CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

Senior High School Department

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents survey of related literature and writing of

recognized experts, both of which have significant bearing or relation to the

problem under investigation.

Foreign Literature

Mostly farmers in Latin America for example often wash their livestock

with a paste made of crushed leaves of madre de cacao to ward off torsalos, a

common parasite on cattle and deer. In the other nations mostly Philippines, the

extract obtained from its leaves was used to remove external parasites since it

contains tannin that has antibacterial and insecticidal properties (Harrison,

2013). Further use of this tree can also be planted to reduce topsoil erosion in

the initial stages of reforesting denuded areas.

According to Leech (2018), garlic is a plant in the onion family that is

grown for its distinctive test and health benefits. It contains sulfur compounds,

which are believed to bring some of the health benefits. Furthermore, garlic

supplements help prevent and reduce the severity of common illnesses like the

flu and common cold, and another study found out that a high dose of garlic

extract reduce the number of days sick with cold or flu.

The most famous chemical found in garlic is allicin, a sulfur-containing

compound that is most concentrated in fresh garlic and becomes even stronger
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 13
Senior High School Department

when garlic is crushed or chewed (Paleoleap,2019). This what gives the

garlic such a strong taste and smell. Furthermore, the function of allicin is it is

the garlic defense against predators and prey, and allicin is the cause of health

benefits as mentioned above. Moreover, garlic extract that is applied to skin is

quite an effective remedy for fungal skin infections like ringworm and athlete’s

food (Paleoleap, 2019).

Local Literature

According to the Department of Agriculture, other than as pig dewormer,

termite and bed bug neutralizer, anti-fungus and bio-organic fertilizer among

others, researchers have discovered leaves of Mexican Lilac (Gliricidia sepium)

that is locally known as kakawate or madre de cacao as an effective pesticide

(Calasagsag, 2010). The botanopesticide solution is prepared by way of

chopping the kakawate leaves and soaked in water overnight to extract the

coumarins and using a strainer to separate the excess leaves from the solutions.

Afterwards, the resulting solution is sprayed to the ricefield and the best time to

do it is from eight oclock to nine o'clock in the morning and five to six o'clock in

the afternoon. These times, worms and pests are coming out from their habitats,

making the solutions more effective.

Similarly, the Green Steps, Inc.-Philippines (2016), madre de cacao is a

nitrogen fixing tree. Which means that it is referred to as a quick-stick due to its

characteristics of growing almost right away just by cutting it and directly

planting it in the ground. This tree can be potentially weedy but rarely cause a
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 14
Senior High School Department

problem. Furthermore, its ubiquitous characteristics makes it a good alternative

insecticide. Usually, parts of this plant used as pesticide were the leaves and

bark (Green Steps, Inc.-Philippines, 2016). It is said that grinding 1/2 kg of

madre de cacao leaves and soaked it overnight in water can kill pests such as

armyworm, cabbage looper, caseworm, tobacco budworm, whorl maggots,

aphids, blister beetles, termites, whitefly and white grubs.

Correspondingly, kakawate or madre de cacao is so common that no

one seems to pay attention, however, the UN Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) said that its leaves contain coumarin (Tacio, 2018). This

substance can be converted into an anticoagulant "dicoumarol" found to be an

efficient rat killer. Moreover, "anticoagulants are an efficient natural method of

pest control because thet reduce the protein prothrombin, clotting agent

secreted in the liver, and eventually cause death from the internal bleeding",

FAO noted as cited by Tacio (2018).

As specified by Tacio (2018), in the Science City of Munoz, organic rice

reportedly farmers spray their crops with fermented leaves and twigs of

"kakawate" and neem trees to control pests and diseases. Some farmers find it

convenient and effective, too, to just allow the kakawate leaves to their farm

when they irrigate. Correspondingly, in Baguio, a botanical pesticide prepared

from kakawate leaves and other herbals are used to kill worms that attack

cabbage and broccoli like cabbage butterflies, diamonback moths, leafminers,

and inchworms.
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 15
Senior High School Department

Madre de cacao is a very humble tropical deciduous tree growing almost

everywhere in the Philippines and might as well become one the new favorites

in maintaining the pet’s health. With hundreds of research focused around this

plant as a natural and organic substitute for conventional drugs to cure skin,

coat and parasite problems leaves (Bagano, 2017). In terms of toxicity and

practical use, Bagano cited that lots of researchers proves that madre de cacao

proves to be safe in most mammals including dogs and cats but deadly on

rodent. Hence, madre de cacao is used as a rodenticide for ages by farmers

and rural households.

The bark of kakawate is stripped and cooked with grains like corn or rice

used as poisonous bait for rodents (Dela Cruz, 2010). The advantage of

kakawate as bait is that the rats do not develop bait shyness that is common in

using synthetic rodenticide. Lots of researcher proves that the kakawate has

distinctive aroma that could attract the rodents that eventually, with the right

amount could terminate them.

Foreign Studies

Leaves of madre de cacao are used in South India as an insect repeller

specially for mosquitoes. It does not only repel insects but also have an ability

for antifungal and antibacterial activity. This ability was because madre de

cacao has various kinds of phytochemicals. According to Joji and Beena (2010)

on their study on qualitative phytochemical analysis, madre de cacao contains

phytochemicals such as coumarin, flovanoids, saponin, tannin and steroids

 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 16
Senior High School Department

responsible for killing and repelling insects. Furthermore, this phytochemical

has been identified and isolated from various parts of this plant.

Same as above, in which flower and essential oil from leaf of madre de

cacao were also tested for antibacterial activity against ten bacterial strains

namely; Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella paratyphi,

Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacter faecalis,

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginos, Streptococcus faecalis, and Serratia

marcescens by agar well diffusion method. Both flower and leaf oils showed

eloquent activity against all the tested microorganism, nevertheless, the leaf oil

has higher activity that the flower oil. The said oil from the leaves of madre de

cacao showed the highest activity against Streptococcus faecalis, Salmonella

paratyphi, Serratia marcescens, Serratia marcescens, and Proteus vulgaris and

the exertion was even comparable with standard antibiotics screened under

similar condition (Joji & Beena, 2010).

This phytochemical allows the extract of madre de cacao to have an

effect onto insects. Akharav, Boboyae and Adetuyi (2012) reported that madre

de cacao contain tannin. Tannin is said to have antidiarrheic, antibacterial,

viricidal, and pesticidal effect. This research is about the extract of Gliricidia

sepium and Spathodea campanulata leaf in which their objective is to determine

its phytochemical and possible source of antioxidant for antibacterial activities.

They found out that fraction and crudes of madre de cacao has a good
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 17
Senior High School Department

antibacterial activity against nine clinical bacteria isolates with the use of the

agar well and disc diffusion method.

According to Doctor (2019), madre de cacao or known as Gliricidia

sepium or kae farang and siam weed extracts are effective as a molluscicide in

the vitro trials. They found out that 10 mL of pure extracts wipe out all the

golden snail after 3 hours of exposure. Furthermore, the reason for having the

extract as potent to golden snail was because it contains phytochemicals such

as alkaloids, polyphenols, tannins, steroids, cyanidin, saponins and

deoxysugars that was shown during their phytochemical analysis of madre de

cacao and siam weed.

As mentioned earlier, madre de cacao contains various phytochemicals

that kill or repel insects. A study conducted by the department of the technology

with regards the use of madre de cacao leaves extract to analyze its effect to

Aedes aegypti larvae. Ethanolic extract of madre de cacao leaves were done

with constitutes flavonoids, steroids, glycosides, carbohydrate, tannin, coumarin

and saponin (Krishnaveni, Nayaki & Balasubramanian, 2015). It was found out

on their study that the leaves extract has an inhibitory effect on the growth of

larvae. In the statistical analysis, the highest significant difference was observed

between 1.5 and 2.0 g/l concentration of ethanolic extract and other extracts

(Krishnaveni, Nayaki, et.al., 2015). According to them, the larvicidal activity of

the plant extract may be attributed to the presence of active compounds such

as coumarin, terpenoids, saponins, and steroids.

 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 18
Senior High School Department

Since Krishnaveni, Nayaki and Balasubramanian ethanolic extract of

madre de cacao was effective in killing larvae of Aedes aegypti, crude extract of

madre de cacao leaves against 4th instar larvae of Anopheles mosquito were

also lethal. As stated by Mathew, Vazhacharickal, Sajeshkumar, and Sunil

(2015), powdered leaves of madre de cacao that was exhaustively extracted by

the Soxhlet extraction method using 80% petroleum ether can cause toxicity to

the Anopheles mosquito larvae after 1 hour. Furthermore, there were

progressive increase in the lethal effect on the Anopheles larvae with respect to

time and concentration and by the 6th hour, all the concentration was lethal.

A study by Tambalque, Kim, Loren, Sydrick, Tenala, Shania, Lorete, et.al.

in 2015 determined the effectiveness of kakawate leaves and lemongrass

extract as pesticide against cocolisap. Specially, the researchers used the

kakawate leaves and lemongrass extract as the main subject. In testing its

effectiveness, the researchers conducted an experiment. Five treatments were

prepared for experiment: T1(100% kakawate extract), T2(100% lemongrass

extract), T3(50% kakawate& 50% lemongrass extract), T4(negative control

water), T5(positive control baygon) and was observed for 12 to 24 hours. The

study showed that among the experimental groups the most effective treatment

is T3(50% kakawate & 50% lemongrass extract), followed by T1(100%

kakawate extract) and the least is T2(100% lemongrass). It was found out that

the kakawate leaves and lemongrass extracts was comparable to the

commercial pesticide and can be used as a good and cheaper pesticide.

 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 19
Senior High School Department

Likewise, Savella and Corpuz (2019) conducted a study wherein their

attention was to determine the independent larvicidal activity of two plant

species, Carica papaya and madre de cacao, and the combined effects of these

plant extracts against aedes aegypti larvae. The results of their study revealed

that the two plants extract, and their combined extract exhibited variable

efficacy. Carica papaya and madre de cacao was efficient at 100 mg/ml

concentration while the combined extract of the two was effective at 75 mg/ml

and very effective at 100 mg/ml (Savella & Corpuz, 2019). Furthermore, a

significant difference exists between and among the different extracts. Based

on Savella and Corpuz (2019), the combined plant extracts exhibited the best

mortality effect killing 50% of the larvae at 35.48 mg/ml concentration in 24

hours and 5.13 mg/ml in 48 hours.

Not only madre de cacao, but garlic also is known for being toxic to those

wrigglers or known as mosquito larvae. A certain study that was done by

Singha and Chandra (2011), in which the premise of their study is to investigate

some common spices and vegetable waste for larvicidal activity against Culex

quinquefasciatus and Anopheles stephensi. As reported the methanol extract of

garlic can be recommended effectively in mosquito control programmed at very

low concentrations. Furthermore, it was recommended for further studies to

determine if there were other abnormalities and mortality for another organism.

In line with Singha and Chandra studies, the Department of

Biotechnology (2009) stated that ethanol extract of garlic is proven to be potent

 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 20
Senior High School Department

against the larvae of filarial mosquito. In the results of their study, it shows that

LC50 values calculated for the second, third and fourth larval instars were

144.54 ± 2.3, 165.70 ± 1.2 and 184.18 ± 0.8 ppm respectively. The results

obtained show that this plant material exhibited significant activity and could be

considered as potent natural larvicidal agent (Kalu, Eroegbusi, Nwachukwu, &

Ibeh, B.,2009).

Identically to the effectiveness of ethanol extract of garlic as stated by the

Department of Technology, Shrankhla, Sharma, Mohan and Srivastava (2011)

achieved a study about larvicidal activity using hexane extract of

Pseudocalymma alliaceum and petroleum ether extract of Allium sativum

against Culex quinquefasciatus. The study oversees a result in which at 50%

concentration of Pseudocalymma alliaceum shows a mortality values of 2.49

and 15.06 ppm while Allium sativum show 8.38 and 29.5 ppm against Culex

quinquefasciatus. The researchers of this study concluded that the leave

components of Pseudocalymma alliaceum hexane extract demonstrated

greater potential as potent larvicides.

Similarly, Susheela, Radha and Padmapriyanga (2016) conducted an

evaluation of larvicidal action using the extracts of aloe vera and onion, alcohol

and cloves, marigold and garlic against larvae of Aedes aegypti. It appears that

all extracts show good to moderate level of mortality. However, the maximum

larval mortality was observed in the extract of the alcohol and cloves that

showed high efficacy on the Aedes mosquito. In accordance with their present
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 21
Senior High School Department

studies, the use of aloe vera, onion and garlic has a strong effect in acting as a

mosquito larvicide.

Not to mention, extract of garlic and horseradish was also effective for

fungicidal and insecticidal activity (Tedeschi, Leis, Pezzi, Civolani, Maietti &

Brandolini, 2011). The objective of their study is to determine insecticidal and

fungicidal activity of the two extracts against larvae of Aedes albopictus and

some pathogenic fungi. For the insecticidal test, horseradish and garlic are

extracted in a solution of ethanol 80% and the two different solutions were used

at different concentrations against the 4th instar mosquito larvae, while the

fungicidal test was carried out by the agar plates technique using garlic and

horseradish extracts in a ten percent (10%) ethanol solution against the

following organisms: Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc., Trichoderma longibrachiatum,

Botrytis cinerea Pers., Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. and Fusarium culmorum

Sacc. It was found out that horseradish and garlic show interesting and

significant insecticidal activity against Aedis albopictus.

In the light of Kasim, Ogiri and Yahaya (2019), garlic extract

demonstrated the potency of garlic in managing the larvae and thus contributes

way to control anopheles and culex larvae of mosquito. In their study, the

concentration of extract used was 0.5 mg/ml, 2 mg/ml and 3 mg/ml were

obtained by weighing 0.5 mg, 2mg and 3mg in 10 ml of water. The outcome of

their study shows a mortality of culex and anopheles depends on the garlic

extract and it increases with accordance to time, furthermore, the highest

 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 22
Senior High School Department

recorded mortality rate was 3 hours of exposure using the 3 mg/ml garlic extract

with a mean of 10. Moreover, 0.5 mg/ml affect both mosquitoes in 1 hour with a

mean of 2,33 and 3.67 respectively.

A traditional benefit of garlic came from its antimicrobial effects. One of

the oldest known natural antibiotics, garlic has been used for centuries to treat

bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections. Accoring to Paleoleap (2019), one

study found out that a diluted garlic extract helped children infected with

tapeworm recover more quickly and another showed the benefits of a garlic-

based mouthwashes in killing the bacteria that cause cavities. More excitingly,

garlic can sometimes help when other drugs cannot. Paleoleap (2019) cited a

certain study in which they found out that garlic extract was effective against

five multi-drug resistant strains of bacteria and a group of researchers in Italy

ascertain the benefits so compelling that they even suggested garlic as the

basis of potential new treatments for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis that does

not respond to antibiotics.

Local Studies

Kakawate leaves found out to be a good source of coumarin (Ong &

Flores, 2008), this substance is toxic that kill all types of insects. Moreover, an

interview to Rabena, a full-time professor at the University of Northern

Philippines in Vigan City said that “the more leaves the more concentration of

the said leaf extract, the more effective it is” “the more leaves the more

concentrate the pesticide” (Ong & Flores, 2008). As mentioned by Ong and
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 23
Senior High School Department

Flores, madre de cacao is rich in coumarin, and this substance is largely found

on the leaves of it. Since this plant is legume, this means that its leaves are rich

in nitrogen, hence, the discarded leaves can be applied to field as an organic

fertilizer (Berde, 2017).

Similar to the study above, Catalina (1998) the Regional director of

Department of Agriculture (DA), Regional Field Units (RFU), cited by Calleja

(2010) found out that kakawate leaves contain coumarins as effective

botanopesticide, so she conducted field demonstration in several parts of Ilocos

Region and applied the study to eliminate rice weevils, rice bags and worms in

rice fields. The botanopesticides solution is prepared by way of chopping the

kakawate leaves and soaking it in water overnight to extract coumarins. Using a

strainer, the leaves are separated from the solution.

This study compliments the study of Jose (2015) which revealed that the

crude extract of the leaves of the Gliricidia sepium plant have insecticidal

activity, especially mosquitocidal activity, against the larvae of the mosquito,

and provide that the extract has no lethal effect on non-targeted organisms and

can be used as an ecological friendly natural product for anti-mosquito activity.

In addition, Navasero (2017) stressed that the use of kakawate for

insect pest management in rice production can be promoted to reduce

dependence on synthetic insecticides. It can also be a useful pest management

strategy in organic rice production.

 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 24
Senior High School Department

Based to Rabena (2012) kakawati leaves are good source of coumarins,

a toxic substance that can kill almost all types of pests and insects. He

explained that one kilogram of kakawati leaves, soaked in water overnight, can

produce seven gallons of “botanopesticides”. In Zamboanga National High

School Science Lab, about the larvicidal property of crude aqueous Madre de

cacao extract against larvae. Extracts were taken from fresh young stem’s

scrapings and leaves mixed with equal parts of water. 20, 15 and15 mL of the

two extracts were independently treated on the 10 mosquito wrigglers

suspended in 5.0 mL rain water in separate Petri dishes.

In line with the effectiveness of madre de cacao as larvicides, Antonio,

Antoy and Lumogda (2014) conducted a study in which their objective is to

determine the level of effectiveness of madre de cacao leaf extract in killing

household mosquito larvae. On their study, 5 various treatments were created,

it composed of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% leaf extract of madre de cacao.

It was found out that at 0% no lethality happened, at 25% leaf extract of madre

de cacao, its level of effectiveness shows only effective and the rest shows very

effective in killing household mosquito larvae. Furthermore, there were

significant difference of level of effectiveness in each treatment in killing

household mosquito larvae. In addition, the researchers recommended that the

leaf extract of madre de cacao can be a potential natural larvicide on

mosquitoes and can be an alternative substitute to commercial mosquito

pesticide.
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 25
Senior High School Department

At this time, a study with regards the use of madre de cacao was

conducted by Torres (2018) in eradicating the rapid growth of parasite

population in dogs. There were 3 preparations made, 2:2:2, made up of 2 cups

of madre de cacao extract, 2 cups of sinta extract and 2 cups of coco milk that

were cooked to become oil and found out that this method is effective in killing

the parasites population living in dogs such as lice and ticks (Torres, 2018).

Similarly, in the article by Studybuddyonline (2013), madre de cacao was

proven to be effective for dermatitis or itching. The fresh leaves can be applied

directly to the skin especially in the infected area.

As mentioned above, madre de cacao extract is effective in killing insects,

pest and parasites, however, madre de cacao leaf extract is also advisable in

influencing the yield production of plants especially pechay (Agustin, 2018). On

the study, the leaves of madre de cacao was soaked into drums which contain

coconut water during fermentation. After one day, the fermented leaves were

transferred into a gallon and was used in spraying the pechay leaves. It was

found that the leaves of madre de cacao greatly influenced the yield of pechay

(Agustin, 2018).

Equally important, essential oil extract of garlic and asafetida exhibit

toxicity against Culex pipiens and Culex restuans (Muturi, Ramirez & Rooney,

2018). It was stated that allyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide were the most

abundant components of garlic while asafetida contains a component such as

propenyl disulfide and methyl prophy. For both mosquitoes, garlic essential oils
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 26
Senior High School Department

were more toxic than asofoetida essential oil. When the two essential oils

combined it results to have an antagonistic effect. The majority of culex egg

rafts exposed to garlic and asofoetida essential oils failed to hatch and larvae

that did hatch mostly died at first instar. The researchers concluded that garlic

and asofoetida essential oils are potent mosquito ovicides and larvicides but if

used jointly, they could undermine vector control.

Synthesis and Relevance of the Reviewed Literature and Studies

Madre de cacao is a very great tree since it helps the folklore before to

manage the insects and pest. Since this tree is well distributed and mostly it

was identified for doing larvicidal and insecticidal activity, many researchers

became interested. Garlic was used before to help people reduce illness (Leech,

2018), treat parasites as a laxative and as diuretic (Pathak, 2018). With further

analysis of madre de cacao and garlic, it is proven that these two can exhibit

larvicidal activity. Madre de cacao was discovered to have an active compound

such as coumarin, flovanoids, saponin, tannin and steroids responsible for

killing insects (Joji & Beena, 2010). With this, many researchers were

fascinated by this outcome of ethanolic extract by Krishnaveni, Nayaki and

Balasubramanian (2015), crude extract by Mathew, Vazhacharickal,

Sajeshkumar and Sunil (2015), and even dilution extract by Antonio, Antoy and

Lumogda (2014) which proved that the phytochemical mentioned by Joji and

Beena is the reason why madre de cacao is toxic to insects. Now, not only

madre de cacao but garlic as well was proven to be toxic to insects. In addition,
 CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 27
Senior High School Department

garlic can exhibit antifungal and insecticidal. This happened because garlic

contains an abundant compound such as allyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide

which causes the insecticidal activity (Muturi, Ramirez & Rooney, 2018). These

two, madre de cacao and garlic are a very great materials in creating

concentrations for larvicidal purposes since it was proven by various

researchers.
CABUYAO INTEGRATED NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 28
Senior High School Department