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 UNIT – III
CENTROIDS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

3.1. Introduction to properties of Surface and Solids

In engineering applications, we come across complicated areas and solid bodies whose
properties are very important. The properties such as centroid of areas, centre of gravity of rigid
bodies, moment of inertia of area and mass moment of inertia of rigid bodies are considered in
the analysis and design of elements. The concept of centroid and centre of gravity is also
necessary to find the magnitude and direction of resultant force acting on the bodies. The
concept of moment of inertia is useful for calculation of stresses developed in a beam, buckling
of column and also to study the rotary motion of rigid bodies. This unit is mainly concerned
with the determination of above such properties.
3.2. Terms and Definitions
Centroid
It is defined as the point at which the total area of plane figure is considered to be
concentrated.
Centre of Gravity
It is defined as the point through which the whole weight of a body acts irrespective of its
orientation. It is denoted by C.G (or) G.
Centre of Mass
It is a point where the entire mass of a body is considered to be concentrated.
Centre of Pressure
When an area is subjected to a pressure, a point in the area exists through which the entire
force could be concentracted with the same external effect. This point is called centre of
pressure. If the pressure is uniformly distributed over an area, the centre of pressure coincides
with the centroid of the area.
Reference Axis
Centre of gravity (or) centroid is always computed with reference to some point of
reference or some assumed axis called the reference axis. For plane figure the axis of reference
is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for computing and the left line of the figure for
computing .
 y
axis of reference

y axis of reference

Figure 3.1
If the plane figuers have areas symmetrical about x-x axis or y-y axis the procedure for
computing centroid is very much simplified. For symmetrical T-section about x-axis the
centroid lies on the y-axis, it is need to find only .
Centroidal Axis
It can be defined as an axis which is passing through the centroid of the plane figure is
called the centroidal axis.
3.3. Determinations of Areas and Volumes
The determination of geometric properties of surfaces and bodies such as areas and
volumes are very important in the engineering applications. In order to determine the areas and
volumes, the two theorems developed by Greek scientist Pappus and Swiss mathematician
Guldinus are used. These two theorems are also used to locate the centroid of bodies by
knowing surface area or volume generated.

3.3.1. Pappus and Guldinus theorems

Theorem I
The first theorem states that the area of the surface generated by revolving a plane curve
about a non intersecting axis in its plane is equal to the product of the length of the curve and the
distance travelled by the centroid of the curve during the generation.

B
B

A C
A C A C
Sphere Cone Torus
(a) (b) (c)
 Figure 3.2
Referring to the figure, by rotating a semicircular arc ABC about the axis AC, the surface
of a sphere can be obtained. By rotating a straight line AB about an axis AC, the surface of a
cone is generated. By rotating the circumference of a circle about the axis AC, the surface of a
ring or torus is obtained.
Note:
A surface of revolution is a surface which can be generated by rotating a plane curve about
a fixed axis.
Theorem II
The second theorem states that the volume of solid generated by revolving a plane area
about a non intersecting axis in its plane is equal to the product of the area and length of path the
centroid travels during the generation.

Solid Sphere Solid Cone Solid Torus

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.3
Referring to figure 2.47, a solid sphere can be obtained by rotating a semicircular area
about an axis. Similarly a cone is obtained by rotating a triangular area and a solid torus by
rotating a full circular area.
Note:
A body of revolution is a body which can be generated by rotating a plane area about a
fixed axis.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Determine the surface area and volume of a sphere of radius ‘r’ by Puppus
and Guldinus theorems.
Solution:
a) Surface area
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem I, the surface area of a sphere is generated by rotating
a semi-circular area about an axis.
Surface area A = length × Distance travelled by centroid
  A = 4r2
b) Volume
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem II, the volume of a sphere can be generated by
rotating a semi-circular area.
Volume V = Area × Distance travelled by centroid

2. Find the surface area and volume of a right circular cone of base radius ‘r’
and height ‘h’.
Solution:

B
B

–x h –x

G G

A C A C
r r
(a) Surface revolution (b) Body revolution

Figure 3.4
a) Surface Area
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem I, the surface area of a right circular cone is
generated by rotating a slant length, L.
Surface area A = Length × Distance travelled by centroid
 r
 L   2  
2
  
  A = rL.
b) Volume
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem II, the volume of a right circular cone is generated by
rotating a right angle triangle.
Volume V = Area × Distance travelled by centroid
1  r
 rh   2  
2 3
 


V r2h
3
3. Find the surface area and volume of a cylinder using Pappus and Guldinus
theorems.
Solution:

r
G h 2 h
G

r r
(a) Surface revolution (b) Body revolution

Figure 3.5
a) Surface Area
Let h and r be height and radius of a cylinder.
As per pappus and Guldinus theorem I, a cylinder can be generated by rotating a stright
line of length, h.
Surface area A = Length × Distance travelled by centroid.
= h × 2r
 A = 2rh
b) Volume
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem II, the volume of a cylinder is generated by
considering the shaded area.
Volume V = Area × Distance travelled by centroid
 V = r2h
3.4.1 Determination of Centroid by First Moment of Areas
Consider a plane figure, for which the centroid is to be determined. The total area of the
plane figure is ‘A’ and its centroidal distances are and measured from reference axes ox and oy
respectively.
Let a1, a2,. ....... an are small elemental areas of figure.
x1, x2 .................xn are respective distances of small elemental areas from y-axis
y1, y2................... yn are respective distances of small elemental areas from x-axis
 y

x1
a1
x2
a2 C
x
y1

y
y2

x
O

Figure 3.6

According vanignon’s theorem,

AX  a1 x1  a2 x2  ........  an xn
n

a i xi
 X  a1 x1  a2 x2  ......  an xn  i1
A A
n

a i yi
 Y  a1 y1  a2 y2  ......  an yn  i1

A A

Similarly,
a a
n n
i xi i yi
i 1 i1
where, (or) is the first moment of area of the surface about x
(or ) y axis.
3.4.2 IMPORTANT POINTS
i. The axis, about which moments of areas are taken, is known as axis of reference.
ii. The axis of reference, of plane figures, is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for
determining , and left y line of the figure for calculating x

iii. If the given section is symmetrical about X-X axis or Y-Y axis, then the C.G. of the section
will lie on the axis is symmetry.
3.5. Determination of Centroid of Standard Sections by
Integration
3.5.1 Rectangular Section
Figure 3.5 shows a rectangular section of width b and height h. Consider a small elemental
strip of thickness dy and width b as shown in figure 3.5.
Let dA = Area of strip
= b dy
h

A  dA   bdy bh

 Total area 0

First moment of small elemental strip about x-axis

= dA y

Total first moment of area about x-axis

h h

  dA y    b dy y
h
0 0
 y2  bh2
 b   
 2 0 2
bh2
 Y
 dA y  2 
h

 dA bh 2
h
Y
2

Similarly, 
hb2
 X 
dA x  2  b
 dA bh 2
b
X
2

SOLVED PROBLEMS
4. Locate the centroid of the volume shown in figure 3.7. All dimensions are
in cm.
 y

25 cm Cone

25 cm Cylinder

20 cm Hemisphere
x
O

Figure 3.7
Solution:
Divide the given figure into three parts.
i) Portion 1: Cone
1 1
  20   25
2
v  r 2 h 
1
3 3
= 10466.7 cm3
h 25
y  25  20   45  51.25 cm
1
4 4

ii) Portion 2: Cylinder

v 2 r2 h    202  25
= 31400 cm3

h 25
y  20   20  32.5 cm
2
2 2

iii) Portion 3: Hemisphere

2 2
v r2     203
3
3 3
= 16746.67 cm3
3r 5
y3  r   r
8 8

5
 20  12.5 cm
8
Using
 v1 y1  v2 y2  v3 y3
y
v1  v2  v3


10466.67  51.25  31400  32.5  16746.67  12.5
10466.67  31400  16746.67
1766250.22
  30.13 cm
58613.34

5. A steel ball of 20 cm diameter rests centrally over a concrete cube of size

30 cm. Determine the centre of gravity of the system. Take density of
concrete as 25 kN / m3 and that of steel as 8 kN / m3.

Steel Ball

30 cm Concrete Cube

x x
30 cm

Figure 3.8
Solution:
As the system is symmetrical about y-axis, therefore, its centre of gravity lies on the y-axis.
Let be the position of C.G from the reference axis x-x as shown in figure 2.54.
i) Portion 1: Steel Ball (Sphere)
3
v  4 r3  4     10   4.189  103 m3
 
1
3 3 100 
w1 = v1 × Density of steel = 4.189 × 10–3 × 8000
= 33.5 N
y1 = 30 + 10 = 40 cm
ii) Portion 2: Concrete cube
v2 = 0.3 × 0.3 × 0.3 = 27 × 10–3 m3
w2 = v2 × Density of concrete = 27 × 10–3 × 25000
 = 675 N.
y2 = 30/2 = 15 cm
wywy 33.51  40  675  15
y 1 1 22

w1  w2 33.51  675
= 16.18 cm.
6. A machine component is formed by combining a hallow cylinder, a solid
cylinder and a cube as shown in figure 3.9. The mass density of solid cylinder
and cube is 8000 kg / m3 and of hollow cylinder is 8500 kg / m3.
i) Find the centre of gravity of the composite volume
ii) Locate the centre of mass of the composite volume.

12 cm

12 cm 1 Cube

8cm Solid Cylinder

10 cm 2

12 cm 3 8 cm Hollow Cylinder

Figure 3.9
Solution:
As the machine component is symmetrical about y-axis, therefore, it is necessary to find
only.
Divide the component into three parts
i) Portion 1: Cube
v1 = 12 × 12 × 12 = 1728 cm3 = 1.728 × 10–3 m3
m1 = v1 × density= 1.728 × 10–3 × 8000
= 13.824 kg.
12
y  22  28 cm
1
2
ii) Portion 2: Solid cylinder
v2 =  r2 h =  × 44 × 10 = 502.72 cm3
= 0.502 × 10–3 m3
m2 = v1 × density = 0.50 × 10–3 × 8000
= 4.07 kg.
10
y 12  17 cm
2
2
iii) Portion 3: Hollow cylinder
v3 =  (R2 – r2)h =  (62 – 42) × 20
= 1256.8 cm3 = 1.2568 × 10–3 m3
m2 = v3 × density= 1.2568 × 10–3 × 8500
= 10.68 kg.
12
y  6 cm
3
2
a) Centre of gravity of composite volume

v1 y1  v2 y2  v3 y3
y
v1  v 2  v3
1.728  103  28  0.502  103  17  1.2568  103  6

1.728  103  0.502  103  1.2568  103

= 18.49 cm
b) Centre of mass of the composite volume
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3
y
m1  m2  m3


13.824  28  4.07  17 10.68  6
13.82  4.07  10.68
= 18.21 cm.
7. Determine the centroid of bent wire as shown in figure 3.10. All dimensions
are in cm.

10 cm Reference axis
o AB x

5cm

D E
C
2 cm

2cm 4cm
y

Figure 3.10
Solution:
As the bent wire is not symmetrical about any axis, therefore, it is necessary to find both
and . Let ox and oy be the reference axes to which the position of C.G of the wire is determined.
Divide the bent wire into four parts as shown in figure 2.56.
 i) Portion 1: Wire AB
L1 = 10 cm
x1 = 10/2 = 5 cm
y1 = 0
ii) Portion 2: Wire BC
L2 = 5 cm
x2 = 0
y2 = 2.5 cm
iii) Portion 3: Wire CD
L3 = 2 cm
x3 = 1 cm
y3 = 5 cm
iv) Portion 4: DEF
D 4
L   6.284 cm
4
2 2
4
x  2   4 cm
4
4r 2
y 4 5   4  2 
3  5   3 
 

 

 = 5.84 cm
 y
L1 y1  L2 y2  L3 y3  L4 y4
 Using L1  L2  L3  L4


10  0  5  2.5  2 5  6.284  5.84
10  5  2  6.284

= 2.54 cm
L1 x1  L2 x2  L3 x3  L4 x4
x
Similarly, L1  L2  L3  L4


10  5  5  0  2 1  6.284  4
10  5  2  6.284
= 3.31 cm
8. Determine the centroid of the area bound by x-axis, if OB is represented by
y = kx2 and OA = a and OB = b as shown in figure 3.11.
 y

B
2
y=kx

b
y
x
O x A
a dx

Figure 3.11
Solution:
The equation of the curve is y = kx2. The value of constant ‘k’ can be obtained by
substituting the values of x = a and y = b in the above equation.
 b  ka2
b
k 
2
or a
Consider a vertical strip of width dx as shown in figure 2.57.
Area of elemental strip = y dx.
 Area of the figure
a a

  y dx   kx2 dx
0 0

a
 x3  a3
 k   k
 3 0 3
b a 3
 b 
 2  
 k
a 3  a2 
1
 ab.
3

Moment of area about y - axis

a a a


 y dx x   k x dx x  kx3 dx
2

0 0 0
a
x 
4
b a4   ba2
 k    2   
 4 0 a  4  4

Moment of area about x - axis,

 a a
y y2
 y dx  dx
0 2 02
a
1a 1  x5 
 k x dx  k 2  
2 0 2 4 2  5 0
1 b2  a5  ab2
 2 a 4   5 
    10
Moment of area about y-axis
x=
Area


ba / 4 ba
2 2 3 3
  a
1
3 ab 4 ab 4

Moment of area about x-axis

y=
Similarly, Area

ab2 3  3 b
 
10 ab 10

COMPOSITE AREAS:

9. From a rectangular lamina ABCD 10 cm x 12 cm a rectangle hole of 3 cm x 4 cm is cut as

shown in figure.
Solution:

The section shown in figure is having a cut hole. The center of gravity of a section with a cut
hole is determined by considering the main section first as a complete one and then subtracting
the area of the cut hole, i.e., by taking the area of the cut hole as negative.

Let y is the distance between the C.G of the section with a cut hole from the bottom line DC.
a1 = Area of rectangle ABCD = 10 x 12 = 120 cm2
y1 = Distance of C.G of the rectangle ABCD from the bottom line DC
= 12/2 = 6 cm

a2 = Area of cut hole, i.e., rectangle EFGH = 4 x 3 = 12 cm2

y2 = Distance of C.G of the cut hole from bottom line DC
= 2 + 4/2 = 2+ 2 = 4 cm
Now using the equation

y = (a1y1 – a2y2)/A

Where A = a1 – a2

y = (120 x 6 – 12 x 4) /(120 – 12 ) = 6.22 cm

To Find x

Let x = Distance between the C.G of the section with a cut hole from the left line AD
x1 = Distance of the C.G of the rectangle ABCD from the left line AD
= 10/2 = 5 cm
x2 = Distance of the C.G of the cut hole from the left line AD
= 5 + 1 + 3/2 = 7.5 cm
Using the equation

x = (a1x1 – a2x2)/a1 – a2

x = (120 x 5 – 12 x 7.5 ) / ( 120 – 12 ) = 4.72 cm

DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE FIGURE
Moment of Inertia of a plane Area
Moment of inertia of an area about an axis is nothing but second moment of area about the
desired axis. It is a purely mathematical term and one of the important properties of areas.
Consider a plane area, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out. Split up the
whole area into a number of small elements.

Let a1, a2, a3 ..... = Areas of small elements and

r1, r2, r3 .... = Distance of the elements from the line about which the moment
of intertia is required to be found out
Now the moment of inertial of the area,
I = a r12 1+ a r 22+ 2a r 2 +3......
3
=  ar2
Moment of Inertia by the Method of Integration
Consider a plane figure, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out about x-x axis
and y-y axis as shown in figure. Let us divide the whole area into a number of small elemental
areas. Consider one of these strips.
y

x dA

x
O

Fig
Let dA = Area of the small element under consideration.
x = Distance of the C.G. of the element on x-x axis.
y = Distance of the C.G. of the element on y-y axis.
We known that the moment of inertia of the elemental area about y-y axis
= dA · x2
 Moment of inertia of the whole area may be obtained by integrating the above equation.
 Iyy  dA x2   dA x2
Similarly,
 Ixx  dA y2   dA y2

Polar moment of inertia

The moment of inertia of an area of plane figure with respect to an axis perpendicular to the x-y
plane and passing through a pole O (z -axis) is called the polar moment of inetia.it is denoted by
the letter J.
Polar moment of inertia of the element about Z axis
=area (dA)×(distance between the element and Z axis)2
=dA.r2
Polar moment of inertia of the whole area about z axis
J= ∫ r2 dA
But from the geomentry of figure, r2=x2+y2
J=∫ r2 dA=∫ (x2+y2)dA =∫ x2dA +∫y2dA
J=IYY+IXX

Units of moments of inertia

We know that moment of intertia of an area
=(area)(distance)2 =(length)4
Thus ,it has a unit of ‘m4’.

Radius of gyration
Radius of gyration of an area is defined as the distance from a reference axis whose area is
considered to be concentrated such that these is no change in the moment of inertia about the
reference axis.
If the entire area A is concentrated at a distance k from a reference axis, then the moment
of inertia, I, of the entire area about the reference axis is taken as Ak2.
i.e., I = Ak2
I
k 
or A

where, k = Radius of gyration.

A = Area of the section.
Hence, radius of gyration about x-x axis,
Ixx
kxx 
 A
and, radius of gyration about y-y axis,
Parallel Axis Theorem
This theorem states that moment of inertia of an area about any axis in the plane of an area,
is equal to the sum of moment of inertia about a parallel centroidal axis and the product of area
and square of the distance between the two parallel axes.

dA
y
G G
C.G

A B

Fig

Referring to figure,
IAB = IGG + Ah2
where, IAB is the moment of inertia about the axis AB
IGG is the moment of inertia about centroidal axis GG parallel to AB,
A is the area of the plane figure
h is the distance between the axis AB and the parallel centroidal axis GG.
Consider an elemental parallel strip of area dA at a distance y from centroidal axis.
Then,
I AB    y  h  dA
2


  y2  2yh  h2 dA    y2 dA   2yh dA   h2 dA

Now,  y2 dA  Moment of inertia about the axis GG.

 2yh dA  2h  y dA

 y dA
 2h A
A
 y dA
In the above, term, 2hA is constant, and A is the distance of centroid from the
 y dA
0
reference axis GG. Since GG passes through the centroid itself, A and hence the term
 2yh dA  0
Now, the third term
   h2 dA  h2  · dA  Ah 2

 IAB  IGG  Ah 2

Hence the proof

Perpendicular Axis Theorem
This theorem states that the moment of inertia of an area about an axis perpendiuclar to its
plane at any point O, is equal to the sum of moment of inertia about any two mutually
perpendicular axis through the same point O and lying in the plane of the area.
y

dA

x
O

Fig
Referring to figure, if z-z is the axis normal to the plane passing through
point O.
As per the theorem,
Izz = Ixx + Iyy
In order to prove this theorem, let us consider an elemental area dA at a distance r from O.
Let the co-ordinates of dA be x and y. Then from definition,

I zz   r 2 dA


  x2  y2  r  x2  y2 
dA


  x2 dA   y2 dA

= Ixx + Iyy
 Izz  Ixx  Iyy

Hence the proof.

 Determination of M.I of Standard Sections by Integration
M.I of a Rectangular Section
Consider a rectangle of base ‘b’ and depth ‘d’ as shown in figure. Let us find M.I of this
rectangle section about its centroidal axes and base.

Fig
a) M.I of rectangular section about its centroidal axes
Consider a strip AB of thickness dy parallel to x-x axis and at a y distance from it.
Area of the strip = b · dy
M.I of the strip about x-x axis,
= Area × y2
= (b · dy) y2
= b · y2 · dy
The M.I of the whole section can be found out by integrating for the whole length of the
lamina.
d 2 d 2

Ixx 
 b·y · dy  y
2 2
· dy
d 2 d 2

 y d 

   d32 
3
 b  3  2  b  d 2
3

3  3
  d
2  


Similarly,
bd3
Iyy 
12
 b) M.I of rectangular section about its base.
Consider a strip AB of thickness dy parallel to the base RS and at a y distance from it.
M.I of the strip about base
IRS (base) = (b · dy) · y2
M. I of the whole section about the base RS
d
IRSbase  b y dy
2

 y 3  d
bd3
 b
 3  


 0 3

M.I of a Circular Section

Consider a circular section of radius r as shown in figur 2.62. Now consider an elementary
ring of radius x and thickness dx.
 Area of the ring, dA = 2x · dx
In order to find the M.I of circular section, first find the M.I of the ring about the axis
normal to the plane of circle (zz).
y
z

dx
r
x O x

z
y

M.I of ring about zz axis,

= dA · x2 = (2 x dx) x2 = 2 x3 dx
M.I of the circular section about zz axis.

r r

Izz   2x dx  2  x3 dx 3

0 0

r
x    4
4
2    2  r   d
4

 4 0 32

We know form the perpendicular axis theorem,

 Izz  Ixx  Iyy
I 1 d
4 d4
 Ixx  Iyy    
zz

2 2 32 64
d4
Ixx  Iyy 
64

M.I of a Triangular Section

Consider a triangular section of base b and height h as shown in figure.

h
dy P Q
x G x

B C
b

Fig
First find the M.I of the triangle about its base BC, then by applying the parallel axis
theorem we can calculate M.I about its centroidal horizontal axis x-x.
 a) M.I of a triangular section about its base
Consider a small strip PQ of thickness by at a distance of y from the apex A of the triangle.
From the geometry of the figure
PQ y

BC h
 Width of the strip
BC  y by
PQ  
 h h
 by 
PQ   dy
 h 
 Area of the strip  

M.I of the strip about base BC
= Area of the strip × (Distance)2

 by 
dy   h  y 
2

 h 
 
by
h  y dy
2

h
M.I of the whole triangular section, about its base.

h
by
IBase 
 h  h  y
2
dy
0
bh 2
 y hy
  dy
h 0 h
b
 y h  y2  2hy dy
2

h 0


h


b
h 0
 yh 2  y3  2hy 2 dy
3 h
 b  y h  y  2h y 
2 2 4

h 2 4 3 
 0

b h 4 h4 2h4 

 h 2  4  3 
 
bh3

12
bh3
 IBase 
12
b) M.I of a triangular section about its horizontal centroidal axis x-x.
M.I of a triangular section about its horizontal axis x-x can be obtained from parallel axis
theorem.

h
dy P Q
x G x

B C
b

Fig
IBase = Ixx + Ah2
 Ixx = IBase – Ah2

3

bh3  bh   h  
  2  
12  3 
bh3 bh3 bh3
  
12 18 36
bh3
 Ixx 
36
















 FRICTION

2.1 Introduction to Friction

When two bodies in contact have a tendency to move over each other a resistance to the
movement is set up. This resistance to the movement is called the force of friction or simply
friction. Friction depends upon the nature of the surfces of contact and it acts paralle to the
surface of contact. The direction of this frictional force on any of the surfaces of contact will be
opposite to the direction in which the contact surface tends to move. In other words friction
opposes motion. In engineering friction has many applications. Some of the applications are the
design of brakes, belts, bolts and nuts, ropes, etc.
2.1.1 Type of Friction
In engineering applications, we come across the following two types of friction.
i) Dry friction
ii) Fluid friction
i) Dry friction
It takes place between dry surfaces of bodies in contact. This type of friction is also known
as coulomb friction. The direction of force is always opposite to the motion or impending
motion.
ii) Fluid friction
It takes place when adjacent layers in a fluid are moving at different velocities. This
motion causes frictional forces between the fuild elements. These forces depend on relative
velocities, velocity gradients and viscosity of the fluid.
Dry friction is further classified into two types.
a) Static friction
b) Dynamic or Kinetic friction
a) Static friction
It is one experienced by a body at rest. The static friction is always greater than dynamic
or kinetic firction.
b) Dynamic or kinetic friction
It is one experienced by a body during motion. It is always less than static friction. It
depend on the velocity at which body slides and it slightly decreases as the velocity of sliding
increases.
The dynamic friction is further classified into (i) Sliding friction and (ii) Rolling friction.
Sliding friction occurs when one body slides over another. Rolling friction occurs when the
body rolls over a surface.
2.1.2 Limiting Friction
 W

F
P
Figure 4.1
Consider a wooden block resting on a rough horizontal table. Let W be the weight of the
block. Let the block be subjected to a harizontal force ‘P’. When this applied force is
sufficiently small, the block will remain in equilibrium. Suppose if force ‘F’ continues to oppose
‘P’ with larger magnitude but attains a maximum value ‘Fm’ beyond which the block starts
sliding. This maximum resistance offered by the body is called limiting friction.
2.1.3 Co-efficient of Friction
It is defined as the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction. It is denoted
by ‘’.
limiting friction
Mathematically, 
Normal Reaction
Co-efficeient of friction is of two types.
i) Co-efficient of static friction (s)
It is the ratio of maximum static friction force Fm and the normal reaction ‘R’.

Fm
i.e., s 
R
ii) Co-efficient of kinetic friction (k)
It is the ratio of the kinetic friction force Fk and the normal reaction ‘R’.

Fk
i.e., k 
R
Co-effiicient of kinetic friction is approximately 25% less than that of co-efficient of static
friction.
2.1.4 Angle of friction
W

F

R R'
Figure 4.2
 Consider a block resting on the horizontal rough surface. Let R’ be the resultant reaction
(resultant of the normal reaction R and friction F). The angle  between the resultant and the
normal to the surface is called the angle of friction.
F
Mathematically, tan 
R

Corresponding to the limiting condition of equilibrium, the friction ‘F’ will reach the
maximum value. Corresponding to this condition the angle of friction reaches a maximam value
 so that
Fmax R
tan       F  R
R R
  tan–1 


The inclination of the resultant with the normal when the condition of limiting
equilibrium is reached is called the angle of limiting friction.
2.1.5 Angle of Repose

w sin  
 w w cos 

Figure 4.3
Consider a block of weight ‘w’ resting on a rough incline plane as shown in
figure 4.3. Let ‘R’ be the normal reaction and ‘F’ be the friction.
Resolving the forces along the plane
w sin = F
Resolving the forces normal to the plane
w cos = R
F w sin 
tan   
R w cos
The frictional force ‘F’ opposes the motion and hence the block tends to remain at rest.
As the inclination of the plane is increased, the block slides down since the component w sin
increases. In other words, the angle between the normal and the resultant can
never be greater than the angle of friction . The maximum inclination of the plane at which a
body can remain in equilibriun over the plane entirely by the assistance of friction is called the
angle of repose.
Obviously, Angle of repose () = Angle of limiting friction ().

2.2 Laws of Friction

Based on extensive research, Professor Coulomb has gave two laws. These laws are are
known as laws of coulomb friction (or) dry friction.
i) Laws of static friction
ii) Laws of dynamic (or) kinetic friction.
2.2.1 Laws of Static Friction
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the
body tends to move.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force which tends
to move the body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the surfaces of contact.
4. The frictional force does not depends on the shape and area of contact of the
bodies.
2.2.2 Laws of Dynamic Friction
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the
body is moving.
2. The magnitude of dynamic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces.
3. The co-efficient of dynamic or kinetic friction is less than the co-efficieint of
static friction.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A body of weight 300N is just moved by a force of 60N as shown in
figure 4.5. Determine the co-efficient of static friction between the block
and the floor.
 60N

300N 15°

Figure 4.5

Solution:
Draw the FBD of the block.

300N

60N
15°

F=R

Figure 4.5 (a)

Resolve all the forces along vertical direction.

R – 300 + 60 sin 15º= 0

 R = 284.47N
Resolve all the forces along horizontal directions.
 Fx  0  ve
60 cos15º – R = 0
60 cos15º 60 cos15º
   0.203
R 284.47
2. Find the horizontal force required to drag a body of weight 110N along a
horizontal plane. If the plane, when gradually raised up to 15º, the body will
begin to slide.
Solution:
 110N

R
R

Figure 4.6
Given that the body begins to slide when the inclination is raised upto 15º.
  = 15º
and,  = tan  = tan15º = 0.27.
Resolving the forces along vertical directions.
 Fy  0  ve
R– 110N = 0
 R = 110N
Resolving the forces along horizontal directions,
Fx  0  ve
P – R = 0
 P = R = 0.27×100 = 29.47N
3. A block ‘A’ weighing 2000N resting on a horizontal surface supoorts a block B
weighing 1000N as shown in figure 4.7. The block B is connected to a string
which is attached to a vertical wall. Find the horizontal force P which should
be applied on the block ‘A’ so as to just move it leftwards. Take  = 0.3 at
all the contact surfaces. Find also the corresponding tension in the string.

B 30°
1000N

A
P
2000N
 Figure 4.7
Solution:
Draw the FBD of the blocks.
1000N

T
30°

F1=R1

R1

Figure 4.7(a): FBD of block B

2000N + R1

F1

F2

R2

Figure 4.7(b): FBD of block A

Consider Block B
Resolve all the forces along vertical direction,

Fy  0  ve 
R1+T sin30º = 1000N
 T sin30º = 1000 – R1 ...(i)
Similarly,
Resolve all the the forces along horizontal direction.
Fx  0  ve
 T cos30º = F1 = R1 = 0.3 R1 ...(ii)

Dividing equation (i) by (ii)

Tsin 30º 1000 – R1


Tcos 30º 0.3 R1
1000 – R1
or t an 30º 
0.3 R1
1000 – R1
or 0.5774 
0.3 R1
or 0.5774×0.3R1 = 1000 – R1
or 0.173R1 = 1000
1000
R1   852.51N
1.173
and, F1 = R1 = 0.3×852.51 = 255.75N
Consider Block A
Resolve all the forces vertically.
R2 = 2000+R1 = 2000+852.51 = 2852.51N
 F2 = R2
= 0.3×2852.51 = 855.5N
Similarly,
Resolve the forces horizontally,
P = F1+F2
= 255.75+855.75 = 1111.50N

4. A block ‘A’ weighing 350N resting on a rough hroizontal floor supports a block
B weighing 150N. The two blocks are connected to a string passing over
round a smooth pulley as shown in figure 4.8. Find what horizontal force P
has to be applied and the block A so as to just move it towards right. Take
=0 at all contact surfaces. Find also the tension in the string.
 T
150N B
T A
350N P

Figure 4.8
Solution:
Draw the F.B.D of the blocks

150N R1+350N
F1

T T P

F1=R1 F2=R2
R1 R2

(a) Block B (b) Block A

Figure 4.8 (a)
Consider Block B
Resolving the forces vertically, R1–
150 = 0
 R1 = 150N
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T – R1 = 0

 T = R1 = 0.25 × 150 = 37.5N

and F1 = R1 = 0.25 × 150 = 37.5N
Consider Block A
Resolving the forces vertically,
R2 = R1 + 30 = 150 + 350 = 500N
  F2 = R2 = 0.25 × 500 = 125N
Resolving the forces horizontally,
P = T + F1 + F2
= 37.5 + 37.5 + 125 = 200N
5. A body of weight 500N is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 25°
with the horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as
shown in figure 4.9. Determine the minimum and maximum values of P, for
which the equilibrium can exist, if the angle of friction is 20º.

500N
25°

Figure 4.9
Solution:
a) To find the minimum value of P
Let Pmin = minimum value of an effort at which the body is at the point of sliding
downwards.
Draw the FBD of the body.

25° 500N

Figure 4.9 (a)

Given, W = 500N,  = 25º and  = 20º
Resolving the forces vertically,
 Fy  0  ve 
R – W cos 25º = 0  R = 500×cos25º = 453.15N
Resolving the forces horizontally,
  Fx  0  ve
Pmin – W sin25º+R1 = 0
 Pmin = W sin25º – R
But,  = tan = tan20º
= 0.363
 Pmin = 500×sin25º –0.363×453.15
= 46.81N
b) To find the maximum value of P
Let Pmax = Maximum value of an effort at which the body is at the point of sliding
upwards.
Draw the FBD of the body

25° W=500N
Figure 4.9 (b)
We know, R = 453.15N and  = 0.363
Now, Resolving the forces horizontally,
Pmax – W sin25º – R = 0
 Pmax = 500×sin25º+0.363×453.15
= 375.8N
6. An effort of 200N is required just to move a certain body up an inclined
plane of angle 15º, the force acting parallel to the plane. If the angle of
inclination of the plane is made 20º, the effort required, again applied parallel
to the plane, is found to be 230N. Find the weight of the body and the co-
efficient of friction.
Solution:
Given, P1 = 200N, 1 = 15º
P2 = 230N, 2 = 20º
Let  = co- efficient of friction
 W = Weight of the body
R = Normal reaction
F = Force of friction
a) When P1 = 200N and 1 = 15º

15°
W
1=15°

Figure 4.10 (a): FBD

Resloving the forces vertically,

 Fy 0  ve 
R1 = Wcos15º ... (i)
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 Fx  0  ve
200 = F1 +W sin15º = R1+W sin15º
= W cos15º+W sin15
= W( cos15º+ sin15º) ... (ii)
b) When P2 = 230N and 2 = 20º

1=20°

Figure 4.10 (b): FBD

 Resolving the forces vertically,
 Fy  0  ve
R2 = Wcos20º ... (iii)
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 Fx  0  ve
230 = F2 + W sin20º = R2 + W sin20º
= W cos20º + W sin20º
= W( cos20º + sin20º) ... (iv)
Dividing equation (iv) by (ii)
230  W  cos 20  sin 20

200 W  cos 15  sin 15
 230 cos 15º + 230 sin 15º = 200  cos 20º + 200 sin 20º
 ( 230 cos 15º – 200 cos 20 º) = 200 sin 20º – 230 sin 15º
200 sin 20º – 230 sin 15º
    0.259
230 cos 15º – 200 cos 20º
Substituting the value of  in equation (ii)
200 = W ( 0.259 cos 15º + sin 15º )
= 0.509W
200
 W   392.9N
0.509
7. Determine the minimum weight of W so that the block of 1000N will not
slide down the plane. Assume the pulley to be smooth and take  = 0.3
between the block and inclined surface.

36.87°

Figure 4.11
Solution:
Let T = Tension in the rope of pulley.

=36.87°

Figure 4.11 (a): FBD of block of weight W

1000N

=36.87°

Figure 4.11 (b): FBD of block of weight 800N.

Consider the block of weight W
Resolving the forces vertically,
R1 = W cos  = W cos 36.87º = 0.8W
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T = W sin  + F1 = W sin  + R1
 ( F1 = R1) = W sin 36.87º + 0.3 × 0.8W = 0.84W
Consider the block of weight 1000N
Resolving the forces vertically,
R2 = R1 + 1000 cos  = 0.8W + 1000 cos 36.87º
= 0.8W + 800
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T + F1 + F2 = 1000 sin 
T + R1 + R2 = 1000 sin 
0.84W + 03 × ( 0.8W + 800 ) = 1000 sin 36.87º
1.32W = 1000 sin 36.87º – 0.3 × 800 = 360
360
W   272.72N
1.32
and, T = 0.84W = 0.84 × 272.72 = 229.1N.
8. A body of weight 450N is pulled up along an inclined plane having inclination
30º to the horizontal at a steady speed. Find the force required if the co-
efficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.25 and force is applied
parallel to the body is 10 m along the plane, find the work done on the body.
Solution:
Given, W = 450N,  = 0.25,  = 30º and d = 10m
Draw the FBD of the block.

30°

Figure 4.12

Resolving the forces horizontally (i.e., parallel to the incline plane)

 P – W sin 30º – F = 0
or P = 450 × sin 30º + 0.25 × R ... (i)
Resolving the forces vertically (i.e., normal to the inclined plane)
R – W cos 30º = 0
 R = 450 × cos 30º = 389.71N
Sustituting the value of R in equation (i)
 P = 450 × sin 30º + 0.25 × 389.71 = 322.42N
Work done = Force × Distance moved
= 322.42 × 10 = 3224.2 Nm.
9. Determine the necessary force P acting parallel to the plane as shown in
figure 4.13 to cause motion to impend. Assume the co-efficient of friction as
0.25 and the pulley to be smooth.

m2
m1=50kg
m2=150kg

P 45°

Figure 4.13
Solution:
Draw the FBDof the blocks.

W2=150×9.81=1471.5N

F2=0.15R2

W1=50×9.81=490.5N R2

Figure 4.13 (a): FBD of 50kg Block Figure 4.13 (b): FBD of 150kg Block.
Considering 150kg block
 Resolving the forces vertically,
R2 = 1471.5N.
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T – 0.25 R2 = 0  T = 0.25 × 1471.5 = 367.87N
Considering 50 kg block
Resolving the forces vertically,
R1 = 490.5N
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T – P – W1 sin45º + 0.25 R1 = 0
367.87 – P – 490.5 × sin 45º +0.25 × 490.5 = 0
 P = 143.7N
10. Two masses m1 and m2 are tied together by a rope parallel to the inclined
plane surface, as shown in figure 4.14. Their masses are 30kg and 10kg
respectirely. The co-efficient of friction between m1 and the plane is 0.25,
while that of mass m2 and the plane is 0.5. Determine i) the value of the
inclination of the plane surface for which masses will just start sliding,
ii) the tension in the rope.



Figure 4.14
Solution:
Given, m1 = 30kg  W1 = 30 × 9.81 = 294.3N
m2 = 10kg  W2 = 10 × 9.81 = 98.1N

1 = 0.25, 2 = 0.50
 Let T = Tension in the rope connecting the masse m1 and m2
Draw the FBD of the blocks.



W1


Figure 4.14 (a): FBD of mass m1



W2


Figure 4.14 (b): FBD of mass m2

Considering mass m1
Resolving the forces vertically,
R1 – W cos  = 0  R1 = 294.3 cos  .. (i)
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T – W1 sin  + F1 = 0
T – W1 sin  + 0.25 × R1 = 0
T – W1 sin  + 0.25 × 294.3 cos  = 0
T = W1 sin  – 73.58 cos 
= 294.3 sin  – 73.58 cos  ... (ii)

Considering mass m2
Resolving the forces vertically,
R2 – W2 cos  = 0  R2 = 98.1 cos  ... (iii)
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 F2 – T – W2 sin  = 0
0.5 × R2 – T – 98.1 sin = 0
0.5 × 98.1 cos  – T – 98.1 sin  = 0
49.05 cos  – T – 98.1 sin  = 0
 T = 49.05 cos  – 98.1 sin  ... (iv)
Equating the equations (ii) and (iv)
294.3 sin  – 73.58 cos  = 49.05 cos  – 98.1 sin 
392.4 sin  = 122.63 cos 
122.63
 tan    0.3125
392.4
  = tan-1 (0.3125 ) = 17.35º
and, T = 294.3 sin (17.35º) – 73.58 × cos (17.35º)
= 17.53N
2.3 Ladder Friction
A ladder is a device for climbing or scaling on the roofs or walls. It consists of two long
uprights of wood, iron or rope connected by a number of cross pieces called rungs which serve as
steps.
Fw
B
Rw
Ladder

Wall W

C A
Ff
Floor
Rf

Figure 4.15
Consider a ladder as shown in figure 4.15. Here the vertical surface is the wall and the
horizontal surface is the floor. The forces acting on the ladder are as follows.
i) Self weight of the ladder (W) acting downwards at the centre of gravity of ladder.
ii) Normal reaction offered by the floor (Rf) acting upwards at A.
iii) Friction force offered by the floor (Ff) acting left to right along the floor at A.
iv) Normal rection offered by the wall (Rw) acting right to left at B.
v) Friction force offered by the wall (Fw) acting upwards along the wall.
vi) Weight of person climbing the ladder acting downwards.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A uniform ladder of length10m and weighing 250N is placed against a smooth
vertical wall with its lower end 5m from the wall. The co-efficient of friction
between the ladder and floor is 0.3. Show that the ladder will remain in
equilibrium in this position. What is the frictional force acting on the
ladder at the point of contact between the ladder and the floor.
Solution:
B
Rw

10m

250N

C A
Ff
5m
Rf
Figure 4.16
As the wall is smooth there will be no friction at the point of contact between the ladder
and the wall.
Resolving the forces horizontally,
Rw = Ff
Resolving the forces vertically,
Rf = Weight of ladder
= 250N
The vertical distance BC is found from geometry as

BC   AB –  AC
2 2

 10 –  5  8.67m
2 2

Taking moment about B, M B  0 ( + ve)

Ff × 8.67 – Rf × 5 + 250 × 2.5 = 0
Ff × 8.67 = Rf × 5 – 250 × 20.5
= 250 × 5 – 250 × 2.5 = 625 N
 625
 Ff   72.08N.
8.67
Therefore, the frictional force required for equilibrium is 72.08 N.
The available maximum frictional force at the point of contact between the ladder and floor
is,
(Ff)max=  × Rf = 0.3 × 250 = 75 N.
Thus, it can be seen that the amount of the force of friction available at the point of contact
(75 N) is more than the force of friction required for equilibrium (72.08 N). Therefore, the
ladder will remain in equilibrium in this position.
2. A 6m ladder, weighing 400 N rests against a smooth wall. The angle
between it and the floor is 70º. The co-efficient of friction between the floor
and the ladder is 0.25. How far up the ladder can a man of 80 kg walk before
the ladder slips?
Solution:
B
Rw

6m
Wm
x Wall

Floor 400N
70° C
Ff A

Rf

Figure 4.17
As the wall is smooth there will be no friction at the point of contact between the ladder
and the wall.
Let x = Distance on the ladder at which man stands before slipping of the ladder
Wn = Weight of man = 80 × 9.81 = 784.8 N
Resolving the forces vertically,
 Fy  0  ve
Rf = 400 + 784.8 = 1184.8 N.
 Force of friction at A,
Ff =  Rf = 0.25 × 1184.8 = 296.2N.
Taking moment about B,
 MB  0 ( + ve)
6 
R  6 cos 70º – F  6sin 70º – 400   cos 70º –
f f 2 
  ...

784.8 ( 6 – x ) cos 70º = 0

1184.8 × 6 cos 70º – 296.2 × 6 sin 70º – 400 × 3 × cos 70º
– 784.8 ( 6 – x ) cos 70º =0
2431.35 – 1670.02 – 410.42 – 1610.5 + 268.41x = 0
or 268.41x – 1259.6 = 0
1259.6
 x  4.7m
268.41
3. A 6m long ladder weighing 180N is placed at 60º to the ground and is resting
a vertical wall. The man weighs 700N. The co-efficient of friction between
the ladder and ground is 0.4 and that between the ladder and the wall is 0.25.
How far the man can clim so that the ladder does not slip.

Solutiion:

Fw
B
Rw

6m

x 700N Wall

Floor 400N
A 60° C
Ff

Rf

Figure 4.18
Solution:
Resolving the forces vertically,
Rf + Fw – 700 – 800 = 0
Rf + 0.25 Rw – 700 – 180 = 0
 Rf = 880 – 0.25 Rw ... (i)
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 Ff – Rw = 0 (ve)
0.4 Rf – Rw = 0  Rw = 0.4 Rf
Substituting the value of Rw in equation (i)
Rf = 880 – 0.25 × 0.4 Rf = 800 – 0.1 Rf
1.1 Rf= 880
880
 R  800 N, F  0.4  800  320 N.
f f
1.1
and, Rw = 0.4 × 800
= 320 N.
Taking moment about B,
M B  0 ( + ve)

800 × 6 cos 60º – 320 × 6 sin 60º – 180 × 3 cos 60º – 700
× 6 cos 60º + 700 x cos 60º = 0
2400 – 1662.77 – 270 – 2100 + 350 x = 0
350 x – 1632.77 = 0
 x = 4.67m
2.4 Wedge Friction
A wedge is a simple device made up of wood or metal pieces, commonly used for raising
or lowering heavy loads. It is usually of a triangular or trapzoidal in corss section. The
problems on wedges are basically the problems of equilibrium on inclined planes. Therefore, the
problems on wedges may be solved either by the equilibrium method or by applying Lamis
theorem.
Consider a wedge ABC, which is used to lift the body DEFG.
Let W = Weight of the body DEFG
P = Force required to lift the body.
 = Co-effieient of friction on the planes AB, AC and DE such that tan  = 

 E F



 Body
 B
 G

D P
Wedge
A  C

Figure 4.19
A little consideration will show that when the force is sufficient to lift the body, the sliding
will take place along three planes AB, AC and DE. The forces acting on the wedge and the body
are shown in figure 4.19 (a) and 4.19 (b).

R



R2

Figure 4.19 (a): Forces on the body DEFG

R2


P




R3

Figure 4.19 (b): Forces on the wedge ABC

 The reactions R1, R2, R3 and P are found by considering the equilibrium of the body DEFG
and wedge ABC separately. Then resolve the forces acting horizontally and
vertically.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A block weighing 1.5 kN, overlying a 10º wedge on a horizontal floor and
leaning against a vertical wall, is to be raised by applying a horizontal force
to the wedge as shown in figure 4.20. Assuming the co-efficient of friction
between all the surfaces in contact to be 0.3, determine the minimum
horizontal force to be applied to raise the block.
E F

B
W=1.5kN G

D P
A  C

Figure 4.20
Solution:
Given, W = 1.5 KN = 1500N,  = 10º
 = 0.3   = tan–1  = tan–1(0.3) = 16.7º
Let P = Minimum horizontal force applied to raise the block.
Draw the FBD of the body and wedge.
E F
R2
 B

R1
P

B 
1500N G A C

D 
A 
 R2
R3

(a) FBD of block DEFG (b) FBD of wedge ABC

Considering the block DEFG
Resolving the forces horizontally,
R1 cos  – R2 sin (  +  ) = 0
R1 cos ( 16.7º) – R2 sin (10º + 16.7º ) = 0
R 2 sin 26.7º 
 R1   0.47 R
cos16.7º 
2
(i)
Resolving the forces vertically,
– R1 sin  – 1500 + R2 cos (  +  ) = 0
– 0.4 = R2 × sin ( 16.7º) – 1500 + R2 cos ( 10+16.7º) = 0
0.758 R2 – 1500 = 0

and, R1 = 0.47 × 1978.9 = 930 N.

Considering the wedge ABC
Resolving the forces vertically,

 Fy  0  ve 
R3 cos  – R2 cos (  +  ) = 0
R3 cos ( 16.7º) – 1978.9 cos ( 10º + 167º)= 0
 R3 = 1845.7 N.
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 Fx  0  ve
R2 sin ( 10º + 16.7º ) + R 3 sin ( 16.7º ) – P = 0
 P = 1419.6 N.
Thus, a minimum horizontal force of 1419.6 N is to be applied to the wedge to raise the
block.

2. A 15º wedge has to be driven for tightening a block of weight 1000 N as

shown in figure 4.21. If the angle of friction for all the surfaces is 14º, find
the force P to be applied on the wedge.
 P

1000N
A

15° B

Figure 4.21.
Solution:
Given,  = 15º, W = 1000 N, and  = 14º
Draw the FBD of the block and wedge.

1000N

R2

 
R3

15° 

R2 15°


R1

(a) FBD of wedge (b) FBD of block.

Consider the block
Resolving the forces horizontally,
 – R1 sin 14º + R2 cos ( 14º + 15º) =0
 ve

R2
R cos29º 
1
 3.615 R2
sin 14º

Resolving the forces vertically,

R1 cos 14 º – R2 sin ( 14º + 15º ) – 1000 = 0
(3.615 R2) cos 14º – R2 sin (29º) – 1000 = 0
3.022 R 2 – 1000 = 0
1000
 R2   330.8 N.
3.022
and, R1 = 3.615 × 330.8 = 1195.8 N.
Consider the wedge:
Resolving the forces horizantally,

R3 cos 14º – R 2 cos (14º15º ) = 0

 ve
R3 cos 14º = 330.8 cos (29º)
 R3 = 298.18 N.
Resolving the forces vertically,
R3 sin 14º + R2 sin ( 14º + 15º ) – P = 0
298.1 sin 14º + 330.8 sin (29º) – P = 0
 P = 232.51 N
Thus, a vertical force of 232.5 N should be applied to the wedge in order to move the block
horizontally.

2.5 Screw Friction

 l
W P

Screw head
Handle

Screw

Nut (body of jack)

Figure 4.22

A screw jack is a device used for lifting or lowering heavy loads by applying a force at the
end of the lever. It consists of a screw and a nut. The screw head carries the load ‘w’; The nut
is the body of the jack. The nut is fixed and the screw is rotated by mens of a lever at the end of
which the effort is applied.
Figure 4.22 shows the schematic digram of a screw jack.
Let P = An effort applied at the end of the lever
l = Length of the lever.
d = Mean diameter of the screw
r = Mean radius of the screw
= Helix angle.
P= Pitch of the screw (distance between the adjacent threads)

P1 W
P



d
 Figure 4.22 (a): Helix angle.
The equivalent effort P1 at a distance equal to the mean radius of the screw is given by the
condition,
d
P  P 


1
2
2P P  d
 P1   r  2 
 d r  

When the handle is rotated once, i.e., when screw is rotated once the load gets lifted by a
height ‘P’ equal to the pitch of the screw. The distance moved by the equivalent effort P 1 is d.
This can be compared to the case of an inclined plane on which a load W is moved up by a
horizontal force, P1 as shown in figure 4.22 (a).
The inclination of this equivalent inclined plane with the horizontal is given by,
 p
  tan–1 
d 
We know that horizontal froce P1 required to just push the body up the plane is given by,
P1 = W tan (  +  )
P P
P    W tan   
1
But, r r
Where  is the limiting friction so that tan  =  and  being the being the co-efficient of friction.
Wr
 P tan   

Similarly,
The horizontal force required to just push the body down the plane is given by
Wr
P tan  – 

Torque required to work the jack.

T  P 
Efficiency of a screw jack
We know that the effort ‘P’ required to lift a load W is given by
Wr
P tan   
Under ideal conditions friction is absent and putting  = 0, the ideal effort is given by
Wr
P0  tan 

 Efficiency ()
 Wr
tan 
Ideal effort
 
Wr
Actual effort tan  

tan 

tan 
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. The pitch of a screw of a jack is 10mm and the mean diameter of the thread
is 60mm and length of the lever is 500mm. Find the effort required to lift a
load of 10KN. Take  = 0.08.
Solution:
Given, P = Pitch = 10mm, l = 500mm
d = 60mm, W = 10KN = 10,000N
p 10
tan     0.05304
We know, d   60
  = tan–1(0.05304) = 3.03º
tan  =  = 0.08
  = tan–1 ( 0.08 ) = 4.57º
 Effort required to lift the load,
Wd
P
Wr
tan      tan   
2
10000  60
 tan 3.03º  4.57º
2  500
= 80.05 N.
2. A screw jack carries a load of 4000 N. The mean diameter of the screw rod
is 50mm and the pitch of the square threads is 20mm. If the Co-efficient of
friction is 0.22, find the torque required to raise the load, and the efficiency
of the machine. Find also the torque required to lower the load.
Solution:
Given, W = 4000 N, d = 50mm
P = 50mm,  = 0.22
p 20
tan     0.1273
We know, d   50
  = tan–1 ( 0.1273 ) = 7.25º

tan  =  = 0.22
  = tan–1 ( 0.22 ) = 12.4º
 Torque required to raise the load,
T = Wr tan (  +  )
Wd
tan  
= 2
4000  50
 tan 7.25º  12.4º
2
= 35706.8 N mm = 35.7 N m.
Efficiency of the screw jack,
tan   tan 7.25º
   100
tan     tan  7.25º  12.4º 
= 35.62 %
Torque required to lower the load
Wd 4000  50
T tan   –     tan 12.4º – 7.25º
2 2
= 9012.73 N mm = 9.012 N m.
3. The screw of a jack is square threaded with two threads to a centimetre.
The outer diameter of the screw is 5cm. If the co-efficient fo friction is 0.1,
calculate the force required to be applied at the end of the lever, which is
form long to light and lower a load of 4KN.
Solution:
Given, D0 = Outer diameter = 5cm
 = 0.1, l = 70 cm.
W = 4KN = 4000 N
We know, tan  =  = 0.1
  = tan–1 (0.1) = 5.71º
Distance between adjacent threads= 1 cm

Distance between the threads

=
Number of threads
 Pitch of the screw
= ½ = 0.5 cm.
Let Di= Internal diameter of the screw = D0–2 × pitch
= D0 – 2 × 0.5 = 4cm.
 Mean diameter of the screw.
 Do  Di  5  4  4.5 cm.
d
2 2
 p 
 
Let  = Helix angle = tan –1  d 
 0.5 
 tan–1  2.02º
 
 4.5 
Force required to lift the load at the end of lever,
Wd
P tan  
2
4000  4.5
 tan 5.71º  2.02º 
2  70 = 17.45 N
Force required to lower the load at the end of lever,
wd
P tan   – 
2

4000  4.5
 tan 5.71º – 2.02º
2  70
= 8.29 N.
2.6 Belt Friction
A belt or rope drive is a device with belt and pulley arrangement used for
transmitting power from one end to other. Such an application may be adopted to provide
breaks, lifting loads, etc. In all such devices frictional resistance develops between the wheel of
the pulley and the belt or rope which is known as belt friction.

R S

P d Q

R
O

T1 T2
(a)
 dF

d d
dN
R S
T T+dT
d

O
(b)

Figure 4.23
Consider a flat belt passing over a fixed cylindrical drum as shown in figure 4.22. Let T 1
and T2 be the tensions in the belt on either side of drum and  be the angle of warp (lap)
subtended by belt which is in contact with the drum at the centre. When T2 > T1, impending
motion acts towards right (clockwise direction). Therefore, let tensions at R and S be T and T +
dT respectively.
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T  dT cos   – T cos  – dF  0
d d
 ve
 2   2 
    
d
 d  0, cos 1
When 2
 ( T + dT ) – T – dF = 0
or dT = dF =  dN
dT
dN 

 ... (i)
Where,  = co-efficient of friction
Similarly,
Resolving the forces vertically,

 d 
 Fy  0  ve
 d 
 
dN – Tsin – T dT sin 0
 2   2 
   
 d  0, sin
d d

When 2 2

d d
dN – T – T  dT 0
2 2
 d d
or dN  2T  dT 
2 2
(Neglect the small quantities)

or dN  T.d
... (ii)

Equating the equation (i) and (ii)

dT
 T d

dT 
   d
T2
or
 T 0T1

 T2 
e
 We get, T1

or T2  T1e


Torque, T  T2 – T1  R
Then,

Where, R = Radius of pulley

P   T2 – T1  
Power transmitted by the belt,
Where, v = Velocity of belt.
SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A belt is wound over a pulley as shown in figure 4.24. If the tension in the
belt on one end is 3000N, what is the necessary tension on the other side of
the belt to resist? Take  = 0.25
Solution:


15° 15°
O

T2 = 3000N T1 = ?
Figure 4.24
 Given, T2 = 3000N,
= Contact angle = 180º – (15º + 15º) = 150º
 150º  
 radians  2.617 radians.
 
180 
 
Let T1 = Tension on the other side of the belt.
We know, T2 = T1 e

T1  2  0.25  2.617

T 3000
or
e e = 1560 N.
2. A pulley is driven by a belt in clockwise direction as shown in figure 4.25. If
the tension in the belt on the tight side is 800N, find the tension in the belt on
the slack side. Also find the torque exerted by the belt on the pulley. Take
 = 0.3

30°

O 150mm
800N

T1

Figure 4.25
Solution:
Given,  = 0.3, T2 = 800 N.
Let T1 = Tension in the belt on the slack side
T2 = Tesnsion in the belt on tight side.
We know, T2 = T1 e
 210  

180 
  180º + 30º = 210º =  
= 3.67 radians.
T 800
T1  2  0.3  3.67  266 N.
e e
Torque exerted, T = (T2– T1) × R
Where, R = Radius of pulley = 150mm
= (800 – 266) × 150
= 80100 N - mm = 80.1Nm.
3. In a flat belt, the maximum tension is 1160N and the angle of lap is 170º.
The co-efficient of friction between the belt and pulley is 0.25. Diameter of
pulley is 90cm and it runs at 540 rpm. Find the power transmitted at the
above speed. Neglect the effect of centrifugal tension.
Solution:
Given, = 170º,  = 0.25
D = 90cm, N = 540 rpm.
T2 = Tmax = 1160 N
DN   0.9  540
v 
 Velocity of belt, 60 60
= 25.4 m/sec
170º 
 2.96 radians
Angle of lap,  = 170º = 180º
Using the relation,
T2  T2 1160
e T1  
 0.25  2.96
T1 e e
or
= 553.45 N
 Net driving tension = T2 – T1 = 1160 – 553.4
= 606.54 N.
Power transmitted, P = (T2 –T1) × v
= 606.54 × 25.4
= 15436.6 Nm/sec or Watt, = 15.43 kW

4. A flat belt drive is shown in the figure 4.26. Small pulley is connected to the
motor. The co-efficient of friction between the pulleys and the belt is same
and is equal to 0.25. Maximum allowable tension is 2000 N. Determine the
maximum torque that can be transmitted by the drive. If the speed of the
motor is 1300 rpm, find the power.
40°

T1 Driver

400mm L S 100mm

T2
 Figure 4.26
Solution:
Given,  = 0.25, Tmax = 2000, Tmax = 2000 N = T2
N = 1300 rpm.
Let L = Lap angle on large pulley
= 180 + 2 = 220º
  = 20º
s = Lap angle on small pulley

= 180–2 = 180º – 40º = 140º

As the co-efficient of friction is same for both pulleys, slip will occure first on the small
pulley, because ratio of tensions will be smaller than that for larger pulley ( s < L)
 T2 
i.e.,   T2  

 T   T 
 
 

 1 S  1  L
But,
 T2  s
 T   e
.  1 S
140  
  2.442 and  0.25
s
where, 180
T 2000
 T1   2   1086.09 N
e 10.25  2.442
s

Torque = (T2 – T2) × D/2

Where, D = Diameter of small pulley.
= 100 mm.
 Torque = (2000 – 1086.90) × 50
= 45695.09 N-mm = 45.69 N.m
Power transmitted, P = T
Where,  = Angular velocity of small pulley
2N 2 1300
  136.15 rad / sec.
= 60 60
 Power, P = (45.695) × 136.15 = 6221.5 Watt