibroblasts in the vicinity are stimulated to finish
the cell cycle so an injury can be repaired.
The Proto-oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
Two types of genes control the movement of a cell
through the cell cycle:

1. Proto-oncogenes: encode proteins that promote

the cell cycle and prevent apoptosis. They are
often likened to the gas pedal of a car
because they cause cells to continue through
the cell cycle.
2. Tumor suppressor genes - encode proteins that
stop the cell cycle and promote apoptosis.
They are often likened to the brakes of a car
because they inhibit cells from progressing
through the cell cycle
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the process of programmed
cell death. It is used during early
development to eliminate unwanted
cells; for example, those between the
fingers of a developing hand. In
adults, apoptosis is used to rid the
body of cells that have been damaged
beyond repair. Apoptosis also plays a
role in preventing cancer. If apoptosis
is for some reason prevented, it can
lead to uncontrolled cell division and
the subsequent development of a tumor.
The end.