Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, Mysuru

Department of Civil Engineering

Course Name BUILDING MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION

Course Code 18CV34

Semester THIRD

Faculty In-charge K V SHAMBAVI

 Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology
Mysuru-570028
Department of Civil Engineering

Department Vision

To be centre of excellence in imparting quality education and skill-sets for the

sustainable development in civil engineering to suit the everchanging societal needs.

Department Mission

DM 1: To impart quality education by adopting best teaching-learning process.

DM 2: To train in required skills-sets to pursue successful career.
DM 3: To instill leadership and team-work attributes with moral and professional
ethics in their profession.
DM 4: To exhibit social responsibility and work for sustainable development with a
zeal to lifelong learning.

Program Educational Objectives

PEO 1: Apply principles of science and mathematics to plan, analyse, design, execute,
manage and prepare reports in the civil engineering projects.
PEO 2: Develop societal responsibilities and display effective communication skills, lifelong
learning and ability to lead and also work in teams
PEO 3: Inculcate sustained learning and adapt themselves to face the challenges in the
constantly evolving domain of civil engineering.
PEO 4: Endorse moral and professional ethics and provide buildable solutions considering
safety, economy and sustainability.

Program Specific Outcomes

PSO 1: Our graduates will have the ability to apply standard practices and strategies to
design and construct different types of infrastructure facilities, modern tools and
technologies to deliver a quality development to comply with the societal
requirements.
PSO 2: Our graduates will have the propensity to understand the need and importance of
built environments and their impact on ecology so that their possible ill effects are
minimized by using appropriate technologies and alternative materials for
construction. They will always perpetuate the moral and ethical values of the
profession to be considerate and socially responsible civil engineers.
a.
 MODULE -1 BUILDING MATERIALS

Stone as building material; Requirement of good building stones, dressing of stones, Deterioration and
Preservation of stone work.
Bricks; Classification, Manufacturing of clay bricks, Requirement of good bricks. Field and laboratory tests
on bricks; compressive strength, water absorption, efflorescence, dimension and warpage.
Cement Concrete blocks, Stabilized Mud Blocks, Sizes, requirement of good blocks.
Mortar: types and requirements. Timber as construction material
Fine aggregate: Natural and manufactured: Sieve analysis, zoning, specify gravity, bulking, moisture content,
deleterious materials.
Coarse aggregate: Natural and manufactured: Importance of size, shape and texture. Grading of aggregates,
Sieve analysis, specific gravity, Flakiness and elongation index, crushing, impact and abrasion tests.
STONES

• The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as retaining walls, abutments,
dams, barrages, roads etc are known as building stones. Building stones should possess enough
strength and durability.
• Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from the olden days due to their
availability in abundance from the natural rocks

COMMON USES OF BUILDING STONE:

• Is used in foundations of buildings,
• It is used in construction of dams, barrages, etc,
• In its crushed (powdered form) it is used as artificial sand,
• It is used as raw material for manufacturing of cement,
• In its broken form it is used as material for construction of road and railway tracks,
• It is used as decorative material in buildings,
• It is also used as parts of buildings such as lintels and arches, etc,
• It is also used as thin slabs for building roofing,
• It is also used for ornamental works in buildings,
• In its broken form it is in the manufacturing of concrete,

Geological Classification:
Igneous rocks: Rocks that are formed by cooling of Magma (molten or pasty rocky material) are known as
igneous rocks. Examples: Granite, Basalt and Dolerite etc.
Sedimentary rocks: these rocks are formed by the deposition of production of weathering on the pre-existing
rocks. Examples: gravel, sandstone, limestone, gypsum, lignite etc.

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Metamorphic rocks. These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks. Igneous as
well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are subject to great heat and pressure. Known
as metamorphism. Examples: Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Marble and Gneisses.

Physical Classification:
Stratified Rocks: These rocks posses planes of stratification or cleavage and such rocks can be easily split
along these planes.Ex: sedimentary rocks
An stratified rocks: The structure may be crystalline granular or compact granular. Ex: Igneous rocks and
Sedimentary rocks affected by movements of the earth.
Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split up in a definite direction only. Ex: Metamorphic
rocks.

Chemical Classification:
Siliceous rocks: In these rocks, silica is predominates. The rocks are hard; durable and not easily effected
by weathering agencies. Ex: Granite, Quartzite, etc.
Argillaceous Rocks: In these rocks, clay predominates. The rocks may be dense and compact or may be
soft. Ex: slates, Laterites etc.
Calcareous rocks: In these rocks, calcium carbonate predominates. The durability to these rocks will
depend upon the constituents present in surrounding atmosphere.Ex: Lime Stone, marble etc.

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

The following are the requirements of good building stones:
1. Crushing strength: For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater than l000kg
per cm2.
2. Appearance: Good building stone should be a uniform colour, and free from clay holes, spots of
other colour bands etc capable of preserving the colour for longtime.
3. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The factors like heat and cold alternative wet
and dry, dissolved gases in rain, high wind velocity etc affect the durability.
4. Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be sharp, even and clear.
5. Hardness: The hardness greater than 17, treated as hard used in road works. It is between 14 to 17,
medium hardness, less 14 said be poor hardness.
6. Percentage wear: For a good building stone, the percentage wear should be equal to or less than 3
percent.
7. Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof. Sandstone, Argillaceous stone resists fire
quite well
8. Specific gravity: For a good building stone the specific gravity should be greater then 8.7 or so.
9. Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure should be free from
cavities, cracks or patches of stuff or loose material.

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 10. Water absorption: For a good building stone, the percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours
should not exceed 0.60
11. Seasoning: Stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. A period of about 6 to 12 months
is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning
12. Toughness Index: Impact test, the value of toughness less than 13 – Not tough, between 13 and 19 –
Moderate, greater than 19- high

DETERIORATION OF STONES
The following are the main causes for deterioration of stones:
1. Alternate wetting and drying.
2. Alternate freezing and thawing.
3. Deleterious substances present in the air such as in the atmosphere near the seashores and industrial
areas.
4. Living organisms, growth of vegetation (like seedlings of banyan trees that grow from droppings of
birds) and living worms or bacteria that live in the stone can cause decay.
5. Movement of chemicals between materials. This occurs when limestone and sandstones are used
together. The granular limestone can absorb magnesium sulphate present in other rocks if they are
used adjacent to the other.
6. Nature of mortar. If the mortar has chemicals, they can affect the stonework.
7. Temperature variation. Large variations of temperature and alternate heating and cooling can cause
expansion and contraction which cause cracking of stone.
8. Waterfalls and rainfalls. Falling of water from great heights or falling of water containing
chemicals (like rainwater absorbing gases from the atmosphere) can cause deterioration of stones.
9. Wind. Winds blowing for a long time can over deserts contain sand and dust, which passing over the
stones for a long lime can cause their deterioration.

PRESERVATION OF STONES
There are two aspects to be considered under this heading. Firstly, the precautions to be taken before
and during the construction of stonework and Secondly, the steps to be taken after the stonework has been
completed.

1. PRECAUTIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION

The precautions to be taken during the construction are the following:
• The type and size of stones selected should be good.
• Only compact and durable stones should be selected for construction.
• The size of these stones should be as large as possible to minimize the number of joints.
• The stones should be well seasoned and washed clean before they are used.
• The construction should be up to the required specifications.

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 • The stones should be placed on their natural beds and the joints completely filled with mortar so that
there is no cavity.
• External renderings like pointing is preferred for exposed stones. Otherwise, it should be plastered
with high-quality plaster.

2. METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF COMPLETED STONEWORK

Stonework after construction also needs careful attention if they are to be preserved in their natural
condition. For preserving stonework in buildings which tend to deteriorate with time, we usually resort to
coating the stone with one of the following preservatives.
1. Linseed oil. Raw linseed oil is light in colour while boiled linseed oil is dark and hence discolour the
stone.
2. Solution of alum and soap. Alum and soap in 40 to 60 proportions respectively dissolved in water can
be applied on the stone to act as a protective coating.
3. Solution of barium hydroxide (Baryta). If the decay is due to CaS04, then this treatment is effective.
The reaction is as follows Ba(OH)2 4- CaS04 = BaS04 + Ca(OH)2 The barium sulphate is insoluble and
the Ca(OH)2 absorbs carbon dioxide and gives strength to the stonework.
4. Paraffin, it is used alone or dissolved in naphtha as a paint medium. However it may changes the
colour of the stone.
5. Paint. Painting preserves the stone but changes the colour of the stone. If applied under pressure, it
can fill the pores in the stone. The paint should be neutral and should not react with the stone. Modern
colourless paints are also available.
6. Coal tar. Even though it is listed as a preservative, it is a highly objectionable material to be used as
it completely changes the colour of the stone. The chemicals in coal tar may not also suit some types
of stones.

DRESSING OF STONE
• A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a definite and regular shape.
• Dressing of stones is done immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to achieve less weight
for transportation.
• Dressing of stone provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding with good mortar joints, special
shapes for arches, copings, pillars, etc.
• The various types of dressed stones are shown in Fig.

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5
 BRICKS.

─ One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and leading construction
material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with.
─ Clay bricks are used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and other
load bearing structures.
─ A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand
─ Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete.
─ Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available.
─ The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below:
Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar
Height of brick = width of brick
─ Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm.
─ When placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm.
─ However, the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9" × 4.5” × 3" and are known as
field bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3.0 kg
─ An indent called frog, 1–2 cm deep, as shown in Fig. 2.1, is provided for 9 cm high bricks. The size
of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm.
─ The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks
are laid with frogs on top.
─ Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded bricks.

Bricks with Frog

COMPOSITION OF GOOD BRICK EARTH
Following are the constituents of good brick earth.
1. Alumina (20 to 30 %)
2. Silica (50 to 60 %)
3. Lime
4. Oxide of iron (5 to 6 %)
5. Magnesia

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Alumina
• A good brickearth should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina.
• This constituent imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be molded.
• If alumina is present in excess, raw bricks shrink and warp during drying and burning.
Silica
• A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent
• Presence of silica prevents cracks, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
• Durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth.
Lime
A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to prevent shrinkage of raw bricks.
Oxide of iron
• A small quantity of oxide of Iron to the extent of 5 to 6 percent is desirable in good brick to impart
red colour to bricks.
• Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or blackish.
Magnesia
• A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to bricks, and decreases shrinkage.
• But excess of magnesia decreases shrink leads to the decay of bricks.
• The ingredients like, lime, iron pyrites, alkalis, pebbles, organic matter should not present in good
brick earth.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories.
I. Unburned or sundried bricks
II. Burnt bricks

I. Unburned or sundried bricks

• UN burn or sun dried with the help of heat received from sun after the process of molding.
• These bricks can only be used in the constructions of temporary and cheap structures.
• Such bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy rains.
II. Burnt bricks
1. First Class bricks
2. Second class bricks
3. Third class bricks
4. Fourth class bricks
1. First Class Bricks
• These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour.
• The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and square
corners.

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 • These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
• These should have uniform texture.
• No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
• The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.

• A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
• Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24 hours.
• The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with different
Government organizations around the country.
Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry structures, flooring
and reinforced brick work.
2. Second Class Bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class ones except that
1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2

Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry works and
centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures.
3. Third Class Bricks are underburnt. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when struck
against each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight.
Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.
4. Fourth Class Bricks are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road metal.

Manufacture of bricks:
The manufacturing of brick, the following operations are involved
1. Preparation of clay

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 2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning
(i) Preparation of clay :- The preparation of clay involves following operations
Unsoiling :- Top layer of 20cm depth is removed as it contain impurities.
Digging: - Clay dug out from ground is spread on levelground about 60cm to 120cm heaps.
Cleaning:-Stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc removed and converted into powder form.
Weathering:- Clay is exposed to atmosphere from few weeks to full season.
Blending:- Clay is made loose and any ingradient to be added to it is spread out at top and turning it up
and down in vertical direction.
Tempering:- Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness, then water is added to clay and whole mass
is kneaded or pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large scale, tempering is usually done in pug
mill as shown in the fig
Process:- Clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top. When the vertical staff is rotated by using
electric pair, steam or diesel or turned by pair of bullocks. Clay is thoroughly mixed up by the actions of
horizontal arms and knives when clay has been sufficiently pugged, hole at the bottom of tub, is opened
cut and the pugged earth is taken out from ramp for the next operation of moulding.

2. Moulding: Clay, which is prepared form pug mill, is sent for the next operation of moulding.
Following are the two ways of moulding.
Hand Moulding: Moulds are rectangular boxes of wood or steel, which are open at top and bottom. Steel
moulds are more durable and used for manufacturing bricks on large scale as shown in fig . Bricks prepared
by hand moulding are of two types.

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 Wooden mould & Steel mould

a) Ground moulded bricks

b) Table moulded bricks
(a) Ground moulded bricks: ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it. Mould is dipped in
water and placed over the ground to fill the clay. Extra clay is removed by wooden or metal strike after
the mould is filled forced mould is then lifted up and raw brick is left on the ground. Mould is then dipped
in water every time lower faces of ground moulded bricks are rough and it is not possible to place frog on
such bricks.
Ground moulded bricks of better quality and with frogs on their surface are made by using a pair of pallet
boards and a wooden block
(b) Table-moulded bricks: Process of moulding these bricks is just similar to ground bricks on a table of size
about 2m x 1m.

(1) Machine moulding: This method proves to be economical when bricks in huge quantity are to be
manufactured at the same spot. It is also helpful for moulding hard and string clay. These machines are
broadly classified in two categories

(a) Plastic clay machines

(b) Dry clay machines

a. Plastic clay machines: This machine containing rectangular opening of size equal to length and width
of a brick. Pugged clay is placed in the machine and as it comes out through the opening, it is cut into
strips by wires fixed in frames, so there bricks are called wire cut bricks.
b. Dry clay machines: In these machines, strong clay is first converted into powder form and then water
is added to form a stiff plastic paste. Such paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine to form
hard and well shaped bricks. These bricks are behavior than ordinary handmoulded bricks. They carry
distinct frogs and exhibit uniform texture.

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(2) Drying: The damp bricks, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and distored. Hence moulded bricks are dried
before they are taken for the next operation of burning. Bricks are laid along and across the stock in
alternate layers. The drying of brick is by the following means

• Artificial drying – drying by tunnels usually 1200C about 1 to 3 days

• Circulation of air- Stacks are arranged in such a way that sufficient air space is left between them
free circulation of air.
• Drying yard- special yards should be prepared slightly higher level prevent the accumulation of rain
water
• Period for frying – usually about 3 to 10 days to bricks to become dry
• Screens – screens are necessary, may be provided to avoid direct exposure to wind or sun.

(3) Burning: This is very important operation in the manufacturing of bricks to impart hardness, strength and
makes them dense and durable. Burning of bricks is done either in clamps or in kilns. Clamps are temporary
structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on small scale. Kilns are permanent structures and
they are adopted to manufacture bricks on a large scale.
A typical clamp is as shown in fig

Clamp
1. A trapezoidal shape in plan with shorter is slightly in excavation and wider end raised at an angle
of 150 from ground level
2. A brick wall with mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of 70cm to 80cm thick fuel
(grass, cow dung, ground nuts, wood or coal) laid on the floor.
3. A layer consists of 4 or 5 courses of raw bricks laid on edges with small spaces between them for
circulation of air
4. A second layer of fuel is then placed, and over it another layer of raw bricks is putap. The total
height of clamp in alternate layers of brick is about 3 to 4 m

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 5. When clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on sides and top and filled with
earth to prevent the escape of heat
6. The period of burning is about one to two months and allow the same time for cooling
7. Burnt bricks are taken out from the clamp
Advantages:
(i) The bricks produced are tough and strong because burning and cooling are gradual
(ii) Burning in clamps proves to be cheap and economical
(iii) No skilled labour and supervision are required for the construction of clamps
(iv) There is considerable saving of clamps fuel
Disadvantages:
(i) Bricks are not of required shape
(ii) It is very slow process
(iii) It is not possible to regulate fire in a clamp
(iv) Quality of brick is not uniform

Kilns: A kiln is a large oven, which is used to burnt bricks by

1) Intermittent kilns
2) Continuous kilns
1) Intermittent kilns: These intermittent in operation, which means that they are loaded, fired, cooled and
unloaded.
a) Intermittent up-draught kilns
b) Intermittent down-draught kilns
a. Intermittent up-draught kiln: This is in the form of rectangular with thick outside walls as shown in the
fig 2.4. wide doors are provided at each end for loading and unloading of kilns. A temporary roof may be
installed to protect from rain and it is removed after kiln is fired. Flues are provided to carry flames or hot
gases through the body of kiln.

Intermittent kiln
(i) Raw bricks are laid in row of thickness equal to 2 to 3 bricks and height 6 to 8 bricks with 2 bricks
spacing between rows

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(ii) Fuels are filled with brush wood which takes up a free easily
(iii) Loading of kiln with raw bricks with top course is finished with flat bricks and other courses are formed
by placing bricks on edges
(iv) Each door is built up with dry bricks and are covered with mud or clay
(v) The kiln is then fired for a period of 48 to 60 hours draught rises in the upward direction from bottom
of kiln and brings about the burning of bricks.
(vi) Kiln is allowed to cool down and bricks are then token out
(vii) Same procedure is repeated for the next burning
Bricks manufactured by intermittent up drought kilns are better than those prepared by clamps but
bricks burnt by this process is not uniform, supply of bricks is not continuous and wastage of fuel heat.
(b) Intermittent down-draught kilns:
• These kilns are rectangular or circular in shape. They are provided with permanent walls and closed
tight roof. Floor of the kiln has opening which are connected to a common chimney stack through
flues.
• Working is same as up-draught kiln. But it is so arranged in this kiln that hot gases are carried through
vertical flues up to the level of roof and they are then released. These hot gases move down ward by
the chimney draught and in doing so, they burn the bricks.
Advantages:
(i) Bricks are evenly burnt
(ii) Performance of this kiln is better than that of up-draught kiln
(iii) This kiln is suitable for burning of structural clay tiles, terracota because of close control of heat.
2. Continuous kilns:
These kilns are continuous in operations. This means that loading, firing, cooling and unloading are
carried out simultaneously in these kilns. There are three types of continuous kilns.
a) Bull’s trench kiln
b) Hoffman’s kiln
c) Tunnel kiln
a) Bull’s trench kiln: This kiln may be of rectangular, circular or oval shape in the plan as shown in fig.
It is constructed in a trench excavated in ground either fully underground partially projecting above
ground openings is provided in the outer walls to act as flue holes. Dampers are in the form of iron
plates and they are used to divide the kilns in suitable sections and most widely used kiln in India.

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 Bull’s trench kiln
The bricks are arranged in such a way that flues are formed. Fuel is placed in flues and it is ignited through
flue holes after covering top surface with earth and ashes to prevent the escape of heat usually two movable
iron chimneys are employed to form draught. These chimneys are placed in advance of section being fired.
Hence, hot gases leaving the chimney warm up the bricks in next section. Each section requires about one
day to burn. The tentative arrangement for different sections may be as follows
Section 1 – loading
Section 2 – empty
Section 3 – unloading
Section 4 – cooling
Section 5 – Burning
Section 6 – Heating
b) Haffman’s kiln: this kiln is constructed over ground and hence, it is sometimes known as flame kiln.
Its shape is circular to plan and it is divided into a number of compartments or chambers. A permanent
roof is provided; the kiln can even function during rainy season. Fig 2.6 shows plan and section of
Hoffman’s kiln with 12 chambers

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 Hoffman’s kiln
Chamber 1 - loading
Chamber 2 to 5 – drying and pre-heating
Chambers 6 and 7 - burning
Chambers 8 to 11 - cooling
Chamber 12 – unloading
The initial cost in stalling this kiln is high, the following advantages
(i) Good quality of bricks are produced
(ii) It is possible to regulate heat inside the chambers through fuel holes
(iii) Supply of bricks is continuous and regular
(iv) There is considerable saving in fuel due to pre heating of raw bricks by flue gases
c) Tunnel kiln: This type of kiln is in the form of tunnel, which may be straight, circular or oval in the
plan. Raw bricks are placed in trolleys which are then moved from one end too the other end of tunnel.
Raw bricks get dried and pre-heated as they approach zone of fire. In zone of fire, bricks are burnt to the
required deque and they are then pushed forward for cooling. When bricks are sufficiently cooled, they
are unloaded. The kiln proves to be economical when the bricks are manufactures on a large scale. As
temperature is under control, uniform bricks of better quality are produced.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN CLAMP-BURNING AND KILN-BURNING

QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICK:

1. Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and with sharp
and square edges.
2. Bricks should be uniform shape and should be of standard size.
3. Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
4. Bricks when broken should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure free from voids.
5. Bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class bricks and 22 percent by
weight for second class bricks, when soaked in coldwater for a period of 24 hours.
6. Bricks should be sufficiently hard no impression, should be left on brick surface, when it is scratched
with finger nail.
7. Bricks should be low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
8. Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one meter.

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 9. Bricks, when soaked in water for 24hours, should not show deposits of white salts when allowed to
dry in shade.
10. No brick should have crushing strength below 55kg/cm2

TESTS ON BRICKS
The following laboratory tests may be conducted on the bricks to find their suitability:
(i) Crushing strength
(ii) Absorption
(iii) Shape and size and
(iv) Efflorescence.
(i) Crushing Strength: The brick specimen are immersed in water for 24 hours. The frog of the brick
is filled flush with 1:3 cement mortar and the specimen is stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and
then immersed in clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placed in compression testing machine
with 6 mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get uniform load on the specimen. Then load is
applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2. The crushing load is noted. Then the crushing
strength is the ratio of crushing load to the area of brick loaded. Average of five specimen is taken
as the crushing strength.
(ii) Absorption Test: Brick specimen are weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for a period
of 24 hours. The specimen are taken out and wiped with cloth. The weight of each specimen in wet
condition is determined. The difference in weight indicate the water absorbed. Then the percentage
absorption is the ratio of water absorbed to dry weight multiplied by 100. The average of five
specimen is taken. This value should not exceed 20 per cent.
(iii) Shape and Size: Bricks should be of standard size and edges should be truely rectangular with
sharp edges. To check it, 20 bricks are selected at random and they are stacked along the length,
along the width and then along the height. For the standard bricks of size 190 mm × 90 mm × 90
mm.
IS code permits the following limits:
Lengthwise: 3680 to 3920 mm
Widthwise: 1740 to 1860 mm
Heightwise: 1740 to 1860 mm.
The following field tests help in ascertaining the good quality bricks:
(i) Uniformity in size (iv) hardness test
(ii) Uniformity in colour (v) sound test
(iii) Structure (vi) strength test.
1) Uniformity in Size: A good brick should have rectangular plane surface and uniform in size. This
check is made in the field by observation.
2) Uniformity in Colour: A good brick will be having uniform colour throughout. This observation
may be made before purchasing the brick.

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 3) Structure: A few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section observed. The section
should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes and lumps.
4) Sound Test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should produce clear ringing sound. The
sound should not be dull.
(i) Efflorescence: The presence of alkalis in brick is not desirable because they form patches of gray
powder by absorbing moisture. Hence to determine the presence of alkalis this test is performed as
explained below:
Place the brick specimen in a glass dish containing water to a depth of 25 mm in a well-
ventilated room. After all the water is absorbed or evaporated again add water for a depth of 25 mm.
After second evaporation observe the bricks for white/grey patches. The observation is reported as
‘nil’, ‘slight’, ‘moderate’, ‘heavy’ or serious to mean

(a) Nil: No patches

(b) Slight: 10% of area covered with deposits
(c) Moderate: 10 to 50% area covered with deposit but unaccompanied by flaking of the surface.
(d) Heavy: More than 50 per cent area covered with deposits but unaccompanied by flaking of the
surface.
(e) Serious: Heavy deposits of salt accompanied by flaking of the surface.
Special Types: Bricks are made in a wide range of shapes and to suit the requirements of the location
where they are to be used. Special form of bricks may be needed due to structural consideration or for
ornamental decoration as defined by the architect. Specially moulded bricks avoid the cumbersome process
of cutting and rounding the rectangular bricks to the desired shape. Some of the special types of bricks
commonly used are given below.
a) Squint Bricks: These bricks are made in a variety of shapes and are used to the construction of a cute
and obtuse squint quoins as shown in the fig.
b) Bull Nosed Bricks: These bricks are used to form rounded quoins.
c) Perforated Bricks: These bricks may be standard size bricks produced with perforations running
through their thickness. Perforated bricks are easy to burn and their light weight makes it possible to
cut down the weight of the structure and effect in foundations. The aperture of the perforations is such
that it gives maximum amount of ventilation. But does not permit the entry of rats or mice. These
bricks are used for constructing load bearing walls of low buildings, panel walls for multistoried
buildings and for providing partition walls.
d) Hallow Bricks: These bricks are made of clay and are provided with one or more cavities. Hallow
bricks are light in weight and are used to increase insulation against heat and dampness. They are used
for the construction of load bearing walls, partition walls or panel walls to multistoried buildings.
e) Circular Bricks: These bricks have internal and external faces curved to meet the requirement of the
particular curve and radius of the wall. These bricks are used for wells, towers etc

18
f) Plinth cornice and String Course Brick: These bricks are moulded in several patterns with the object
of adding architectural beauty to the structure and at the same time to helping to throw the rack water
off the face of the walls.
g) Coping Bricks: These bricks are manufactured in a variety of shapes to set the thickness of the wall
and are throated on the underside to throw off rain water as shown in the fig
h) Paving Bricks: These bricks are specially made for paving thesurface of streets and highways. These
bricks are usually made from shale, fire clay on a mixture of the two. They are unaffected by weather
and ordinary traffic wear. They are loaded on the bed of sand which in term rests on foundation of
stone or concrete. The bricks are laid by grouting with cement mortar or asphalt. They are machine
moulded and are burnt in a continuous kiln to ensure high degree of vitrification.

Types of Special Bricks

19
 MORTAR
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind building blocks such as stones, bricks, and concrete masonry
units together, fill and seal the irregular gaps between them, and sometimes add decorative colors or
patterns in masonry walls. In its broadest sense mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft mud or clay, such
as used between mud bricks. Mortar comes from Latin mortarium meaning crushed.
Importance
• To bind together the bricks or stones properly so as to provide strength to the structure.
• To form a homogenous mass of the structure so as to resist all the loads coming over it without
disintegration.
• To provide a weather resisting i.e., a durable layer between the different courses of masonry in the
structure.
• To hold coarse aggregate together in any concrete so as to form a solid mass. The mortar used in a
concrete is termed as matrix.
• To do pointing and plastering to the structure. The mortar used for plastering is known as plaster.
• To fill up empty joints in brick and stone masonry. The mortar used for such purposes is a thin liquid
mortar which is termed as grout and the process is known as grouting.
Properties of good mortar
1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. It should be in position to develop the desired stresses in it.
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
4. It should be cheap and durable.
5. It should offer good resistance to the penetration of rain water.
6. It should be easily workable.
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.
Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units
4. To form joints of pipes
5. To improve the appearance of structure.
Types of Mortar
The mortar are classified on the bases of the following
1. Bulk density – (Heavy Mortars, Lightweight Mortars)
2. Kinds of binding material – (Lime Mortar , Cement mortar, Gauged Mortar, Gypsum mortar)
3. Nature of application- (Brick laying Mortars, Finishing Mortars)
4. Special mortars- (Fire resistant, Light weight, Packing , Sound Absorbing, X-ray Shielding Mortar)

20
Bulk density:
According to bulk density of mortar in dry state, the mortars are two types
i) Heavy mortars bulk density is more than 1500kg/m3 and prepared from heavy quartz
j) Lightweight mortars – bulk density is less than 1500kg/m3 and prepared from light porous sands.

Kinds of binding Material

According to the kinds of binding material, several factors such as expected working conditions,
hardening temperature, moisture conditions, etc should be considered. The mortars are classified into four
categories.
a. Lime Mortar - in this motor, lime is used as binding material. Lime may be fate lime or Hydraulic
lime. Fat lime mortar 1:2 to1:3 and hydraulic lime mortar may be1:2 by VOLUME.
b. Cement mortar: In this mortar, cement is used as binding material. Depending upon the strength
required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more.
Proportions of cement mortar for specific purposes are given as follows
1. Masonry Work 1:6 to 1:8
2. Foundation concrete 1:3 to 1:4
3. RCC Works 1:3
4. Arch Works 1:3
5. Pointing 1:2 to 1:3
6. Plaster Work 1:3 to 1:4

c. Gauged Mortar or composite mortar:

The process of adding cement to lime mortar to improve the quality of lime mortar is known as
gauging. It makes lime mortar economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime
by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8
d. Gypsum mortar:
These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding material such as building gypsum and anhydrite
binding materials.

NATURE OF APPLICATION:
According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into two categories.
A. Brick laying Mortars
B. Finishing Mortars
A. Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are intended to be used for brick works and walls.
Depending up on the working conditions and type of construction, the composition of masonry mortars
with respect to the kind of binding materials is decided.

21
B. Finishing Mortars: these mortars include common plastering work and mortars for developing
architectural or ornamental effects. Generally cement or lime is used as binding material.

SPECIAL MORTARS:

A. Fire resistant mortar

B. Light weight mortar
C. Packing Mortar
D. Sound Absorbing Mortars
E. X-ray Shielding Mortar

A. Fire resistant mortar- This mortar is prepared by adding 1:2 ratio of aluminous cement with crushed
powder of fire bricks used for fire brick lining furnaces, fire places, ovens etc.
B. Light weight mortar – This mortar is prepared by adding sawdust, wood powder to lime or cement
mortar for sound proof and heat proof construction
C. Packing Mortar – To pack of oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties of high homogeneity,
water resistance, predetermined setting time, ability to form solid water proof plugs in cracks and voids
of rocks, resistance to subsoil water pressure etc. have to be formed with cement sand, cement loam
and cement sand loam mortars.
D. Sound absorbing mortars: To reduce the noise level, sound absorbing mortars with Portland cement,
lime, gypsum, slag Portland cement etc as the binding materials employed in its composition. The
aggregates re selected from lightweight porous material such as pumice, cinders etc.
E. X-ray shielding mortar: This type of mortar is used for providing the plastering coat to walls and
ceiling of x-ray cabinets. This is heavy mortar with bulk density over 2200kg/m3 is used. The
aggregates are obtained from heavy rock and suitable admixture are added to enhance protective
property of such a mortar.

22
 TIMBER
Timber denotes wood, which is suitable for building or carpentry or various other engineering purposes
like for construction of doors, windows, roofs, partitions, beams, posts, cupboards, shelves etc
Uses of timber:
• Used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door/window, frames and leaves, roof members etc
• Used for flooring, ceiling, paneling and construction of partition walls
• Used for form work for concrete, for the timbering of trenches, centring for arch work, scaffolding,
transmission poles and fencing
• Used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and bridges
• Used in making furniture of agriculture implements, musical instruments, well curbs, mortar bodies,
carts and carriages, railway sleeps, packing cases etc

Classification of trees
Depending upon their mode of growth trees may be divided in the following two categories

1. Endogeneous trees
2. Exogeneous trees

Endogeneous trees – These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass is seen in their longitudinal sections.
Timber from these trees has very limited engineering applications Ex: bamboo, cane , palm etc

Exogeneous trees: These increases in bulk by growing outwards and used for engineering purposes.
Exogeneous trees are further sub divided into two groups
a) Conifers b) deciduous

a) Conifers or evergreen trees: These trees having pointed, needle like or scale like leaves and yield soft
wood
b) Deciduous trees: The trees having flat broad leaves and leaves of those trees fall in autumn and new ones
appear in spring season. Timber for engineering purpose is mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees
yield hard wood.
Ex: ash, beach, oak, sal, teak, shishum and wallnut

Comparison of softwood and hard wood

Sl.No Items Soft Wood Hard Wood

1 Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
2 Colour light dark
3 Fire resistance poor more
4 Medullary rays Indistinct distinct

23
 5 Structure resinous and split easily non-resinous & close grained
6 Weight light heavy
strong for direct Pull & weak equally strong for resisting tension,
7 Strength
for Resisting thrust or shear compression & shear

Structure of tree: From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories
1. Macro structure
2. Micro structure
I. Macro structure: The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called macro
structure. Fig shows the macro structure of exogenous tree..

Micro structure of exogenous tree

(i) Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree is called pith or medulla
(ii) Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart wood. It imparts rigidity
to tree
(iii) Sap wood: The cuter annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is known as sap wood
(iv) Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as cambium layer
(v) Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark
(vi) Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark
(vii) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer are known as medullary
rays
II. Micro structure: The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called micro structure
under micro scope, it becomes evident that the wood consists of living and lead cells of various sizes and
shapes.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER:
Defects occurring in timber are grouped into the following divisions.
a) Defects due to conversion: During the process of converting timber to commercial form, the following
defects may occur.
o Chip mark: mark or sign placed by chip on finished surface of timber

24
 o Diagonal grain: Due to improper sawing of timber
o Torn grain: Due to falling of tool small impression is formed
o Wane: Presence of original rounded surface on the manufactured piece of timber
b) Defects due to fungi: The attack of timber by fungi when moisture content of timber is above 20% and
presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi the following defects are caused
o Blue stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluesh colour
o Brown rot: Decay or disease of timber by removal of cellulose compounds from wood and wood
assumes the brown colour
o Dry rot: Convert the wood into dry powder form
o Heart rot: This is formed when branch has come out of a tree and the tree becomes weak and gives
out hallow sound when struck with a hammer
o Sap stain: The sap wood looses its colour because of feed on cell contents of sap wood.
o Wet rot: Caused chemical decomposition of wood of the timber and timber converts to grayish brown
powder known as wet rot.
o White rot: Attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the appearance of white mass
c) Defects due to insects:
o Beetles: Small insects form holes of size about 2mm diameter and attack sap wood of all species of
hard woods. Tunnels are formed in all directions in sapwood by the larvae of these beetles and
converted into fine flour like powder. They do not disturb outer cover and looks sound.
o Marine borers: These make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking shelter. The wood attacked by
marine borers loses colour and strength
o Termites: White ants are very fast in eating away the wood from the core of the cross section. They
make tunnels inside in different directions and usually donot disturb the outershell or cover
d) Defects due to natural forces:
The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are abnormal growth and rapture of tissues
o Burls: Irregular projections appear on the body of timber because of shock at younger age
o Callus: Soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of tree.
o Chemical stain: Discoloured due to the chemical action caused
o Coarse grain: Annual rings are widened, tree grows rapidly hence timber possesses less strength
o Dead wood: Timber obtained from dead standing tree
o Druxiness: White decayed spots by fungi
o Foxiness: Due to poor ventilation during storage or by commencement of decay due to over maturity
indicated by red or yellow tinge in wood
o Knots: Bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off from the tree as shown in the fig.

25
 Fig Knot
o Rind galls: Rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth and pecullar curved swellings found
on the body of a tree.
o Shakes: These are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood as shown in fig..

Fig Different types of shakes

(xi) Twisted fibres: or Wandering hearts: caused by twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind as shown
in fig 7.4.

(xii) Upsets or ruptures: Indicate wood fibres which are injured by crushing or compression as shown in fig
7.5.

26
Wood based products:
Timber which is prepared scientifically in a factory is termed as industrial timber and such timber possesses
desired shape, appearance strength
(a) Veneers: These are thin sheets or slices of 0.40 to 6mm wood of superior quality. Indian timbers, which
are suitable for veneers, are mahagony, oak, rosewood, sissoo, teak etc. The process of preparing a sheet
of veners is known as veneering. Veneers are used to produce plywoods batten boards and lamin boards.
(b) Plywoods: Plywoods are boards, which are prepared from thin layers of wood or veneers. Three or more
veneers in odd number are pressed using adhesives. The plywoods are used for various purposes such as
ceilings, doors, furniture, partitions, panelling walls, packing cases, railway coaches, formwork for
concrete etc. Thickness may vary from 6 to 25mm.
(c) Fibre boards: These are rigid boards and they are also known as pressed wood or reconstructed wood.
The thickness varies from 3mm to 12mm. These are available in lengths from 3 to 4.5m and width varying
from 12 to 18m. These are used for
• For internal finish of rooms such as wall panelling; suspended ceilings.
• To construct form work for cement concrete.
• To construct partitions.
• To prepare flush doors, tops of tables etc.
• To provide an insulating material of heat and sound.
• To work as paving or flooring material.
(d) Impreg timbers: Timber which is fully or partially covered with resin is known as impreg timber. The
usual resin employed is phenol formaldehyde which is soluble in water. Impreg timber is available under
trade names such as formica, sungloss, sunmica etc and it is used for moulds, furniture, decorative articles
etc.
(e) Compeg timbers: The process of preparing compreg timbers is same as that of impreg timbers except that
curing is carried out under pressure. The strength anddurability of compreg timbers is more as compared
to the impreg timbers.

27
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBERS:
1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.
2. Colour: A colour should preferably be dark
3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc
4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects,
chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.
5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is removed
6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres
7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire
8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard
9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion
10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning
11. Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber
12. Sound : A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member such as joist,
beam, rafter etc.
14. Structure: The structure should be uniform
15. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibration
16. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is measured by the
quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
17. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering effects (dry & wet)
18. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
19. Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw.

TYPES OF TIMBER SEASONING

NATURAL SEASONING
• In the air seasoning or natural seasoning or natural drying, seasoning of timber, timber is dried by
direct action of air, wind and sun.

28
 • In this method, the timber logs are arranged one over the other, keeping some space or distance between
them for air circulation of fresh air.
• Generally this type of seasoning requires few months to over a year, this is very slow process.

ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
a) Kiln seasoning
b) Chemical seasoning
c) Electric seasoning
(a) Kiln Seasoning:
• In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a chamber with some special heating arrangement.
• In this process one thing should be kept in mind that heating system should be under control, otherwise
timber will be crack or wrap.
• The time required for this seasoning is 3 to 12 days. This is quick process.
(b) Chemical Seasoning:
• In chemical seasoning carbon dioxide, ammonium carbonate or urea are used as agents for seasoning,
those are applied in dry state,
• the inter surface of timber dries first than outer side.
• This ensures uniform seasoning. The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40 days.
(c) Electric Seasoning:
In this method electric current is passed through the timber logs. The time required for this seasoning
is 05 to 08 hours.

WATER SEASONING:
• In water seasoning, timber logs are kept immersed whole in the flowing water. The sap present in
timber is washed away.
• After that logs are taken out from water and are kept in open air, so water present in timber would be
dried by air.
• The time required for this type of seasoning is 2 to 4 weeks.

29
ADVANTAGES OF SEASONED TIMBER

It has reduced weight

Strong and durable

Resistance to decay and rot

Takes high polish

Easier to work with

Lasts longer

30
 SAND
Sand is a natural product which is obtained as river sand, nalla sand and pit sand. However sea sand should
not be used for the following reasons:
a) It contains salt and hence structure will remain damp. The mortar is affected by efflorescence and blisters
appear.
b) It contains shells and other organic matter, which decompose after some time, reducing the life of the
mortar. Sand may be obtained artificially by crushing hard stones. Usually artificial sand is obtained as
a by-product while crushing stones to get jelly (coarse aggregate).
Sand is used in mortar and concrete for the following purpose:
1. It sub-divides the paste of binding material into thin films and allows it to adhere and spread.
2. It fills up the gap between the building blocks and spreads the binding material.
3. It adds to the density of the mortar.
4. It prevents the shrinkage of the cementing material.
5. It allows carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to reach some depth and thereby improve setting
power.
6. The cost of cementing material per unit volume is reduced as this low cost material increases the
volume of mortar.
7. Silica of sand contributes to formation of silicates resulting into the hardened mass.
The properties of good sand are:
1. It should be chemically inert.
2. It should be free from organic or vegetable matter.
3. It should be free from salt.
4. It should contain sharp, angular and coarse grains.
5. It should be well graded.
6. It should be hard.
Sources of Sand: Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (Si02). It is formed by the decomposition of
sand stones due to various effects of weather. The following are the natural sources of sand.
• Pit sand
• River sand
• Sea sand
Pit Sand: This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained by forming pits to a depth of about 1m to
2m from ground level. Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains, which are free from salts for making mortar,
clean pit sand free from organic and clay should only be used.
River Sand: This sand is obtained from beds of rivers. River sand consists of fine rounded grains. Colour of
river sand is almost white. As the river sand is usually available in clean condition, it is widely used for all
purposes.

31
Sea Sand:
• This sand is obtained from sea shores. Sea sand consists of rounded grains in light brown colour.
• Sea sand consists of salts which attract the moisture from the atmosphere and causes dampness,
efflorescence and disintegration of work.
• Due to all such reasons, sea sand is not recommendable for engineering works.
• However be used as a local material after being thoroughly washed to remove the salts.
Crushed Stone Sand / Artificial Sand

It is a substitute for River Sand, fine aggregates which manufactured by crushing either granite or
basalt rock using 3 stage crushing process.

This sand is manufactured in conformance to IS Codes and is an effective alternative to river sand.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAND OR GRADING OF SAND

Based on the grain size distribution

Fine sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 1.5875 mm is known as fine sand.
Fine sand is mainly used for plastering. .

Coarse sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 3.175 mm is known as coarse
sand. It is generally used for masonry work.

Gravelly sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 7.62 mm is known as gravelly
sand. It is generally used for concrete work.

TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATE:-

Sieve Analysis

Zoning/ Grading of Sand

Specify Gravity

Bulking

Moisture Content

Deleterious Materials
Sieve Analysis
• Sieve analysis is performed to check the gradation of the aggregate.
• It is the process of dividing the aggregate into various fractions, each consisting of particles of same
size.
• Gradation or particle-size distribution refers to the proportions by mass of aggregate particle
distributed in specified particle size ranges.
• Proper gradation ensures that a sample of aggregates contains all standard fractions of aggregate in
required proportion such that the sample contains minimum voids.
• To characterize the overall coarseness of fineness of an aggregate, a concept of fineness modulus is
developed.

32
 • The Fineness Modulus (FM) is the ratio of sum of the cumulative percent of aggregate retained divided
by 100
• It gives an overall idea whether the material is fine or coarse.
• Higher the value of FM, coarser will be the aggregate.
• For a good fine aggregate, the FM should be between 2.3 and 3.1.
• A sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.1 will be unsuitable for making satisfactory concrete.

Diagramatic representation of sand particle arrangment.

Well graded sand Gap graded sand uniformly graded sand

Observation

Weight % % Cumulative
Sl. Sieve
retained, weight weight % weight
No. size
gm retained passing retained
1 4.75 mm

33
 2 2.00 mm
3 1.00 mm
4 600 µm
5 300 µm
6 150 µm
7 75 µm
8 Pan

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of weight of given sample to the weight of equal volume of
water. Specific gravity is required for calculation in connection with concrete mix design. Departure of
specific gravity from its standard indicates change in shape and grading. (Specific gravity of sand – 2.6 to 2.8)
Procedure:
• Find the weight of empty pycnometer with lid. Let it be W1 gms.
• One third the volume of pycnometer shall be filled with sample and the same shall be weighed. Let it
be W2 gms.
• Now fill the pycnometer to its half with water so as to submerge the sand inside.
• Allow the entrapped air from sand to escape. Then fill the pycnometer with water.
• Find the total weight of density bottle with its constituents. Let it be W3 gms.
• Remove the constituents from the density bottle and clean it.
• Fill it completely with water and replace the stopper. Take its weight. Let it be W4 gms.
• Now specific gravity of sand is given by

Observation and calculation

Trial W1 W2 W3 W4
G
No. (gms) (gms) (gms) (gms)
1
2
3

Moisture Content
• Aggregates exposed to rain collects considerable amount of moisture on the surface of the particles
and,
• Except at the surface of the stock pile, keeps this moisture over long periods.

34
 • This is particularly true of fine aggregate, and the surface or free moisture must be allowed for in the
calculation of batch quantities.
• Coarse aggregate rarely contain more than one percent of surface moisture but,
• fine aggregate can contain in excess of ten percent.
Procedure:
• In the laboratory, the moisture content of aggregate can be determined by means of a pycnometer.
• The apparent specific gravity of the aggregate in a saturated and surface-dry basis, G, must be known
• Then, if B is the mass of the pycnometer full of water,
• C the mass of moist sample, and
• A the mass of pycnometer with sample and topped up with water
• The moisture content of the aggregate is

Observation
Mass of pycnometer with the sample and topped up with water, A = gms
Mass of pycnometer full of water, B = gms
Mass of moist sample, C = gms
஼ ீିଵ
Moisture content, ω (%) = ቂሺ஺ି஻ሻ ቀ ቁ − 1ቃ × 100=
ீ

Bulking of Sand
Moist sample occupies larger volume if loosely filled in, than dry sand. Due to moisture, thin film of water
form around sand grain which results in increase of volume. This effect of increase in volume (if loosely filled
in) due to moisture content is called “Bulking of sand”.
While batching of aggregates, if weigh batching is adopted which is precise & preferred method of batching
of aggregates, no effect is taken place due to bulking of sand.
However, if batching is done by volume, then less sand than required as per mix design, will be measured.
This results in disproportionate and non-uniform concrete mixes & may affect the compressive strength of
concrete. Therefore, it will be necessary to increase the volume of sand by percentage bulking.
The bulking of sand largely depends on
1. Grain size – small the grain size, larger will be bulking effect and vice versa.
2. Moisture content – 5 to 8 % moisture can result in 20 – 35 % of increase in volume
Bulking increases with increase in moisture content upto certain limit and beyond that the further increase in
moisture content results in decrease in volume.
Observation
Weight of sample taken, W = gms

% of water Change in volume,

Sl. Volume
added by weight,
By Final volume ܸଶ − ܸଵ
No. of sample, V1, ml % V2, ml =൬ ൰ × 100
in ml ܸଵ

35
Deleterious materials in sand

Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites, alaklies, salts, coal or other organic
impurities, mica, shale or similar laminated materials, soft fragments, sea shale in such form or in such
quantities as to affect adversely the hardening, strength or durability of the mortar. The maximum
quantities of clay, fine silt, fine dust and organic impurities in the sand / marble dust shall not exceed
the following limits:

(a) Clay, fine silt and fine dust when determined in accordance within not more than 5% by mass in
IS 2386 (Part-II), natural sand or crushed gravel sand and crushed stone sand.

(b) Organic impurities when determined in color of the liquid shall be lighter in lighter in accordance
with IS 2386 (Part –II) than that specified in the code.

36
 COARSE AGGREGATE
INTRODUCTION
Aggregate are the important constituent in concrete. Aggregate are granular material, derived from the
most part from the natural rocks, crushed stones, or natural gravels and sands.
Aggregate generally occupy about 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete and can therefore be
expected to have an important influence on it properties.

CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATE:-

a) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE:

>Coarse aggregate:
Aggregate which retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve. The function of the coarse aggregate is to act
as the main load-bearing component of the concrete.
>Fine aggregate:
Aggregate passing No.4 (4.75mm) sieve and predominately retained on the No.200 (75µ) sieve. The
fine aggregate serve the purpose of filling all the open space in between the coarse particles.
b) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCE:
>Natural aggregates:
This kind of aggregate is taken from natural deposits without changing their nature during the process
production such as crushing and grinding.
>Manufactured (synthetics) aggregates:
This is a kind of man-made materials produced as a main product or an industrial by-product. Some
example are blast furnace slag, air cooled slag and broken bricks. Synthetics aggregates are produced by
thermally processed materials such as expanded clay and shale used for making light weight concrete.
c) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UNIT WEIGHT:
Aggregates are classified as Light-weight, Heavy-weight and Normal-weight aggregate depending on
weight and specific gravity.

UNIT BULK
SPECIFIC
AGGREGATE WEIGHT DENSITY EXAMPLE
GRAVITY
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
normal-weight 2.5-2.7 23-26 15.20-16.80 sand
heavy-weight 2.8-2.9 25-29 >20.80 Scrap iron
light-weight 12 <11.20 dolomite

d) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE:

The shape of aggregates is an important characteristic, since it affect the workability of concrete.

CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLE
Rounded River or seashore gravels

37
 Partly rounded Pit sands & Gravels
Angular Crushed Rocks
Flaky Laminated rocks

e) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SUFACE TEXTURE:

Surface texture is a measure of the smoothness and roughness of aggregate. The grouping of aggregate
is broad and is based on visual examination of the specimen. As per IS:383-1970 the aggregates are classified
into five groups, namely, Glassy, Smooth, Granular, Crystalline, Honeycombed and Porous.
CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES
Glassy Black flint
Smooth Gravel, Marble
Granular Sandstone
Rough Basalt
Crystalline Granite
Honeycombed & Porous Brick, slag

GOOD QUALITYIES OF AN IDEAL AGGREGATE:

An ideal aggregate used for the manufacturing of concrete and mortar, should meet the following
requirements.
(1) It should consist of natural stones, gravels and sand or in various combinations of these materials.
(2) It should be hard, strong and durable.
(3) It should be dense, clear and free from any coating.
(4) It should be free from injurious vegetable matters.
(5) It should not contain flaky (angular) and elongated pieces.
(6) It should not contain any material liable to attack steel reinforcement in case of reinforced concrete.

TESTS ON AGGREGATE:-
The test usually conducted on coarse aggregates are
>Particle Size
>Flakiness &Elongation Index
>Moisture Content
>Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
>Ten Percent Fine Value
>Aggregate Crushing Value
>Aggregate Impact Value
Aggregate Abrasion Value

38
PARTICLE SIZE, SHAPE AND FLAKINESS (IS 2386-1963: PART I)

1. Test for particle size. This is carried out in the field by sieve analysis. The results are plotted as a grading
curve as already shown for sand.
2. Tests for shape. Aggregates are classified according to their shape as follows:
(a) Rounded
(b) Irregular or partly-rounded
(c) Angular
(d) Flaky
The shape of aggregates becomes important in case of high strength (high performance) concrete where
very low water-cement ratios are to be used. In such cases, cubical-shaped aggregates are preferred for better
workability. Improved makes of crushers such as Hydrocone crushers, Barma rock or Rock VSI crushers, give
better products than ordinary jaw crushers. The laboratory test for shape is known as test for flakiness or
elongation index. The apparating used is shown in Fig.

Apparatus to test flakiness of coarse aggregates.

3. Test for elongation index (flakiness). The flakiness or elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the
percentage weight of particles in the given aggregate which has its length greater than 1.8 times and its
least dimension (thickness) is less than 3/5 (or 0.6) times its mean dimension. A length gauge with holes
of various sizes as specified is available as a standard piece of laboratory equipment as shown in Fig..
This test is not used for aggregate sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
For the test, sufficient quantity of sample should be taken so that the minimum number of 200 pieces of
any standard size fraction is to be tested. The following is the procedure of the test.
1. Take sufficient quantity of the aggregate and sieve it through the different standard sizes of sieve shown
in Table 8.3 into fractions. Each fraction should be tested for flakiness.
2. Each fraction is gauged in turns through the hole of dimension of thickness 0.6 times and of length 1.8
times the mean size of the aggregate as shown in Table 8.3.
3. The total amount passing through the various gauges is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1% of the weight of
the sample.
4. Flakiness index is the total weight of the material passing through the gauges of various thickness
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample taken.

39
 British specifications limit this index to 50 for natural aggregate and 40 for crushed coarse aggregate.
For wearing surfaces like roadwork, we may adopt a lower value.

Mean Sieve Sizes and Size of Gauges (I.S. 2386, Part 1-1963)

Test for Organic Impurities, Clay Content and Percentage Fines

The same test as described for fine aggregate (sand) can be used for coarse aggregate also. The clay
content and percentage fines can be found by immersing the aggregate in water and examining the suspended
particles in the water.
Test for Moisture Content
The easy test is the drying method in an oven or heating in an open pan in the field. It can also be
carried out by pouring an inflammable liquid like methylated spirit and igniting it to evaporate the water.

Test for Load for 10% Fineness Value or Crushing Value

(Sample preparations for this test and also for the test called aggregate crushing test described later are
similar). About 6.5 kg material consisting of material passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve is taken
and compacted in the standard cylinder used for this test in three layers—each layer being compacted 25 times
with a tamping rod. The top layer is levelled off. The weight of the sample is recorded. The same weight
should be taken for subsequent tests also. The apparatus used is shown in Fig.

Apparatus for ten percent fines value for coarse aggregates.

40
 On the cylinder with the base plate, the plunger is placed and the unit is set up in a compression testing
machine. The load is applied gradually at a uniform rate so that the plunger penetration is as given below in
10 minutes:
About 15 mm for rounded or partially-rounded aggregate like natural gravel samples; 20 mm for normal
crushed stones and 24.0 mm for honeycombed aggregates like shale and slag.
After reaching the necessary penetration the load is released and the material is sieved through 2.36 mm
I.S. sieve. The percentage of the fines passing the above sieve is expressed as a percentage of the weight of
the test sample. This should be on the range of 7.5 to 12.6% (i.e. about 10%). Repeat the test till we find the
load for the above result. Then load for 10% fines is calculated as follows.

where
x = load in tonnes for causing 7.5 to 12.6% fines
y = mean of the percentage of fines from two tests at x tonnes load

The value is reported in the nearest 0.5 tonnes and the recommended values are as follows:

(a) For normal concrete, not less than 5 tonnes

(b) For wearing surface for road pavements, not less than 10 tonnes
(c) For ganolithic concrete in buildings, not less than 15 tonnes

Aggregate Crushing Value

In this test, we find the percentage of fines at a specified load of 40 tonnes. The preparation for this
test is the same as that for 10 per cent fines. In this test, after the specimen is set in the compression machine,
the plunger is loaded to 40 tonnes in 10 minutes. The load is released and the material is sieved through 2.36
mm sieve (same sieve as used in 10% fine test) to obtain the aggregate crushing value or the percentage fines.
It is usually recommended as 45 per cent for aggregates used for concrete other than that used for wearing
surfaces. For concrete for wearing purposes, it should not exceed 30 per cent. Generally, it ranges from 18 to
27% for Indian aggregates.

Test for Water Absorption and Specific Gravity (IS 2386-1963 : Part III)
A sample of aggregates not less than 2 kg is washed and immersed in water for 24 hours and its
immersed weight in water is found (A). It is taken out of the water and the saturated surface dry sample is
weighed in air ( B ) . It is then over-dried and weighed (C).

41
Aggregate Impact Test

This test is for aggregates in concrete that undergoes impact as in runways in airports. Materials
passing through 12.5 mm and retained as 10 mm are filled in the standard cylinder in three layers, each layer
tamped with 25 strokes of an iron rod. A hammer weighing 14 kg is dropped from a height of 380 mm 15
times and the resulting material is sieved through a 2.36 mm I.S. sieve. The percentage fine is the aggregate
impact test value. It should not be more than 45% for aggregates for concrete for ordinary use and not more
than 30% for aggregates for concrete for runways and pavements. For Indian aggregates, it ranges from 15 to
30%.

Aggregate Abrasion Value (Attrition Test)

This test is for the stones used in road construction. We use the Deval's abrasion testing machine or
preferably the Los Angeles abrasion machine for this purpose. In the latter test, a sample of specified grading
which varies with the maximum size of aggregate to be tested is placed in the machine with steel or cast iron
spheres of 48 mm diameter and 390 to 445 gm weight. The machine is rotated for specified revolutions
depending on the grading (500 to 1000 revolutions). The resulting material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve.
The percentage of wear is called the Los Angeles aggregate abrasion value. It should not be more than 16 per
cent for a good aggregate.

Bulk Density and Void Ratio

Bulk density is determined by packing the aggregate into a specified container of known volume
and determining the weight of the aggregates packed.

Where Gs = Specific gravity of aggregate

42
 CEMENT AND CONCRETE BLOCKS

Cement and concrete blocks are also used for masonry construction. They are available in three types
namely solid, hollow and cellular.

The hollow blocks if the percentage of voids is more than 25% Blocks with voids less than 25% are
only perforated blocks.

The term 'cellular concrete blocks' especially refer to light-weight aerated concrete blocks

Concrete blocks are usually made large in size so that the blockwork is faster and consume less cement
in joints than the brickwork.

These blocks are extensively used for compound walls and non-loadbearing walls. Specially made
hollow blocks are also used for load bearing walls. Such works are useful in reducing the deadload of
masonry in buildings.

Blocks can be also with cement and sand called cement-sand blocks or with soil and cement called
soil cement blocks. These are of low strength and used for low cost construction.
The main disadvantage of concrete blocks is shrinkage due to movement of moisture which is absent in
bricks. In addition, as these blocks are much larger in size than bricks, any foundation movement will cause
blockwork to crack more than the brickwork.
• With high mortar strength, the cracks will be few and very large, but with weak mortar, they will be
small and distributed.
• We should use only blocks which have been cured properly for at least 14 days and dried for 4 weeks.
• The ordinary unreinforced blockwork in walls is very weak for resisting lateral loads that are caused
due to expansion of roof or due to earthquake and cyclones.

MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

The concrete mix for concrete blocks shall not be richer than one part of cement to six parts of volume
of combined aggregate. Lean mixes up to 1:8 are also commonly used.

Bureau of Indian Standards recommends a fineness modulus of the combined aggregate between 3.6
to 4. Coarse aggregate of size 6 to 12 mm is generally used. 60% fine and 40% percent coarse aggregates is
the mix recommended.

Hence, "baby jelly" aggregates that are not generally used for conventional concrete work are found
of much use in making these concrete blocks.

They can be hand-made and also preferably machine-made. A simple machine can make up 1600
blocks in an eight-hour shift. The cast block is then cured in a water tank or yard for at least 14 days. When
immersed in the tank, the water shall be changed at least every 4 days. After curing, the blocks are dried for

43
a period of 4 weeks before being used on the work. They should be stacked with voids in the horizontal
direction to facilitate easy drying. Otherwise, they should be steamcured and dried.

There are only a few modern factories in India that use steamcured in manufacturing of concrete
blocks. This process allows the complete shrinkage of the block to take place before they are laid on the wall.

This is very important. As already indicated, freshly-made and uncured concrete blocks should never
be allowed on the work.

DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES

As in case of bricks, a block is referred by its nominal dimensions. The term "nominal dimension"
means that the dimension includes mortar thickness of 10 mm also. In special cases, where finer joints are
specified, the mortar thickness is limited to 6 mm.
The nominal dimensions of concrete block according to B.I.S. are as follows (Fig. 3.1)

Concrete blocks (a) and (b) Hollow concrete blocks nominal length 390 mm and height 190 mm.Thickness
for load bearing walls 190 mm, compound walls 140 mm, filler walls 90 mm. (c) Lintel block for R.C.
Lintels.
Length - 400, 450, 500 or 600 mm
Height - 200 or 100 mm
Width - 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250 or 300 mm
(Actual sizes will be less by 10 mm the mortar thickness)

CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

1. Hollow concrete blocks (Open and closed cavity types). These blocks are classified by I.S. into the
following three grades.
a) Grade A. These blocks are used for load-bearing walls. They should have a minimum density of
1500 kg/m3. They should be manufactured for minimum specified compressive strength of 3.5, 4.5,
5.5 and 7.0 N/mm2 in 28 days.

44
 b) Grade B. These are also used for load-bearing walls. They may have a density below 1500 kg/m3
but not less than 1000 kg/m3. They are made for specified compressive strength of 2.0, 3.0 and 5.0
N/mm2 in 28 days.
c) Grade C. These are used for nonload, bearing walls, and its density is not less than 1000 kg/m3.
They are made for specified strengths of 1.5 N/mm2 in 28 days.
These blocks can also be made with decorative facings like fluted facing to give aesthetic effects.
2. Solid concrete blocks. These blocks are used as load-bearing walls. They should have a density not less
than 1800 kg/m3 and should be manufactured for specified concrete strength of 4.0 and 5.0 N/mm2 in
28 days.
3. Paver blocks. These blocks are solid concrete blocks of various shapes specially made for exterior
ground paving on side walls, drive ways, parking lots, industrial floors, petrol pumps, etc.

STORAGE OF BLOCKS

As these blocks can absorb moisture by wetting and shrinking on drying, they should be protected
from rains while being stored and also when walls are being built.

USE OF BLOCK MASONRY IN BUILDINGS

The concrete blocks have the following advantages over claybricks.

1. One concrete block 390 x 190 x 190 mm can replace 8 bricks, thus, resulting in considerable reduction
in cement mortar and speed of construction.
2. Claybrick manufacturing requires excavation of good earth from fertile areas. It also involves burning
of fuel. Hence, concrete blocks are more environment friendly.
3. Because of the air columns, hollow concrete blocks offer good thermal and acoustic insulation. Hence,
air conditioning and insulation costs come down very much.
4. With good concrete blocks, we get a good surface finish which need not be plastered, thus saving the
cost of plastering of walls.
5. A very great advantage of using hollow concrete blocks instead of solid clay blocks in wall construction
is the large reduction in dead load on foundations, beams, etc. that have to be considered in structural
design.
6. The strength of mortar used in blockwork need not be more than the strength of the blocks.

TESTING OF BLOCKS (IS 2185)

The usual tests prescribed for concrete blocks are the following:
1. Appearance.
For testing the appearance, 20 blocks are taken for every 5000 blocks for tests. In general, the
block units should be free from cracks and other defects. Faces which are to be exposed should be free

45
 of chips, cracks or other defects except that not more than 5 per cent of the consignment may contain
slight cracks or small chippings not larger than 25 mm.
2. Dimensions.
Twenty full size units are taken and their length, width, height and web thickness are measured.
A steel scale graduated to 1 mm is used for measuring dimensions and a caliper rule graduated to 0.5
mm divisions and jaws not less than 15 mm but not more than 25 mm in length is to be used for
measuring the web thickness. The dimensions should conform to the tolerances of ±5 mm in length
and ±3 mm in height and width.
3. Block density.
Three blocks are chosen at random and dried at 100°C in an oven. After cooling, its weight is
measured correctly to 10 g and its dimensions correctly to one mm. The density should correspond to
the class of the block.
4. Compressive strength.
A batch of eight blocks is chosen at random. They are tested within 72 hours after delivery and
after storage in normal room air before testing. The blocks then are capped with sulphur and granular
material or plaster of Paris paste (strength about 25 N/mm2). The strength is determined by the load
taken to be divided by the gross area of the unit which is the area of section perpendicular to the load.
Blocks intended for use with their hollow cores in a horizontal direction are tested in the same direction
in which they are laid in the field. Individual values should not be less than 20% of the average value
specified according to the grade.
5. Water absorption.
Three specimens are tested separately to find the average value. Firstly, the specimens are
completely immersed in water for 24 hours. They are again weighed when completely immersed in
water to find its volume. The block is taken out, allowed to be drained for one minute and weighed to
find the wet weight of the specimen. It is then dried in an oven at 100-115° C for not less than 24
hours, and the dry weight is determined. The following quantities are calculated:

Where
A = wet mass of the block in kg
B = dry mass of the block in kg and
C = suspended immersed mass of block in kg (volume)
The water absorption should not be more than 10% of the mass. (It should be remembered that
concrete blocks are never wetted like bricks for using in masonry construction.)

46
6. Drying shrinkage.
Three specimens, are tested for average value. Generally, three or more specimens are stored
in airtight containers for duplicate testing, if required. From these blocks, specimens are cut for testing.
Specimens of cross section 7.5 cm x 7.5 cm in solid blocks and 7.5 cm thickness for hollow blocks are
taken for testing. They are to be not less than 15 cm in length. Two reference points consisting of 5
mm diameter steel balls cemented with rapid hardening portland cement are installed at each end. The
specimen is completely immersed in water of temperature 27 ± 2°C for 4 days. The test is to be
conducted by using a special measuring frame with a micrometer and Invar steel rod of suitable length.
The test is first made on the wet specimen and then also on the specimen after it is completely
dried in an oven for 44 hours and cooled to the room temperature. The difference in lengths is
determined. The drying shrinkage is the shrinkage as a percentage of its dry length. It should not exceed
0.1 per cent.

7. Moisture movement.
The specimen used for drying shrinkage after completion of the test is immersed in water for 4
days and its elongation is measured by the same apparatus used for drying shrinkage test. The
difference between dry and wet lengths is expressed as a percentage of the dry length in the moisture
movement. It should not exceed 0.09 per cent.

47
 STABILIZED MUD BLOCKS (SMB)

The technology of stabilized soils for wall construction has been known in India for more than 5
decades. The R&D programme at the Department of Civil Engineering and ASTRA at the Indian Institute of
Science since 1975 has lead to a maturing of the stabilized mud block technology. Today, there are probably
more than 15,000 buildings and houses in about 8 States of India using the SMB technology for walls. The
details of this new technology are discussed below.

THE CONCEPT

The value of optimum moisture content (OMC) and the maximum density depends on the energy input
during compaction. It is also easy to recognize that the compressive strength of the soil, in the dry state, depends on
the density. Thus the process of mechanical compaction can lead to densification and strengthening of the soil. If now
the soil can also be stabilized against loss of strength during saturation, we can think of a stabilized mud (soil) block
where the stabilization is achieved by a combination of densification and mixing of a stabilizing additive. A variety
of materials can be used for stabilization namely: cement, lime and bitumen.

THE RAW MATERIALS

In general soils containing 10 to 15% clay and 65.0 to 70.0% sand are satisfactory for making cement stabilized
mud blocks. Cement may be added to the tune of 6.0 to 8.0%, by weight of the appropriate soil. In case the soil has a high
clay content, sand or a sandy additive like quarry dust may be added to correct the grading of the soil.

A combination of cement and lime can be used. For non-expansive soil and with clay content around 15% a
cement proportion of 5% and lime proportion 2% can be added for stabilization.

Lime has the advantage of combining with the clay in the soil and enhancing the long term durability and strength.

THE PROCESS

The entire process of making a stabilized mud block may be summarized as under.

1. Sieve the soil in a 4 mm sieve to remove stones and lumps of clay.

2. Mix sand or quarry dust to correct the clay-sand percentages in the soil.
3. Add cement or cement and lime in appropriate proportions and mix thoroughly in the dry condition.
4. Sprinkle moisture onto the mixture and further mix thoroughly till the mixture is homogeneous. Test for
optimum moisture by trying to make a ball of soil in the hand. If a ball can be made without the soil sticking to
the hand the moisture content is right.
5. Weigh the correct amount of moist soil such that a fresh block density of 2.05 gm/cc can be achieved. The weight
depends on the volume of the finished block. In case the soil contains too much sand and silt a density of 2.05
gm/cc may not be feasible. Densities like 2.0 gm/cc or 1.95 gm/cc may be attempted.

48
5. The weighed soil is now poured into a soil compaction press like the Mardini (Figure 2.3).
6. The block is now pressed by operating the toggle lever, after closing the lid. The lid may then be opened and the block
ejected by again using the lever. Figures 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 show the sequences of the three operations.
7. The ejected block is then stacked in a five or six block high stack for curing (Figure 2.7).
8. Sprinkling of moisture may be pursued upto 21 days to complete the block making process.

49
TYPICAL BLOCK SIZES

In general, it is desirable to have a block size, which is somewhat larger than the size of a brick to
achieve economy in the production of the material.

Usual sizes are 230 x 190 x 100 mm or 305 x 143 x 100 mm. Blocks of thickness less than 100 mm
can be easily made, if necessary, by introducing thicker plates inside the mould.

A half block size of 230 x 108 x 100 mm is also sometimes useful for corner joint, door and window
jambs, partition walls and so on.

With the 230 x 190 x 100 mm block one can build a wall with headers only (thickness 230 mm) or a wall with
stretchers only (thickness 190 mm)

ADVANTAGES OF CSEB

1) Soil is available in large quantities in most regions.

2) Cheap and affordable - in most parts of the world soil is easily accessible to low-income groups. In some
locations it is the only material available.
3) Ease of use - usually no very specialized equipment is required.
4) Suitable as a construction material for most parts of the building.
5) Fire resistant - non-combustible with excellent fire resistance properties.
6) Beneficial climatic performance in most regions due to its high thermal capacity, low thermal
conductivity and porosity, thus it can moderate extreme outdoor temperatures and maintain a satisfactory
internal temperature balance.
7) Low energy input in processing and handling soil - only about 1% of the energy required to manufacture
and process the same volume of cement concrete.
8) Environmental appropriateness - the use of this almost unlimited resource in its natural state involves no
pollution and negligible energy consumption thus further benefiting the environment by saving biomass
fuel.

DISADVANTAGES OF CSEB

1) Proper soil identification is required or lack of soil.

2) Unawareness of the need to manage resources.
3) Ignorance of the basics for production & use.
4) Wide spans, high & long buildings are difficult to do.
5) Low technical performance compared to concrete.
6) Untrained teams producing bad quality products.
7) Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying outrageous costs.
8) Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products.

50
9) Bad quality or un-adapted production equipment.
10) Low social acceptance due to counter examples (by unskilled people, or bad soil & equipment).

LIMITATIONS
1) Reduced durability - if not regularly maintained and properly protected, particularly in areas affected by
medium to high rainfall.
2) Low tensile strength – poor resistance to bending moments, to be used only in compression e.g. bearing
walls, domes and vaults.
3) Low resistance to abrasion and impact - if not sufficiently reinforced or protected.
4) Low acceptability amongst most social groups - considered by many to be a second class and generally
inferior building material.
5) On account of these problems - earth as a building material lacks institutional acceptability in most
countries and as a result building codes and performance standards have not been fully developed.

51
 MODULE -2

FOUNDATION
Preliminary investigation of soil, safe bearing capacity of soil,
Function and requirements of good foundation,
Types of foundation, introduction to spread, combined, strap, mat and pile foundation
MASONRY:
Definition and terms used in masonry. Brick masonry, requirement of good brick masonry,
Bonds in brick work, Header, Stretcher, English, Flemish bond, characteristics
Stone masonry, Requirements of good stone masonry, Classification, characteristics of different stone
masonry, Joints in stone masonry.
Types of walls; load bearing, partition walls, cavity walls

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

Definition:
The bearing capacity of a soil can be defined as the capacity of soil that can withstand a maximum
intensity of loading without yielding.
It can also be defined as the maximum load per unit area, which a soil can withstand without causing
any cracks or abrasions.
The bearing capacity soil depends upon the characteristics of its particles such as cohesion, fineness,
compactness, moisture present in the soil and so on.
Safe Bearing Capacity:
While designing structures, the soils never been loaded upto their maximum bearing capacity. The value
of the permissible loads taken for the purpose of design is known as safe bearing capacity of soil.
The safe bearing capacity can be defined as the bearing capacity divided by a certain factor of safety
i.e.,

Safe bearing capacity = the value of factor of safety varies from 2 to 3.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity:

The minimum load on unit area, causing the failure of soil is known as ultimate bearing capacity or
power of the soil. Generally load allowed on the soil is much less than the ultimate bearing capacity.
DETERMINATION OF SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOILS:

 The bearing capacity of the soil can be determined by following methods

 Plate load test method
 Dropping weight or penetration test method
 Method of loading

1
  Presumptive values of bearing capacity of soils

This test is done to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil and probable settlement of the
foundation. To perform this test a small pit having 30 to 60 cm square base is excavated in the main test pit
of foundation such that the ratio of depth to width of this hole (loaded area) is the same as for the actual
foundation D/B as shown in fig. 1.1.

The test plate is seated firmly at the bottom of the hole. If required a thin layer of sand may be spread
below the plate.

A load truss is placed above the hole and pit as shown in fig. 1.2 and anchored properly on both sides.
Load is applied on the plate by means of hydraulic jacks by jacking reactions against the truss. The settlement
of plate is noted by means of dial gauges mounted on independent datum bar. The load is directly recorded
from the pressure gauge of the hydraulic jacks. The observations are properly recorded and load settlement

2
graph is plotted as shown in fig. 1.3. At the points where graph sharply takes turn is noted. This point gives
the ultimate load intensity (bearing capacity).

Care should be taken while applying load. It should be in convenient increments about 1/5th of expected
safe bearing capacity. Maximum load of at least 1.5 times the ultimate bearing capacity or 3 times the safe
bearing capacity should be taken.

Limitations of Plate Load Test:

Following are the limitations of the plate load test:

1. Duration of test: This test is of short duration therefore, it does not give the ultimate settlement
especially in case of cohesive soils.
2. Nature of soil: This test reflects the character of soil located within the depth less than twice the width
of bearing plate. It corresponds to the pressure bulb of 1 /5th of the loading intensity at the test plate.
The foundation of structures are generally larger therefore, settlement and resistance against shear
failure will depend on the properties of much thicker stratum of the soil.
3. Size of foundation: For clay soils, the ultimate pressure for a large foundation is nearly the same as
that on the test plate. But for dense sandy soils, the bearing capacity increases with the size of the

3
 foundation and hence the results obtained on the small size bearing plates are found to give
conservative values.

Methods of Improving the Safe Bearing Capacity of the Soil:

The bearing capacity of the soils can be improved by the following methods:
a. By increasing the depth of foundation.
b. By increasing the width of foundation.
c. By compacting the soil.
d. By drawing off sub-soil moisture.
e. By filling granular materials.
f. By confining the sub-soil.
g. By grouting.
h. Solidifying the soil by chemicals.
1. By increasing the depth of foundation: The compactness of the soil increases with the depth and thereby
increasing the bearing capacity of the soil. So by increasing the depth of foundation, the load bearing
capacity of the soil can be increased.
2. By increasing the width of the foundation: By increasing the width, the bearing area increases thereby
decreasing the intensity of pressure, which improves the bearing capacity of the soil.
3. By compactness of soil: By compacting the soil by hand rammers, rollers or some other means increases
the bearing capacity of a soil.
4. By drawing off sub-soil moisture: Moisture in soil decreases the cohesion power of soil particles hence
decreases the bearing capacity. By drawing of the moisture from the soil increases its bearing capacity of
the soil.
5. By filling granular materials: Granular materials like sand gravel or crushed stone is blended into the
natural soil by hand ramming. The layer thus formed having strong bearing capacity.
6. By confining the sub-soil: If soil is confined and prevented from the lateral escape, when soil is loaded,
this increases the bearing capacity of the soil.
7. By grouting: This consists of pumping the cement grout (cement paste) under pressure into the soil. This
will seal up the pores and bind the particles of soil and thereby increases the bearing power of the soil.
8. Solidifying the soil by chemicals: The soil particles are solidifying by injecting the certain chemicals
such as diluted soda silicate and calcium chloride, thereby increasing the bearing capacity of the soil.
SBC Values for Various Types of Soils:
Soil Safe Bearing Capacity
Soft clay 2 - 3.75 tonnes/m2
Black cotton soil 5 - 7.5 tonnes/m2
Alluvial soil 5 - 7.5 tonnes/m2
Alluvial loam 7.5-16 tonnes/m2

4
 Moist clay 11-18 tonnes/m2
Made-up soil 5 tonnes/m2
Ordinary clay 22 tonnes/m2
Clap mixed with sand 22 tonnes/m2
Compact clay (dry) 33 - 55 tonnes/m2
Loose sand 22 tonnes/m2
Compact sand 22 - 32 tonnes/m2
Compact and confined sand 44 tonnes/m2
Kankar or sandy gravel 22 - 33 tonnes/m2
Compact gravel 44 - 65 tonnes/m2
Moorum 22 - 44 tonnes/m2
Ordinary rocks 8 -110 tonnes/m2
Hard rock above 250 tonnes/m2

Site investigation of sub-soil exploration

Since the foundations have to transfer the load of the sub-soil, surface conditions at any given site must
be adequately explored to obtain the information required for the design and construction of the foundations.
Sub- soil exploration is done for following purposes :

a) For New Structures:

1. The selection of type and depth of foundation.
2. The determination of the bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
3. The prediction of settlement of the selected foundation.
4. The determination of the ground water level.
5. The evaluation of earth pressure against walls, basements etc.
6. The provision against constructional difficulties.
7. The suitability of soil and degree of compaction of soil.
b) For Existing Structures :
1. The investigation of safety of the structure.
2. The prediction of settlement.
3. The determination of remedial measures if the structure is unsafe or will suffer detrimental
settlement.

Site Exploration

The objective of the site exploration is to provide reliable, specific and detailed information about the
soil and ground water conditions of the site for a safe and economic design of foundations.

The exploration should yield precise information about the following:

1. The order of occurrence and extent of soil and rock strata.

5
 2. The nature and engineering properties of the soil and rock formation.

3. The location of ground water and its variation.

Methods of site exploration

The various methods of site exploration may be classified as follows:

a) Open Excavation.
b) Boring Methods.
1. Auger Boring.
2. Auger and Shell Boring.
3. Wash Boring.
4. Percussion Boring.
5. Rotary Boring.
c) Sub-surface soundings.
d) Geo-physical methods.
1. Seismic refraction method.
2. Electrical resistivity method.

Open Excavation.

 Trial pits are the cheapest method of excavation in shallow deposits.

 In this method, pits are excavated at site, exposing the sub-soil surface thoroughly.Soil samples are
collected at various levels.

 The biggest advantage of this method is that soil strata can be inspected in their natural condition and
samples can be taken conveniently.

 The method is generally suitable for shallow depths, say up to 3 m.

 The cost of open excavation increases rapidly with the depth.

6
Boring Methods
1. Auger boring
 Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table level.
 Augers are either mechanical or manually operated.
 Hand augers are used for up to a depth of 6m.
 Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depth and they can also be used in gravelly soils.
 Augers are of two types :
o Spiral augers.
o Post-Hole auger.
 Samples recovered from soil brought up by augers are badly disturbed and are useful for
identification purposes only.

Post – hole auger Helical auger (Mechanical)

2. Auger and Shell Boring
• Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at lower end can be used for making deep
borings.

• Hand operated rigs are used for depth upto 25 m and mechanized augers are used for 50 m depth.

• Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very stiff and hard clays, and shells or sand
pumps for sandy soils.

7
3. Wash Boring
• For test boring over 3 meter in depth, this method can be conveniently used. In this method a hollow
steel pipe known as casing pipe or drive pipe is driven into the ground for a certain depth.

• Then a pipe usually known as water jet pipe or wash pipe, which is shorter in diameter, is lowered into
the casing pipe. At its upper end, the wash pipe is connected to water supply system while the lower
end of the pipe is contracted so as to produce jet action. Water under considerable pressure is forced
down the wash pipe.

• The hydraulic pressure displaces the material immediately below the pipe and the slurry thus formed
is forced up through the annular space between the two pipes. The slurry is collected and samples of
material encountered are obtained by settlement. In this process the particles of finer material like clay,
loam etc. do not settle easily and the larger and heavy particles of the soil may not be brought up at all.

• Moreover, the exact position of a material in the formation cannot be easily be located. However the
change of stratification can be guessed from the rate of progress of driving the casing pipe as well as
the color of slurry flowing out.

• Yet the results obtained by wash boring process give fairly good information about the nature of the
sub-soil strata.

• This method can be adopted in soft to stiff cohesive soils and fine sand.

4. Percussion boring:
• This method consists of breaking up of the sub-strata by repeated blows from a bit or chisel. The
material thus pulverized is converted into slurry by pouring water in the bore.

• At intervals the slurry is bailed out of the hole and dried for examination.

8
 • This method can be adopted in rocks and soils having boulders.

• However this method is not recommended for loose sand or clayey soils.

5. Rotary drilling:
• When rocks or hard pans are to be penetrated for examination, core drilling is done to get undisturbed
samples of the formation.

• In this process a hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a cutting bit at its base. The cutting
bit makes an annular cut in the strata and leaves a cylindrical core of the material in the hollow tube.

• Two types of cutting bits are generally used, namely, diamond bit and shot bit.

• Diamond bit consists of industrial diamonds set in the face of the bit and in shot bit, chilled shot is
used as an abrasive to cut the hard pan.

• When core samples of small diameter are needed, diamond bit is preferred.

Percussion boring Rotary Boring machine

c) Sub-surface sounding

• The sounding method consists of measuring the resistance of the soil with the depth by the means of
penetrometer under static and dynamic loading.
• The penetrometer may consist of sampling spoon or cone or any other shaped tool.
• The resistance to penetration is correlated with some engineering properties of soil such as density
index, consistency, bearing capacity etc.

9
 • Thus in this method by using sounding, the resistance of soil is measured which is useful for general
exploration of erratic soil profiles, for finding depth to bed rock or stratum.
• We can have an approximate induction of strength and other properties of soil.
• The two commonly used tests are standard penetration test and the cone penetration test.

d) Geo Physical Methods

• Geo physical methods are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and also when the speed
of investigation is of primary importance.
• Geo physical investigations involve the detection of significant differences in the physical properties
of geological formations.
• The most commonly used methods of geophysical investigation are :
1. Seismic Refraction Method:
• The seismic refraction method is based on the property of seismic waves to refract (or be bent) when
they travel from one medium to another of different density or elasticity.
• In this method, shock waves are created into the soil at their ground level or a certain depth below it.
• The radiating shockwaves are picked up by the vibration detector (Geophone or seismometer) where
the time of travel of shock waves get recorded.
• Direct waves or primary waves travel directly from shock point along the ground surface to be picked
up by geophone.
• Refracted waves travel through the soil and also get refracted at the interface of two soil strata. The
refracted waves are also picked up by the geophone.
• If the underlying level is denser the refracted waves travel much faster and at longer distances, the
shock waves reach faster than the direct waves.
• Hence by distance-time graphs and analytical methods, the depth of various strata can be evaluated by
using the time of travel of primary and refracted waves.
• Seismic refraction method is fast & reliable in establishing the profile of different strata.

10
• Different material such as gravel, clay hardpan or rock have characteristic properties and hence can be
identified by distance-time graphs.
• But for exact recognition and exploration, boring or sounding methods should be supplemented along.

2. Electrical resistivity method

• The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean
resistivity of various soils.
• Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon its composition, compaction, water content etc.
• In this method, four metal spikes serve as electrodes which are drive into the ground along a straight
line at equal distance.
• A direct voltage is imposed between the outer two electrodes, and potential drop is measured
between the inner electrodes.
• The mean resistivity Ω (ohm-cm) is calculated by : Ω = 2 Π D E / I
D = Distance between electrodes. (cm)
E = Potential drop between inner electrodes. (Volts)
I = Current between outer electrodes. (Ampere)
• The depth of exploration is roughly proportional to the electrode spacing.
• So to study greater depths, the electrode spacing is increased gradually and made roughly equal to
depth of exploration required. This method is known as resistivity sounding.

11
Meaning and Purpose of Foundation:
Generally every building consists of two main components called as superstructure and the
substructure or foundation. Usually the superstructure is that part of the building which is above the ground
and which serves the purpose for which it has been made. The foundation or substructure is lowest part of the
building located below ground level and transmits the load of the superstructure to the subsoil as shown in
fig. 1.4.

Definition:

The lowest artificially prepared part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground and which
transmit the load of the structure to the ground is known as foundation.
The solid ground on which the foundation rest is called the foundation bed or foundation soil, which
ultimately bears the load of the building. The lowermost portion of the foundation which is in direct contact
with the sub-soil is called as footing.
The part of the superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level is known as the plinth.

Purpose or Functions of Foundations:

The foundations are provided for the following purposes or functions:

1. To support the structures.

2. To distribute the total load of the structure on a larger area so as to bring down the intensity of load at
its base below the safe bearing capacity of sub-soil.
3. To provide a level and hard surface for concreting and masonry work
4. To provide enough lateral stability to the structures against various disturbing horizontal forces such
as wind, rain, earthquake, etc.
5. To distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub-soil.
6. To provide structural safety against undermining or scouring due to flood water, animals, etc.
7. To prevent cracks due to movement of moisture due to poor soil.
8. To transmit the super imposed loads through side and end bearing in case of deep foundations.

12
Essential Requirements of a Good Foundation:

1. It should sustain the dead and imposed loads and transmit these to the sub-soil safely.
2. It should be rigid to minimize the settlements.
3. Foundation should be sufficiently deep to safeguard the building against the damage due to swelling
or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
4. Foundation should not be affected by unexpected future influence.

Types of Foundations:
The foundations may be classified into two types:
1. Shallow foundations
2. Deep foundations.

A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width. If its depth is greater than its width,
then the foundation is known as deep foundation.
Shallow Foundations:

The shallow foundation is provided just below the superstructure with the object of distributing structural
load over a larger area at shallow depth below the ground level.

Types :
a) Spread footings (Isolated footings)
b) Combined footings
c) Strap footings
d) Mat or raft foundation.

a) Spread footings: These footings support either a column or wall and spread the super-imposed load
of these over a larger area. The spread footings are of following kinds :
1. Single footing for a column
2. Stepped footing for a column
3. Sloped footing for a column
4. Wall footing without step
5. Stepped footing for wall
6. Grillage foundation
7. Inverted arch foundation.
1. Single footing for a column as shown in fig. 1.5(a) with a concrete base for a light loaded columns.
2. Stepped footing for a column as shown in fig. 1.5(b), with a concrete base for a heavily loaded
columns, which require a greater spread.
3. Sloped footing for a column as shown in fig. 1.5(c), with a concrete base made with slope having a
greater thickness at its junction with the column and smaller thickness at the ends.

13
4. Wall footing without step as shown in fig. 1.6(a) having a concrete base. In this case, spread footing is
provided for light walls without step.
5. A stepped footing for walls as shown in fig. 1.6(b), usually masonry walls have stepped footings with
concrete base.

6. Grillage foundation: A steel grillage foundation for a steel stanchions carrying heavy loads as shown in
fig. 1.7. These are generally used in those locations where the bearing capacity of soil is poor. The depth
of these foundations are limited to 1 to 1.5 m. The load of stanchions is distributed to larger area by means

14
 of two or more tiers of rolled steel joints. The tiers of the joints are embedded in cement concrete to keep
joints in position and to prevent their corrosion.

7. Inverted arch foundation: These foundations are generally useful for the structures like reservoirs,
bridges etc. But these are not used now a days. In this case, the foundation contact area is quite large,
which reduces heavy load on soil as shown in fig. 1.8. An inverted arches in series are provided along the
row of piers.

15
b) Combined Footings: A spread footing is provided to support two or more columns is termed as combined
footings. These footings may be of following kinds:
a) Rectangular combined footing
b) Trapezoidal combined footing
c) Combined column-wall footings.
These footings are generally constructed from reinforced concrete.
These footings are provided when -
• columns are very nearer to each other
• Bearing capacity of the soil is less.
The rectangular combined footing as shown in fig. 1.9(a) are provided for columns carrying equal loads.
The design of such footings should be done in such a way that the centre of gravity of column loads coincide
with the centroid of the footing area. The trapezoidal shape footings are provided for the columns carrying
unequal loads as shown in fig. 1.9(b).
The combined footings are also provided for columns and walls as shown in fig. 1.10(a) and (b). Fig.
1.10(a) for columns carrying equal loads and fig. 1.10(b) for columns carrying unequal loads.

16
c) Strap footings: Strap footings are the footings in which an independent footings of two columns are
connected by a beam. The strap footing are used where the distance between the columns is very large and
combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending movement in such cases, each
column is provided with its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings, as shown
in fig. 1.11.
The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to the
soil. The strap serves to transfer the column loads to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under
both footings.

d) Mat or Raft Foundation: This foundation is used to cover the entire area under the structure. This
foundation consists of providing a RCC slab of suitable

17
Thickness with necessary reinforcement covering entire area or a system of slab and beams with slab at the
bottom and beams above it as shown in fig. 1.12. Such foundations are most suitable where heavy structures
have to be constructed over a soft soil having low bearing capacity. The raft foundation reduces the settlement
of structures above compressible soils, by making the weight of the structure and raft approximately equal to
the weight of the soil excavated.
Advantages:
a) Suitable for heavy structures.
b) Reduced overall settlement of the structure over highly compressible soils.
Difference between Isolated Footing and Combined Footing:
Isolated Footing Combined Footing
1. These are used for a single column. Two columns are combined.
2. Used when column carries light load at shallow Used when the load on the column is very large
depth. And distance between the columns is small.
3. These are single, stepped, sloped, grillage, etc., These are of rectangular, trapezoidal and
footings. Strap combined footings.

Deep Foundation :

Deep foundations are the foundations in which the depth of the foundation is very large compared to its
width. Deep foundations are constructed by ordinary methods open pit excavations. In case of the deep
foundations are of following types:
1. Pile foundation
2. Pier foundation
3. Caisson or well foundation.
The pile foundation is most commonly used for building construction out of these three foundations. The
deep foundation is preferred during the following situations:
1. The top of the soil has poor bearing capacity.
2. The load of the superstructure is very high and its distribution is uneven.
3. When the sub-soil water level is high.
4. When there is large fluctuations in sub-soil water level.
5. Timbering of sides is difficult to maintain, if deep strip foundation is attempted.
6. If the structure is situated on the sea bed or river bed, where there is danger of scouring action.
7. When the canal or deep drainage lines exists near the foundations.
8. When the top soil is of expensive nature.

Pile foundation:

Pile foundation is generally used when simple spread foundation at a suitable depth is not possible due to
low bearing capacity of the soil or steep slopes are encountered. In compressible soil or water logged soil, the

18
pile foundation is very much advantages for providing safe foundation for heavy structures. Generally pile
foundations are used for buildings, bridges, water front installations (piers, docks, etc.).
Types of Piles:

Depending on functions, these are classified as:

1. Bearing piles
2. Friction piles
3. Sheet piles
4. Anchor piles
5. Fender piles
6. Compaction piles
7. Tension or uplift piles
i) Bearing piles: These are the piles driven into the ground until a hard stratum is reached. Such piles act as
pillars, supporting the superstructure. These are used to transfer the load through water or soft soil to a suitable
bearing stratum as shown in fig. 1.13. These piles are also known as end bearing piles and these piles are used
where hard strata is available just below the soft soil i.e., not at a considerable depth.

ii) Friction piles: These piles are driven into the ground until the sufficient skin friction developed at the sides
of the piles equals the load coming on the piles. These piles are used where the soft soil is available to a
considerable depth. These are the piles which carry or transfer the load to a depth by means of skin friction
Developed between side of the pile and the surrounding ground. These are used to transfer the load through
weak or soft soil to a considerable depth or these piles are driven into the soil whose strength does not increase
with depth as shown in fig. 1.14.

Difference between Bearing Pile and Friction Pile:

Bearing Pile Friction Pile
1. These are driven into the ground until a hard 1. These piles are driven into the ground until the
stratum is reached. sufficient skin friction developed at the sides of
the piles.

19
2. Lower end of the pile rests on the hard strata to 2. The load is resisted by the friction developed at
bear the load. the sides of the piles.
3. These are also known as end bearing piles. 3. These are also known as skin friction piles.

4. Used where hard strata is available below the soft 4. Used where the soft soil is available to a
soil considerable depth.
5. Presence of water will not affect the piles. 5. Presence of water reduces the friction between
soil and the pile surface.

iii) Sheet piles: These piles are made up of sheet steel, timber or reinforced concrete. These piles are used to
retain the soil which is liable to escape laterally when subjected to pressure or to enclose the area required for
some foundation and protect it from the action of running water or leakage as shown in fig. 1.15. These piles
are also used to increase the bearing capacity of the soil and to isolate the foundations from adjacent soils.

iv) Anchor piles: These piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet pilling walls
or other pulling forces as shown in fig. 1.16

v) Bitter piles: These are used to resist large horizontal or inclined forces as shown in fig. 1.15. These piles
are driven at some inclination and the inclination of bitter piles usually varies from 1 in 6 to 1 in 2.5 i.e.,
one horizontal in six vertical to one horizontal in 2 and half vertical.
vi) Fender piles: These are used to protect concrete dock or other water front structures against impact from
ships or other floating objects as shown in fig. 1.15.

20
vii) Compaction piles: These are used to compact loose granular soils, thereby increasing their bearing
capacity. These piles themselves not carry any load because they are of weaker materials, sometimes of
sand only. The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place,
thus forming a sand pile as shown in fig. 1.17.

viii) Tension or uplift piles: These are anchored down the structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic
pressure or due to overturning moment as shown in fig. 1.18.
Types of Piles Based on the Materials Used:
a) Concrete piles
b) Timber piles
c) Steel piles
d) Composite piles
a) Concrete piles: These piles may be reinforced or prestressed and classified into precast piles, cast in place
piles and prestressed concrete piles.
• Precaste piles are reinforced concrete piles which are moulded in circular, square, rectangular or octagonal
form. These are casted and cured in casting yard and transfered to the site for driving.
• Cast in place piles are cast in position inside the ground with a proper reinforcement in a site.
• Prestressed concrete piles: These are light in weight compared with reinforced concrete piles. These piles
carry higher load and withstand hard driving forces.
b) Timber piles: A timber piles are made from trunk of a tree, trimmed of branches. These piles must satisfy
the following requirements :
• Free from sharp bends, large or loose knots, shakes, splits and decay.
• Free from sharp and reverse bends and from crooks greater than one-half the diameter of the pile at
the middle of the bend.
• Straight line between corners of butt and tip within the body of the pile.
• Uniform taper from butt to tip.

The common timbers used for piles are: babul, chair, deodar, jarul, poon, sal, teak, white siris, semul,
and khair. The pile made from khair wood can stand action of sea water much better and is commonly used
for marine works. These piles are generally square or circular as shown in fig. 1.19.

21
iii) Steel piles: These piles may be a rolled section, a fabricated shape, a fabricated shape or a piece of sheet
pile. Two or more sections of sheet piles may be connected together in a box shape and driven as one pile.
The steel piles generally used in practice are:
1. H-piles
2. Box piles and
3. Tube piles as shown in fig. 1.20.

1. H-piles : Steel H bearing piles are suitable where it is desired to penetrate to rock or through hard
material with least recourse to jetting, coring, etc. These piles extend above ground level and continue
as columns for super-structure.
2. Box piles : These are formed of steel sheeting with or without deep beams have great lateral strength.
These are generally used to support a wharf or other sea structures where deep water, silt and sliding
banks are present.
3. Tube or pipe piles : These piles are made of seamless or welded pipes, which may be driven either
closed ended or open ended.

22
 4. Composite Piles : These are the piles made up of two portions of two different materials driven one
above the other.

Types of Composite Piles :

a) Timber and concrete pile.
b) Steel and concrete pile.
As shown in fig. 1.21 and these piles are suitable where the upper part of a pile is to project above the
water table. These are economical and easy to cast.

Difference between Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation:

Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation
1. Depth of foundation is less than its width. 1. Depth of foundation is more than its width.

2. Used for ordinary and medium loaded
structures at shallow depth over a strong
bearing capacity.
3. Less cost of construction.
4. These are spread footing, combined footing,
grillage footing, etc.
2. Used for heavily loaded structures over a
soil of weak bearing capacity
3. High cost of construction.
4. These are pile foundations, caissons
foundations.

23
Difference between Load Bearing Foundation and Framed Foundation:

Load Bearing Foundation Framed Foundation

1. In load bearing foundations, the strength
elements are walls, while the tie-columns in
the masonry have the role of absorbing some
of the seismic force.
2. Cost is less.
3. Suitable up to three stories.
4. - Walls are thicker and hence floor area is
reduced.
5. Slow construction.
6. Not possible to alter the position of walls, after 6. Position of walls may be changed whenever
the construction.
7. Resistant to earthquake is poor.
1. In framed foundation, the strength elements
are the pillers and the girders.
2. Cost is more.
3. Suitable for any number of stories.
4. Walls are thinner and hence more floor area is
available for use.
5. Speedy construction.
necessary.
7. Resistant to earthquake is good,

Foundation for Black Cotton Soil:

The black cotton soils are loose type of soils and are vary dangerous due to their shrinkage and swelling
characteristics due to moisture movement through; them. In addition to this, these soils have very low bearing
capacity, ranging from 50 kN/m2 to 100 kN/m2. These soils are very good for agricultural purposes but very
bad from structures point of view. These soils are quite stronger in dry condition but weak in wet condition.

Safety precautions to be taken for foundation in black cotton soil:

a) The SBC should be properly determined, taking into account the effect of sustained loading. In absence
of tests, the SBC of soil may be limited to 50 to 100 kN/m2.
b) The foundation should be taken at least 50 cm lower than the depth of moisture movement also be much
more than depth of tension cracks.
c) Wherever this soil occurs only in top layer, and wherever the thickness of this layer does not exceed 1
to 1.5 m, the entire layer of black cotton soil should be removed and the foundation should be laid on
non-shrinkable soil.
d) Wherever the depth of clay layer is large, the foundation or footing should be prevented from coming in
contact with the soil by using deeper and wider foundation trench and interposing layer of sand/mooram
around and beneath the footing.
e) Measures should be taken so that water cannot reach the bottom of foundation.
f) The foundation bed should be made firm and hard by ramming.
g) Construction over black cotton soil should be carried out in dry seasons.
h) For important structures, raft foundations should be used.

24
Causes for Failure of Foundation and Preventive Measures:

Following are the main causes for failure of foundations and their preventive measures:
1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil.
2. Unequal settlement of masonry.
3. Sub-soil moisture movement.
4. Lateral pressure on the walls.
5. Lateral movement of sub-soil.
6. Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs.
7. Atmospheric action.
1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil: This may leads to cracks in the structures and rotation thereof. This is
due to :
a. non-uniform nature of sub-soil in entire foundation.
b. Unequal load distribution on the soil strata.
c. Eccentric loading.
Preventive measures for these failures are:
a. Foundation should be on rigid strata like rock or hard moorum.
b. Proper design of base footing to resist cracking.
c. Limiting the pressure on soil.
d. Avoiding eccentric loading.
2. Unequal settlement of masonry : This is the portion of mortar joint between ground level and concrete
footing which may fails due to shrink or compress causes cracks in super-structure.
Preventive measures are:
a. Using mortar of proper strength.
b. Using thin mortar joints.
c. Restricting the height of masonry to 1 m per day if lime mortar is used and 1.5 m per day if concrete
mortar is used.
d. Properly weathering the masonry.

3. Sub-soil moisture movement: It is caused due to water level fluctuations. When water table drops down,
the sub-soil shrinks when water table increases, the sub-soil expands. This causes cracks in super-structure.
Preventive measures are :
a. Driving the piles upto hard soil.
b. Using deep foundations.
c. Trees are plated at safe distance from the foundations.
4. Lateral pressure on the walls: This may be due to thrust from a pitched roof or by wind action resulting
in overturning of building or generating tensile or compressive stresses on footings. It can be prevented
by :
a. Proper design of foundation.

25
 b. Providing sufficient wide base for foundation.

5. Lateral movement of sub-soil: This is due to soft soil with low bearing capacity or presence of granular
soils. By using sheet piles we can prevent the lateral movement of sub-soil.
6. Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs: The small trees shrubs, or hedge growth nearer to the
wall absorb the moisture from foundation soil causing reduction of their voids and even wheathering leads
to wall depression and foundation cracks.
This can be prevented by removing the trees, shrubs or hedges near the; foundation area.
7. Atmospheric action: This is the action due to sun, wind and rains. If depth of foundation is shallow,
moisture movements due to rains or draught may cause trouble. If building lies in a low lying area,
foundation may even be scoured
Preventive measures:
a. Filling back the foundation trenches with good soil and compacting it.
b. Providing gentle ground slope away from the wall.
c. Providing a narrow, sloping strip of impervious material along the exterior walls.

SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS
• The vertical downward movement of the base of a structure is called settlement.
• Its effect upon the structure depends on its magnitude, its uniformity, the time over which it takes
place, and the nature of the structure.
• Settlement of foundation may occur due to :
1. Elastic compression of the foundation and underlying soil.
2. Inelastic compression of underlying soil, which is much larger than the elastic compression.
3. Ground water lowering. Due to changing water level soil tends to compact and causes settlement of
ground surface.
Lowering of water level in fine grained soil causes settlement.
4. Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and oscillating machineries may cause settlement of granular
soils.
5. Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays.
6. Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface erosion or landslide.
7. Other causes such as adjacent excavation, mining subsidence, underground erosion etc.
• A certain amount of elastic and inelastic settlement of foundations is unavoidable, and should be
taken into account in design.
• If the settlement is uniform over the whole are of building and is not excessive, it does little damage.
• If however, the amount of settlement varies at different points under the building, differential
settlement occurs which results into stresses being setup in the building.
• It is suggested that the allowable pressure should be selected such that the maximum settlement of an
individual foundation should be 2.5 cm.

26
27
 MODULE -2

MASONRY:
Definition and terms used in masonry. Brick masonry, requirement of good brick masonry,
Bonds in brick work, Header, Stretcher, English, Flemish bond, characteristics
Stone masonry, Requirements of good stone masonry, Classification, characteristics of different stone
masonry, Joints in stone masonry.
Types of walls; load bearing, partition walls, cavity walls

INTRODUCTION TO STONE AND BRICK MASONRY:

Masonry may be defined as the construction of structures either it may be from stones or bricks. When
buildings are constructed by using the stones, then masonry called as stone masonry. When buildings are
constructed by using the bricks, then the masonry is called as brick masonry.
Masonry is normally used for the construction of foundation, walls, columns and other similar structural
components of the buildings. The masonry performs the following functions :
i) Supporting loads
ii) Subdividing space
iii) Providing thermal and acoustic insulation
iv) Affording fire and weather protection etc.

TERMS USED IN STONE MASONRY AND BRICK MASONRY:

Following are the terms used in masonry :

1. Natural bed : The building stones are obtained from rocks. These rocks have a distinct plane of division
along which the stones can easily be split. This plane represents the natural bed. In stone masonry, the
general rule to be observed is that the direction of natural bed should be perpendicular or nearly so to the
direction of the pressure.
2. Course : A course is a horizontal layer of stones or bricks.
3. Sill: The bottom surface of the door or window opening is known as sill.
4. Lintel : It is a horizontal member of stone, brick, iron, wood OR RCC, used to support the masonry or
load above an opening.
5. Bed : The lowest surface of the bricks or stones on which they rest in a course is known as bed.
6. Corbel : It is a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as support for roof truss, beam, weather
shead, etc. These are generally moulded and given ornametal treatment, as shown in fig. 2.1.
7. Cornice : It is a course of stone provided at the top of the wall. It is generally moulded and given
ornamental treatment to the appearance of the wall as shown in fig. 2.2.
8. Coping : A coping is a course of stone which is laid at the top-wall so as to protect the wall from rain
water.

1
9. Weathering : The upper surface of the stones used for sill, cornice and coping is dressed in a sloping way
so that the water may flow off easily, this is known as weathering.
10. Throating : A groove provided below the sill, cornice and coping so that the rain water can be discharged
from the wall surface is known as throating as shown in fig. 2.3.

11. Plinth : The horizontal projecting course at the ground floor level is known as the plinth. (Refer fig.
2.4). It forms the base of the super structure between ground level and floor level.
12. Plinth course : It is the upper most course of the plinth masonry.
13. String course : String course is a horizontal course provided at suitable levels between the plinth and
the cornice to protect the wall from the rain water or to add extra appearance and strength to the wall.
14. Lacing course : (Refer fig. 2.5). Lacing course is a horizontal course provided to strengthen a wall of
irregular small stones.
15. Drip course : To facilitate draining off rain water from the coping, sills, balconies on the underside of it
a groove is cut known as drip course.
16. Blocking course : It is the top most course of stone masonry provided immediately above the cornice to
prevent the tendency of the cornice to overturn.
17. Spalls (Snecks): Spalls or snecks are the chips of stones used to fill up the empty spaces in the stone
masonry.

2
18. Quoins : The external corners or angles of a wall surface are called as quoins and the stones or bricks
forming the quoins are known as quoin stones or quoin bricks.
19. Bond : An arrangement of layers of stones or bricks by which no continuous vertical joints are formed is
called bond, as shown in fig. 2.6.

20. Through stones (Bond stones) : In stone work, some stones at regular intervals are placed right across
the wall are called as through stones (as shown in fig. 2.7).
21. Jambs : Jambs are the sides of the openings such doors, windows, etc. These are constructed similar to
quoins (as shown in fig. 2.8(a), (b) and (c)).

3
22. Reveals : The exposed vertical surfaces at right angles to the door or window frames are known as the
reveals.
23. Heads : The horizontal stones provided at the top of openings for doors, windows, etc., known as heads
or lintles.
24. Stoolings : Stoolings are the horizontal seatings which are provided to receive jambs and mullions.
25. Label : Label is a projecting course from an arch or window head.
26. Apex : The coping provided at the summit of a gable wall is known as an apex.
27. Skew corbel : The corbel provided below a gable coping is called as a skew corbel. (Refer fig. 2.9).
28. Kneeler : Kneeler is the coping between apex and skew corbel in case of a gable wall.

29. Springer : Springer is the coping provided at the foot of the gable wall.

30. Finial : An ornamental finish to an apex or summit stone is known as finial.

31. Buttress : Buttress is a sloping or a stepped pier and it is provided to work as lateral support of the wall
as shown in fig. 2.12(a) and (b).

32. Pilaster or Pier : Pilaster is a right angled columnar projection from a wall to support beams, lintles, arch
etc.

33. Face : The surface of the wall exposed to the weather is known as the face.

34. Facing : The material which is used in the face of the wall is called as facing.
35. Back : The inner surface of wall which is not exposed to the weather is known as the back.

36. Backing : The material used in the formation of the back of the wall is known as the backing.

37. Hearting : The portion of a wall between facing and backing is known as the hearting.

38. Frog : It is the depression on top face of a brick, which provides a races for the mortar which on setting
forms a key and prevents the brick displacement over it. As shown in fig. 2.10(a).

39. Closer: It is the portion of the brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut. Thus, a
closer is a header of small width.

4
40. Queen closer : These are half bricks cut lengthwise. It is used along the length of a quoin for staggering
joints of alternate courses as shown in fig- 2.11(a).
41. King closer : These are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece between the
centre of one end and centre of one side, as shown in fig. 2.11(a).

5
42. Bevelled closer : It is the portion of a brick in which the whole length of the brick is bevelled for
maintaining half width at one end and full width at the other, as shown in fig. 2.11(b).
43. Mitred closer: It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for the full width, as shown in fig.
2.11(b).
44. Bull nose : The brick moulded with rounded angle is known as bull nose, as shown in fig. 2.11(c).

45. Bat: It is the piece of brick, usually considered in relation to the length of a brick accordingly known as
half bat and three quarter bat, as shown in fig. 2.11(d).

46. Toothing : The termination of a wall in such a way that each alternative course at the end projects is
known as toothing.
47. Crown nose : A brick moulded with a double bullnose on end is known as a crown nose.
48. Bed : Lower surface of the brick when laid flat is known as bed.
49. Lap : The horizontal distance between the vertical joints in successive courses is known as lap.

6
50. Header : This is a brick laid with its bredth or width parallel to the face or front or direction of the wall.
Thus a brick laid as header will show its face measuring 10 cm x 10 cm for a modular brick. The course
containing headers is called header course.
51. Stretcher : This is a brick with its length parallel to the face or front or direction of a wall. Thus a brick
laid as stretcher will show its face measuring 10 cm x 20 cm for a modular brick. The course containing
stretchers is called stretcher course.
52. Perpend : A vertical joint on the face of the wall directly over vertical joint in alternate course is known
as perpend.
53. Racking back : The process of slopping the unfinished end of the wall in stepped fashion is known as
racking back.
54. Joint : It is the place where two or more bricks or stones meet during construction. Joints perpendicular
to the face of the wall is known as cross joint or vertical joint. The joints parallel to the bed of bricks or
stones known as bed joint or horizontal joint.
55. Bond : It is a term applied to the over-lapping of bricks or stones in a wall in alternate courses, to bind the
whole wall together.
56. Template : A block of stone or concrete provided under a beam or girder to distribute the concentrated
load over a greater area of the bearing surface is known as template.
57. Freeze : It is the course of stone placed immediately below the cornice, along the external face of the wall,
intended to improve the appearance of the wall.

58. Parapet: It is the portion of low height wall constructed along the edges of the roof to protect the
users, as shown in fig. 2.12(c).
59. Offsets : These are narrow horizontal surfaces which are formed by reducing the thickness of the wall.
Wall of the tall buildings are formed with offsets, as shown in fig. 2.12(c).

7
STONE MASONRY:
It is the construction of a building or structures using the stones.
Types of Stones used for Different Purposes :
Purposes Stones
1. Lime stone and sand stone. General building work.
2. Marbel, granite and closed grained sand stones. Face work of the building.
3. Fine graned granite and gneisses. Heavy engineering works carrying high pressure.
4. Granite, compact sand stone, quartzite, etc. In industries exposing to smoke and chemical fumes.
5. Marbel, sand stone, laterite. Carvings and ornamental works.
6. Slate, marbel, sand stones. Pavings, door grills, steps.
7. Compact sand stone. Fire resistant masonry.

Uses of Stone Masonry :

a) Construction of buildings, structures, dams, etc.
b) Building foundations, piers, columns, pillers etc.
c) Architectural works.
d) Arches, domes, lintles.
e) Floors, roofs, paving works, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY :
Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction, degree of reinforcement used in
shaping the stone and finishing adopted. Stone masonry can be classified as follows :
1. Rubble masonry.
2. Ashlar masonry.
Rubble Masonry:
In the rubble masonry, stones that are used may be dressed or undressed. These masonry has a wide
joints due to irregular sizes of stones.

8
Types :
Rubble masonry are of following types :
1. Uncoursed random rubble.
2. Coursed random rubble.
3. Square rubble.
a) Uncoursed
b) Built to courses
c) Regular coursed
4. Dry rubble masonry.
5. Polygonal rubble masonry.
6. Flint rubble masonry.
The strength of the rubble masonry mainly depends on three factors :
 The quality of the mortar.
 Proper filling of mortar between the spaces of stones.
 The use of long through stones at frequent intervals.

1. Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry :

 The rubble masonry in which the stones are not of uniform size and shapes and are laid without forming
courses is known as uncoursed rubble masonry.
 This is the roughest and cheapest form of stone walling. In this case long continuous vertical joints are
avoided and sound bond should be available both tranversely as well as longitudinally.
 These masonry are used for ordinary houses and low boundary walls.

2. Coursed Random Rubble Masonry :

In this masonry, the stone heights vary from 50 mm to 200 mm and stones are sorted out before the
work commences. The masonry work is carried out in courses such that the stones in a particular course are
of equal heights. Such type of masonry work is used in construction of residential buildings, public buildings,

9
etc. The coursed rubble masonry is further divided into first class, second class and third class masonry. In
first class masonry, all the courses are of same height and minimum height is normally limited to 15 cm. The
face stones are dressed by means of a hammer and the buildings do not projected by more than 40 mm. The
thickness of mortar joint does not exceed 10 mm. In second class masonry stones used are of different heights.
Courses need not be of equal height. The thickness of mortar joint is 12 mm. In third class masonry, stones
used are of different heights, the minimum being 50 mm courses need not be of equal heights and thickness
of the mortar joint is 16 mm.
3. Square Rubble Masonry :
a) Uncoursed (square-snecked rubble): Square rubble masonry uses stones of straight bed and sides. The
stones are generally squared and brought to hammer dressed or straight cut finish. In uncoursed square
rubble masonry. The stones are arranged on face in several irregular pattern with good appearance using
risers (large stones) leveller (thinner stones) sneck or check (small stones) in a pattern, having their depths
in the ratio of 3:2:1 respectively as shown in fig. 2.15.

b) Build to courses : This masonry also uses the same stones, but the work is levelled upto courses of
varying depth. The courses are of different heights, each course may consists of quoins, jamb stones,
bonders, and throughs of same height, with smaller stones built in between them up to the height of larger
stones, to complete the course as shown in fig. 2.16.
c) Regular coursed - coursed rubble masonry : In this case, the wall built with various courses of varying
heights, but the height of stones in one particular course is the same. When the height of the courses is
equal it is usually called as coursed rubble masonry (CR masonry) as shown in fig. 2.17

10
4. Dry Rubble masonry
It is that rubble masonry, made to courses, in which mortar is not used in the joints. This type of
masonry is the cheapest, and more skill is required in construction. This type may be used for non load
bearing walls, like compound wall as shown in fig. 2.18.

5. Polygonal rubble masonry:

In this case the stones are of hammer finished on face to an irregular polygonal shape. These stones
are bedded in position to show face joints running irregularly in all directions as shown in fig. 2.19(a) and
(b). Fig. 2.19(a) shows, stones are roughly shaped resulting in rough fitting and fig. 2.19(b) shows, stones
are formed so that they fit more closely.
6. Flint rubble masonry :
This masonry uses flint or cobbles stones which vary in width and thickness from 7.5 to 15 cm.
These are usually irregularly shaped nodules of silica. The stones are very hard, but they are brittle,
therefore they may break easily. The face arrangement of the cobbles may be either coursed or uncoursed
or built to courses as shown in fig. 2.20.

11
Ashlar Masonry :

Ashlar masonry uses blocks of accurately dressed stone with extremely fine bed and end joints. The
blocks may be square or rectangular shaped. Generally the stone heights vary from 25 to 30 cm. The blocks
height in each course is kept equal but it is not necessary to keep all the courses at the same height.
These are of following types :
1. Ashlar fine tooled
2. Ashlar rough tooled
3. Ashlar rock, rustic or quarry faced
4. Ashlar block in course
5. Ashlar facing
6. Ashlar chamfered.

1. Ashlar Fine tooled Masonry :

(Refer fig. 2.21) This is the superior quality, costlier and finest type of stone masonry. Every stone is
cut to regular and required size and shape, so as to have all sides rectangular and give perfectly horizontal and
vertical joints with adjoining stone. The beds, joints and faces are chisel dressed, so that all waviness and
unevenness is completely removed and a fairly smooth surface is obtained.

In this case, the size of the stones to be laid in regular courses should not be less than 300 mm in height.
The thickness of mortar joint is kept uniform throughout and it should not be more than 5 mm. The exposed
joints are finely pointed. The thickness of courses is generally not less than 15 cm.

2. Ashlar Rough Tooled (Bastard Ashlar) :

In this masonry, the beds and sides of each stone block are finely dressed with chisel, but the exposed
face is dressed by rough tooling. A strip, about 25 mm wide is provided around the perimeter by the chisel.
The rough tooled face when tested with a straight edge 600 mm in length, should not show any point on
the surface to vary by more than 3 mm in any direction. The thickness of mortar should not be more than
6 mm.

12
3. Ashlar Rock Faced (Rustic or Quarry Faced) :

In this masonry, exposed face of the stone is not dressed but is kept such that it has to give rock facing.
However, a strip of about 25 mm wide, is made by chisel around the perimeter of the exposed face of
every stone. The projections on the exposed face (known as bushing) exceeding 800 mm in height are
removed by light hammering. Each block of stone is truly to its size, with perfectly straight side face and
beds, and truly rectangular in shape, height of each block may vary from 15 cm to 30 cm. The thickness
of mortar joint may be upto 10 mm.

4. Ashlar Block in Course Masonry :

This masonry is intermediate between ashlar masonry and rubble masonry. The stone faces are dressed
with hammer, and height of blocks is kept the same in any course. The vertical joints are not as straight
and as fine as in ashlar masonry. The depth of courses may vary from 15 to 30 cm. This type of masonry
is adopted in heavy works such as retaining walls, bridges, etc.

5. Ashlar Facing Masonry :

In this masonry, the facing is constructed with stones as backing may be of brick masonry, to give
better appearance. The sides and beds of each block are properly dressed to make them to true shape. The
exposed faces of stone are rough tooled and chamfered as shown in fig. 2.22.

6. Ashlar Chamfered Masonry :

This is the rock-faced ashlar masonry in which the strip provided around the perimeter of the exposed
face is chamfered to an angle 45° by using chisel to a depth of 25 mm. Because of this, a groove is formed in
between adjacent blocks of stone. Around this bevelled strip, another strip of 15 cm is dressed with the help
of chisel. The space inside this strip is kept rock faced except that large bushings in excess of 80 mm
projections are removed by a hammer.

13
Points (General Principles) to be kept in Mind while Supervising Stone Masonry Work:
Following points have to be keep in mind while supervising the stone work :
1. The stone to be used should be strong, tough, hard and confirm to the specifications of the work.
2. The stones should be free from defects such as cracks, flaws, cavities, veins, etc.
3. The stones are well watered before use, and they do not absorb the water of the mortar.
4. All the stones should be laid on their natural bed.
5. The stones are properly dressed as per specification requirements.
6. Bond should be properly maintained. Formation of vertical joints should be avoided.
7. No tensile stresses should be allowed to develop in the masonry.
8. The stone masonry should be as per specifications of the work.
9. The mortar should be of good quality with proper proportion.
10. Masonry work should be raised uniformly. But when this is not possible or when a cross-wall is
intended to be inserted after sometime, the steps or toothings or recesses should be provided as shown
in 2.23 and 2.24.

11. In the stone work, the chips, broken stones, etc., should not be used.
12. The double scaffolding must be adopted for stone work at higher level.
13. The stone work should be carried out as per line and level.
14. The vertical faces should be checked by means of a plumb bob and the inclined surfaces should be
checked by using wooden tamplates.
15. The exposed joints should be properly pointed by cement or lime mortar.
16. The surface should be cleaned and wetted before starting the new construction over the old or dry one.
17. Quoins used to form jambs of doors and windows should have full height of the course.
18. Facing and backing of the wall should be well bound by through stones.
19. After the construction is over, the whole work should be well watered (cured) atleast for 2 to 3 weeks.

14
JOINTS IN STONE MASONRY
 In masonry, joints are the spaces between stones, that are filled with mortar or grout.
 joints can be made in a series of different fashions.
 In stone masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness, shape, size.
TYPES OF JOINTS
1. Butt joint
2. Reabated joint or Lapped joint
3. Table joint or Bed joint
4. Cramped joint
5. Plug joint
6. Dowel joint
7. Rusticated joint
8. Joggle joint
1. Butt joint
 In this type of joint, the dressed edges of two stones are placed side by side.

2. Reabated joint
 This type of joint is provided in arches, gables, copings, etc. where the stones are laid on slopes
to prevent the movement of one stone over the other by sliding.

3. Table joint
 This type of joint is provided in sea wall, etc. to prevent the lateral movement of stones.
 The joint is formed by making a joggle in the bed of stone.
 The height of projection is kept 30 to 40 mm, and the width is kept equal to 1/3 rd the width of the
stone.

15
4.Cramped joint
 In this type of joints, the metal cramps are used to prevent the tendency of the joint to be pulled
apart.
 The dovetail shape holes are made in the both stones to be joined.
 The cramps are usually made of non-corrosive metals, such as gunmetal, copper, etc.
 After placing the cramp in position, the joint is grouted and covered with cement, lead or asphalt.

Fig.cramped joint fig.metal cramp

5.Plug joint
 The plug joint is an alternatively of cramp joint.
 It consists of plug holes of dovetail shape in plan and cut below the top surface of stones.
 The stones are joined by filling the holes with cement or lead.

Fig.plug joint
6. Dowel joint
 This type of joint is used to ensure the stability of the adjacent stones against displacement or sliding.
 The joint is formed by cutting the rectangular holes in both the stones and interesting the dowels made
of slate, gun metal, copper or brass.
 The dowels are set in cement mortar.

16
 fig.dowel joint
7. Rusticated joint
 This type of joints are generally used in plinths or masonary in lower storeys of buildings to give the
structure splendid appearance.

8. Joggle joint
 The joggle-joint is made of metal or slate, which is placed between the groove provided in two adjacent
stones; to prevent sliding along the side joints.

17
BONDS USED IN BRICK MASONRY :
Bond is the interlacement of bricks, formed when lay immediately below or above them. It is the method
of arranging the bricks in courses so that individual units are tied together. The bricks being of uniform size
can be arranged conveniently in a variety of forms. Some rules to be followed for getting good bond are :
1. The bricks should be uniform in size, so as to get uniform lap.
2. The amount of lap should be minimum 1/4 brick along the length of the wall and 1/2 brick across the
thickness of the wall.
3. Use of brick bats should be minimum as possible.
4. The arrangement of bricks should be uniform.
5. The vertical joints in the alternate courses be along the same perpend.
6. The stretchers should be used only in the facing, the hearting should be done in headers only.
7. It is preferable to provide every six course as a header course on both the sides of the wall.

ADVANTAGES OF BRICK MASONRY FOR THE CONSTRUCTION:

Followings are the reasons for which brick masonry is easy to construct:
1. They do not require dressing.
2. The bricks are of uniform size and shape and these can be used in definite pattern.
3. The bricks are small units and easy to handle.
4. The bricks are very light in weight.
5. They can be manufactured at all sites and can be stored conveniently.
6. They do not need any lifting appliances.

TYPES OF BONDS :
Following are the different types of bonds used in brick work :
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond
5. Facing bond
6. English cross bond
7. Brick on edge bond
8. Dutch bond
9. Raking bond
10. Zigzag bond
11. Garden wall bond.

18
1. Stretcher Bond :
In the stretcher bond all the bricks are laid with their lengths in the direction of the wall. This pattern
is used only for those walls which have thickness of half brick (i.e. 9 cm) such as those used in partition walls,
sleeper walls, division walls etc., as shown in fig. 2.25.

2. Header Bond :
In header bond all the bricks are laid with their headers towards the faces of the walls. The width of the
brick are thus along the direction of the wall. This pattern is used only when thickness of the wall is equal to
one brick (i.e. 18cm) It is suitable for construction of curved wall and footings for proper load distribution as
shown in fig. 2.26.

3. English Bond :
It is most popular bond and it is chiefly used for all walls of thickness ranging from 20 cm and above.
This bond is considered as the strongest one. This bond consists of alternative courses of headers and
stretchers. Vertical joints of the header courses come over each other, similarly, the vertical joints of the
stretcher courses also come over each other. In order to break the vertical joints in the successive courses, it
is essential to place queen closer after the first header in each heading course. Also, only headers are used for
the hearting of thicker walls as shown in fig. 2.27(a) and (b).

19
Essential Features of English Bond :
1. Every alternate header should be placed centrally over the joint between two stretchers in course.
2. Alternate courses will show either headers or stretcher in elevation.
3. Continuous vertical joints should not be allowed except at stopped end.
4. In stretcher course, the stretchers have a minimum lap of l/4lh their length over headers.
5. If the wall thickness equivalent to an even number of half bricks, the wall present the same appearance
on both faces.
6. The hearting middle portion of each of the thicker walls consists entirely of headers.
7. Every alternate transverse joint is continuous from face to face.
8. A header course should never start with queen's closer, as it will get displaced. The queen's closer
should be placed just next to the quoin header. Queen's closers are not required in stretcher courses.
9. The joint in the header course are made thinner than the joints in the stretcher course, because the
number of vertical joints in the header course are twice the number of vertical joints in the stretcher
course.
4. Flemish Bond :
In this bond, each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers. Every alternate course starts with
a header at the corner (i.e., quoin header). Quoin closers are placed next to the quoin header in alternate
courses to get the face lap. Each header is centrally supported over the stretcher below it. The flemish bond is
divided into two types :

20
 a. Double flemish bond.
b. Single flemish bond.

1. Double flemish bond :

In this bond, each course presents the same appearance both in the front face as well as in the back
face. Alternate header and stretcher are laid in each course, due to this, this bond presents better appearance
than English bond as shown in fig. 2.28. Quoin closers are used next to quoin headers in every alternate course.
Bricks bats are used in case of walls having thickness equivalent to odd number of half bricks.

2. Single flemish bond :

It is the combination of english and flemish bond Le., double flemish bond facing and english bond
backing and hearting in each course. This bond uses strength of english bond and appearance of flemish bond.
This bond is used for walls having thickness at least equal to 1 1 / 2 brick, as shown in fig. 2.30.

21
Main Features of Flemish Bond :

1. Every course consists of headers and stretchers placed alternatively.

2. Every header is supported centrally over the stretcher below it.
3. Unavoidable short continuous vertical joints are formed.
4. The construction of this bond requires skilled labour.
5. Large number of brick bats used, particularly when the thickness of wall is an odd number of half bricks.

Comparison of English Bond and Flemish Bond (Merits and Demerits) :

English Bond
1. It is stronger for wall thicker than 1 1/2 bricks.
2. Less pleasing appearance.
3. It requires more mortar, as the broken bricks cannot
be used in the form of bats.
4. It requires less skill than flemish bond for
construction.
5. Headers and stretchers are laid in alternate courses.
6. There is no vertical joints in the structure.
7. Progress of the work is more.
Flemish Bond
1. It is weaker for wall thicker than 1 1/2 bricks.
2. More pleasing appearance.
3. It requires less morter, as the broken bricks can be
used in the form of bats.
4. It requires greater skill for construction.
5. Headers and stretchers are laid in each course
alternatively.
6. Partly continuous vertical joints in structure.
7. Progress of the work is less.

22
TYPES OF WALLS

Wall is one of the most essential components of a building. The primary function of a wall is to
enclose or divide space of the building to make it more functional and useful. Walls provide privacy, afford
security and give protection against heat, cold, sun and rain. Walls provide support to floors and roofs. Walls
should therefore be so designed as to have provision of adequate
( i ) Strength and stability ( i i ) weather resistance
iii) Durability ( i v ) fire resistance
v ) Thermal insulation and ( v i ) sound insulation.
A wall may be defined as a vertical load-bearing member, Walls may be basically divided into two
types:
( a ) Load-bearing, and
(b) Non-load bearing.

Each type may further be divided into external (or enclosing) walls and internal or divide walls.
Load-bearing walls are those which are designed to carry super-imposed loads (transferred through roofs etc.),
in addition to their own weight (self weight).
Non-load- bearing walls carry their own- load only. They generally serve as divide walls or partition walls
The external non-load-bearing wall, commonly related to framed structures is termed as panel wall (Fig. a ) .

A partition wall is a thin internal wall which is constructed to divide the space within the building into
rooms or areas. It may either be non-load-bearing or load bearing. A load-bearing partition wall is called an
internal wall.
A party wall is a wall separating adjoining buildings belonging to different owners or occupied by
different persons. It may, or may not, be load-bearing.
A separating wall is a wall separating different occupancies within the same building.

23
 A curtain wall is a self-supporting wall carrying no other vertical loads but subject to lateral loads. It
may be laterally supported by vertical or horizontal structural members where necessary (Fig. b).
Cross-wall construction is a particular form of load-bearing wall construction in which all the loads are
carried by internal walls, running at right angles to the length of the building.
Load bearing walls may further be divided into the following types :
a) Solid masonry wall
b) Cavity wall
c) Faced wall
d) Veneered wall.
Solid masonry walls are the one most commonly used. These walls are built of individual blocks of
material, such as bricks, clay or concrete blocks, or stone, usually in horizontal courses, cemented together with
suitable mortar. A solid wall is constructed of the same type of building units throughout its thickness. However, it
may have openings for doors, windows etc.
A cavity wall is a wall comprising two leaves, each leaf being built of structural units and separated by a
cavity and tied together with metal ties or bonding units to ensure that the two leaves act as one structural unit. The
space between the leaves is either left as a continuous cavity or is filled with non-load-bearing insulating and water
proofing material.
A faced wall is a wall in which the facing and backing are of two different materials which are bonded
together to ensure common action under load.
A veneered wall is a wall in which the facing is attached to the backing but not so bonded as to result in
a common action under load.

PARTITION WALLS:

The partition wall is a thin wall or a screen wall which is constructed to divide the space within the
building into rooms or areas. Usually, the partition walls are non-load bearing. A load bearing partition wall
is called an internal wall. The partition wall can be constructed either on ground floor or upper floor, the
partitions rest either on flooring concrete or on beams spanning between the main walls. Generally the
partitions are designed to carry their own weight only, sometimes, they may act as support for floor joists,
roof trusses etc.

Requirements of Good Partition Walls :

1. It should be strong enough to carry its own load,
2. It should be strong enough to resist impact load of the building.
3. It should have capacity to support suitable decorative surface.
4. It should be strong enough to support wall fixtures, wash basins etc
5. It should be light in weight as possible.

24
6. It should be thin as possible.
7. It should be act as a sound barrier when it divides the rooms.
8. It should be fire resistant.
Advantages of Partition Walls :
Following are the advantages of partition walls :
1. The partion wall provides privacy for the users in the same room.
2. It separates the large area into number of small rooms.
3. These are cheap and light in construction.
4. They are easy to construct and to repaire.
5. They accupy lesser area of the floor space.
Types of Partition Walls :
Following are the partition walls :
1. Brick partition.
2. Concrete block partition.
3. Glass partition.
4. Plywood partition.
5. Hard board partition.
6. Clay block partition.
7. Timber partition.
8. Metal partition.
9. Plaster slab partition.
10. Asbestos cement sheet partition.
11. Wood wool slab partition.

1. Brick Partitions :
Generally, the brick partition is commonly used since they are cheapest, the half brick partitions are very
common and are constructed in stretcher bond with cement mortar. If the partition length between the walls is
exceeds 2 m, an intermediate single brick pillers are provided at a regular intervals of 1.5 m to 2 m. The
partitions may be plain, reinforced or brick nogged.

a) Plain brick partition : In this partition, the bricks are laid as stretchers, in cement mortar. Vertical
joints are staggered alternate blocks. The wall is plastered on both the sides. This wall is stronger and fire
resistant as shown in fig. 2.40.

25
 b) Reinforced brick partitions : These partitions are used when better longitudinal bond is required
and when the partition wall has to carry other super imposed loads. These partitions are stronger than plain
brick partitions. In this partition wall every third course consist of steel mesh strip reinforcement or steel bars
are provided as shown in fig. 2.41. These are durable and stronger.

c) Brick nogging partitions : This wall consists of brick work (1/2 brick thickness) built up within the
frame work of wooden members. The timber frame work consists of sill, head, vertical members called studs
and horizontal members called nogging pieces as shown in fig. 2.42.

26
2. Concrete Block Partition :
Partition wall can be constructed by using concrete blocks which may be either precast hollow concrete
blocks, plane concrete or reinforced cement concrete. Hollow concrete blocks may be either precast or cast-
in-situ. These blocks are made from dense aggregates and intended for load bearing walls. There is no standard
size of the concrete blocks, depending upon various job requirements the sizes of the blocks are decided, but
recommended thickness of hollow blocks atleast be 5 cm and common sizes may be 39 cm x 19 cm x 30 cm,
39 cm x 19 cm x 20 cm and 39 cm x 19 cm x 10 cm. The hollow concrete blocks are generally used for
partition walls or screened walls in multistoreyed structural buildings. The blocks may be

plain rectangular or keyed grooves on the sides for joining the block rigidly during construction.
Advantages of Concrete Block Partition Walls Over Brick Partition Walls :
1. Concrete blocks are hollow blocks and are regular in size which saves the material.
2. Requires no dressing work, hence construction becomes rapid.
3. Light in weight and easy to handle.
4. The blocks are generally larger in size, which reduces the number of joints and morter requirement.
5. Hollow blocks are structurally stronger than bricks.
6. Blocks can with stand atmospheric actions, and do not require plastering or facia work.
7. Hollow blocks offers better insulation against sound, heat and aampness.
8. Less skilled labour can be used for construction.
9. Because of light in weight, the leads transferred to the foundation is much less.

3. Glass Partition :
The glass partition wall can be constructed either by glass sheet or hollow glass blocks.

a) Glass sheet partition : In this case, a wooden frame works are used in which glass sheets are fixed. The
glass sheets are kept in position in the penels either by using

27
timber bedings or by putty prepared by linseed oil and whiting chalk as shown in fig. 2.44. Such partitions
are light in weight, sound proof and damp proof. The glass may be of ordinary one, strong wired glass, bullet
proof glass, three play glass, etc.
b) Hollow block partition : The hollow glass blocks are translucent units, light in weight and available
in different sizes and shapes with a normal thickness of 10 cm. The joining edges are painted internally and
sanded externally to form a key for mortar. The front and back faces may be either decorative or plain. These
blocks are usually laid in cement-lime mortar (1:1:4), using fine sand, all joints are filled carefully. For blocks
upto 15 cm in height, expanded metal strip reinforcement is placed in every third or fourth course. If the block
height is more than 25 cm, the reinforcement is placed in every course provisions for expansions should also
be provided along the jambs and head of each panel. A glass blocks with joggles and end grooves are also
used as shown in fig. 2.45.

28
Advantages of Hollow Glass Blocks Partition Walls :
These are decorative with different colours.
1. Light in weight and fast in construction.
2. Easily cleaned and replaced if any damage.
3. These are transperant, sound proof, damp proof, fire proof with neat appearance.
4. Consumes less space of the floor area.
4. Plywood Partitions :
The plywood partition walls are fast in construction, light in weight and cheap in cost. The plywoods
are manufactured by cementing several layers of wood together which may be a thick boards or thin veneers.
The partition wall consists of wooden frame having several horizontal and vertical members supported firmly
on floor or fixed to the side walls. The sheets of plywood are inserted into the grooves of these panels and
joints are finished with putty.
Advantages :
1. Good decorative appearance.
2. Light in weight, fast in construction and economical in cost.
3. Greater strength and less affected by atmospheric action.
4. High resistant to warping and cracking.
5. Good stiffness and rigidity.
6. These are available in large sizes.
Disadvantages :
1. Less fire resistant.
2. Less damp proof and termite proof.
3. Require proper maintenance.

5. Hard Board or Straw Board Partitions :

In hard board partitions, the slabs are prepared from compressed straw and glue and covered with thick
paper or hard board. These slabs have good heat and sound insulation and the partitions of these slabs can be
very easily constructed. These partitions are useful at places where frequent removal of partitions is required.

29
Advantages :
1. These are hard pressed, therefore they are strong and durable.
2. They provide good appearance and fine finish to the structures.
3. They are less affected by atmospheric actions.
Comparison of Stone and Brick Masonry :
Following are the merits and demerits of stone and brick masonry.
Merits of Brick Work :
1. Generally, the brick masonry is cheaper than stone masonry and can be constructed easily.
2. Bricks are available easily and construction can be done without any problem.
3. No lifting devices are necessary for bricks.
4. The bricks can resist the fire better manner.
5. In brick work, the mortar joints are thin and hence the structure becomes durable.
6. The brick wall of small thickness about 100 to 200 mm, can be easily constructed. The minimum
thickness of stone wall is usually 300 mm.
7. Bricks are easily moulded to desired shape at reasonable cost than stone.
Demerits of Brick Work :
1 . The brick work is less water tight than the stone work.
2 . The brick work does not create solid appearance as the stone work.
3 . Stone work is more useful than brick work.
4 . Stone work is stronger than brick work.
5 . Better architectural appearance can be possible by stone work.
6 . The stone work becomes cheaper in the place where stones are available easily.

CAVITY WALLS :
Cavity wall is a wall which consists of two walls called as skins separated by a hollow space called as
cavity. The skins are commonly masonry such as brick or concrete block and they may be of equal thickness
if it is a non-load bearing wall, or internal skin may be thicker than the external skin, to meet the structural
requirements.
The two portions of the wall may be connected together by metal pins or bonding bricks at suitable
interval. These walls are generally constructed for giving better thermal insulation to the building. it also
prevents the dampness to enter and acts as sound insulation, therefore they are normally the outer walls of the
building. Normally the size of the cavity varies from 4 to 10 cm. The inner and outer skins should not be less
than 10 cm each. The cavity walls are also known as hollow walls.

Advantages of Cavity Walls :

Following are the advantages of cavity walls :
1) They cannot allow the external moisture to enter into the building.

30
2) The air gap between the walls acts as a bad conductor of heat, therefore the entering of external heat
into the room is very much reduced.
3) They resist wind driven rain.
4) They offer good insulation against the sound.
5) The nuisance and efflorescence is also considerably reduced.
6) Cheaper in construction and economical.
7) Reduced load over the foundation due to lesser solid thickness.
General Features of Cavity Walls :
The general features of cavity walls can be explained with the help of fig. 2.37 which shows the cavity
walls for flat and pitched roof.

31
 1) For brick cavity walls, each skin is half brick thick and are capable of taking load of two storeyed
building of the domestic type.
2) For heavier loads, the thickness of inner skin can be increased in the multiple of half brick thickness.
3) The cavity should neither be less than 40 mm nor more than 100 mm in width.
4) The inner and outer skins are adequately tied together by the spacial wall ties placed in suitable
arrangement, at the rate of at least five ties to a square metre of wall area.
5) The ties must be placed at distances apart not to exceed 450 mm vertically and 900 mm horizontally
(according to the building regulations of U.K.).
6) The ties are staggered.
7) The ties must be placed at 300 mm vertical intervals at all angles and doors and window jumbs to
increase stability.
8) A flexible vertical damp proof course must be provided at window and door reveals to prevent
moisture to enter in to the wall cavity.
9) Ventilation of the cavity must be provided by the use of air bricks and ducts.
10) Damp proof-course (D.P.C) course should be provided below the floor level and above at least 150
mm above ground to prevent the water from the floor to enter into the cavity.
Construction of Cavity Walls :
Normally, the cavity wall is set centrally over the concrete base, without any footings. As per I.S.
recommendations, the lower portion of the cavity may be filled with lean concrete upto a few centimetres
above the existing ground level. The top of the filling is sloped as shown in fig. 2.37(iii) with weep holes at 1

32
m intervals along the outer skin of the wall. The inner skin may be of common bricks and the outer skin with
any designed kind of facing bricks. The two skins are tied together with wall ties.

For the construction of cavity wall, the stretcher bond is used for half brick skins and any ordinary bond
like English bond or Flemish bond for skins which are one brick or more in thickness. When the solid walls
are joining cavity walls as shown in fig. 2.38, the stretchers in the solid wall extended half brick into the inner
skin of the cavity wall with a good bonding.

Laying of bricks should be done carefully to leave the cavity free from morter dropings and two skins
of the wall should be raised uniformly and simultaneously. The wall ties should be positioned to have uniform
spacing in centres. The timber battens of 25 mm thick and about 12 mm width less than the cavity, resting
over the ties as shown in fig. 2.39. The battens can be lifted by means of rails or wires attached to the battens.
The batten is supported on wall ties and the brick is carried on either side of the batten up to the height of next
row of wall ties are to be provided. After this, the batten is lifted up and cleaned of morter droppings and
replaced over the wall ties of next row.

33
 MODULE -3

LINTEL AND ARCHES:

Definition, function and classification of lintels, Balconies, chejja and canopy.
Arches: - Elements and Stability of an Arch.
Floors and roofs:
Floors: - Requirement of good floor, Components of ground floor, Selection of flooring material, Laying of
Concrete, Mosaic, Marble, Granite, Tile flooring, Cladding of tiles.
Roof: - Requirement of good roof, Types of roof, Elements of a pitched roof, Trussed roof, King post Truss,
Queen Post Truss, Steel Truss, Different roofing materials, R.C.C Roof.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION
Openings are invariably left in the wall for the provision of doors, windows, cupboards, almirahs,
wardrobes, etc. These openings are bridged by the provision of either a lintel or an arch. Thus, both lintel as
well as arch are structural members designed to support the loads of the portion of the wall situated above the
openings, and then transmit the load to the adjacent wall portions (jambs) over which these are supported.
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the opening. A lintel is thus a sort of beam, the
width of which is equal to the width of the wall, and the ends of which are built into the wall. The bearing of
lintel should be the minimum of the following:
 10 cm.
 Height of lintel.
 1/10th to l/12th of the span of the lintel.
Lintels are simple and easy to construct, while special centering/ form work is required for the construction
of an arch. However, arches are constructed where
(i) loads are heavy,
(ii) span is more,
(iii) strong abutment are available, and
(iv) Special architectural appearance is required.
Through lintel: A lintel having thickness equal to that of the wall in which it is placed is known as through
lintel.
Cut Lintel: The lintel are required where there is openings like window, door, etc., are known as cut lintel.

CLASSIFICATION OF LINTELS
Lintels are classified into the following types, according to the materials of their construction:
1. Timber lintels.
2. Stone lintels.
3. Brick lintels.
4. Steel lintels

1
 5. Reinforced concrete lintels.

TIMBER LINTELS
Timber lintels are oldest types of lintels, though they are not commonly used now-a-days, except in
hilly areas. Timber lintels are relatively costlier, structurally weak and vulnerable to fire. They are also liable
to decay if not properly ventilated. Fig. (1) shows a wooden lintel provided, over the full width of the wall,

STONE LINTELS.
 Stone lintels are the most common types, specially where stone is abundantly available. Dressed stone
lintels give good architectural appearance.
 Stone lintels may be used in the form of either one piece or more than one piece along the width of the
wall.
 The depth of stone lintel is kept equal to 10 cm per meter of span, with a minimum of 15 cm. They are
used upto spans of 2 m.
 For wider spans, stone slabs are kept on edge. Stone is very weak in tension.
 Also, it cracks if subjected to vibratory loads. Hence stone lintels should be used with caution where
shock waves are quite common.

BRICK LINTELS

 Brick lintels are not structurally strong, and they are used only when the opening is small
(Less than 1 m) and loads are light.
 A brick lintel consists of bricks placed on end or edge, as shown in Fig. (a).
 A better way of forming brick lintel is shown in Fig. (b).
 The depth of brick lintel varies from 10 to 20 cm, depending upon the span.

2
REINFORCED BRICK LINTEL
 Where loads are heavy, or span is more, lintels may be made of reinforced brick work. The depth of such
lintel is kept equal to 10 cm, 15 cm thick brick lintel may be obtained by using 5 cm thick tiles in con-
junction with 10 cm thick bricks.
 Alternatively, bricks can be placed on edge. The bricks are so arranged that 2 to 3 cm wide space is left
lengthwise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of reinforcement (mild steel bars).
 The gap or joint is filled with 1: 3 cement mortar. Vertical shear stirrups of 6 mm dia. wire are provided
in every third vertical joint.
 Main reinforcement, provided at the bottom of the lintel, consists of 8 to 10 mm dia. bars, which are
cranked up at the ends

STEEL LINTELS

 Steel lintels are provided where the opening is large and where the super-imposed loads are also heavy.
 It consists of rolled steel joists or channel sections either used singly or in combination of two or three
units.
 When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete, or cladded with stone facing, so as to
increase its width to match with the width of the wall.
 When more than one units are placed side by side, they are kept in position by tube separators.

3
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.) LINTELS:

These lintels consists of reinforced cement concrete and these are fire-proof, durable, strong,
economical and easy to construct. Actually no relieving arches are required when R.C.C. lintels are adopted.
The usual concrete mix for R.C.C. lintel is 1:2:4
R.C.C. lintels can be used on any span. Its width is kept equal to the width of the wall. The depth of
R.C.C. lintel and the reinforcement depends upon the span and the magnitude of loading. Longitudinal
reinforcement, consists of mild steel bars provided near the bottom of lintel to take up tensile stresses. Half
of these bars are usually cranked up near the ends. The shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse shear.
A typical R.C.C. lintel as shown in fig. (a), (b) and (c). Fig. (c) Shows a R.C.C. lintel over a window along
with a chajja (sunshade) projection. R.C.C. lintels are also available as precast units. For cast-in-situ units
which are quite common, form work is required for construction.

SUNSHADES AND SUN BREAKERS:

In order to protect the doors, windows and ventilators of the building from direct sun rays or rain water,
usually a horizontal projections from the walls are provided with their lintels, these are called as sunshades.
Which are provided only in the external walls as shown in fig. (a) The size, position and tapering should be
suitably provided. The tapering is provided upwards to the depth of lintel an average projection of sunshade
ranging from 600 mm to 900 mm.
When the doors, windows and ventilators have their openings facing towards North or North-East, then the
horizontal sunshades provided on upper part of these openings serve their purpose of protecting from rains
and sunrays. But, if the openings of doors, windows and ventilators are facing towards, South, South-West or
West, then, the horizontal sunshades provided on the top of these openings to protect from sunrays and rain
are insufficient. In such cases, the vertical projections are provided along the sides of the windows in addition
to the horizontal sunshades. These are called as sun breakers as shown in fig. (b)
The size, position and inclination of these sun breakers are suitably designed depending on position of
the sun at peak hours.

4
 Fig (b) Sunbreaker
CANOPY:
Canopy is a cantilever projection provided from the face of the wall over an entry of the building at the
lintel or slab level. The shape of the canopy may be a rectangular, semi-circular or any other suitable shape to
make building very attractive. The canopy may be in such a way that:
1. It should not be projected beyond the plot line.
2. There should not be any structure over it and it should be left open to the sky.
3. It should not be lower than 2.3 m from the ground.
Sometimes, the canopies are provided to give pleasant appearance and to protect the building face from
sun and rain.
Necessity of Canopy:
Canopy is provided to:
i) give protection from the weather
ii) give decorative outlook
iii) Give protection from rain.
PORTICO :
A portico is a porch lending to the entrance of' a building, or extended as a colonnade with a roof
structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls.
Portico, actually means a walkway, an entrance with roof or simply a space right at front of the house
covered with extended roof which is designed and supported by pillars/walls.
Portico is just a place to enjoy the morning and evening tea and swing.
The different types of porticos are named by the number of columns they have and they are:
1. Tetrastyle : It is having a four columns and these are commonly employed for small structures such as
public buildings and temples.
2. Hexastyle : Hexastyle buildings had six columns and these are also used in temples and palace - like
buildings.
3. Octastyle : Octastyle buildings had eight columns and they are considerable rarer than the hexastyle
ones in the classical Greek architectural canon.

5
4. Decastyle : It is having ten columns and they were used in university college of london, parliament
buildings of some countries.
Necessity of Portico :
The portico for the buildings are made for the following purposes :
i) To give good outlook for the building.
ii) To provide protection for car parking.
iii) To provide common sitout for the building.
iv) To give the decorative seating to the building.
v) It serves a social purpose and provides your family with an outdoor living area.
PLINTH:
Plinth is a rectangular slab or block that forms the lowest part of the base of a column, statue, pedestal
or pier. It is also a lowest part of the wall of a building that appears above ground level. The main function
of a plinth is to transfer load to subsoil and to keep the ground floor above ground level and prevents the
surface water from entering the building.
PLINTH BEAM :
Plinth beam is the part of a structure which can transfer loads to the adjacent columns. It is the beam
laid above the foundation at plinth level. It is the first beam framework constructed in the skeletal structure.
A plinth beam is constructed depending upon the type of the structure of the building and nature of the
soil. It provides additional stability in regard to settlements of the building and earthquake damages. Generally
RCC plinth beams are preferred. In soft and water logged soils, if the earth settles downwards, the plinth may
face uneven settlement, in such case the RCC plinth beams are required.
GRADE BEAM :
A grade beam or grade beam footing is a component of a building's foundation. It consists of a reinforced
concrete beam that transmits the load from a bearing wall into spaced foundations such as pile caps or caissons
as shown in fig.

It is used in conditions where the surface soil's load bearing capacity is less than the anticipated design
loads. Grade beam is generally designed for bending and typically spans between pile caps or caissons. The
grade beam is reinforced to distribute the weight of wall of separate foundations.

6
 Grade beams may also be used in conjunction with spread footings, in a case with large moments from
lateral loads, in order to reduce the size of each spread footing.
Difference between Plinth Beams and Grade Beams:
Plinth Beams Grade Beams
1. Plinth beam is a part of structure. 1. Grade beam is a type of foundation system.
2. It is used to transfer the loads to the 2. It is used to distribute the weight of a building
adjacent columns. over unstable soil.
3. It is built over plinth. 3. It is built over the piles.
4. It is designed to span between 4. It is designed to span between pile to pile.
columns.

ARCHES :
An arch is a structure consists of wedge-shaped units (bricks or stones) joined together with mortar and
spanning an opening to support the weight of the wall and other super imposed loads on it.
Because of wedge-shape the units support each other, the load tends to make them compact and enables
them to transmit the entire load to their supports. Now a days the arches are made by steel and R.C.C. in a
single units without the use of wedge-shaped units and they are used for the bridge construction.
In most of the construction work, the arches are replaced by lintels due to simple and easy in construction
and lintels are more reliable than arches. Arches are generally used in construction where :
 Span is more.
 Heavy loads to be carried.
 Strong abutment are available and
 Special architectural appearance is required.

TERMS USED IN ARCHES :

The following definitions of technical terms used in connection with arch work as whon in fig. 3.5.
1) Intrados : It is the inner curve of an arch.
2) Soffit: It is the inner surface of an arch and it is sometimes also called as intrados.
3) Extrados : This is the outer curve of an arch.
4) Voussoirs : These are wedge-shaped units of masonry, forming an arch. These may be, bricks, stones
or plain cement concrent called as arch blocks.
5) Crown : It is the highest part of extrados.
6) Key : It is the wedge-shed unit fixed at crown (central part) of the arch.
7) Spandrel: This is the curved-triangular space formed between the extrados and horizontal line through
the crown.
8) Skew back : This is the inclined surface on the abutment, which is made to receive the arch and from
which the arch springs.
9) Springing points : These are the points from which the curve of the arch springs.

7
 10) Springing line : This is an imaginary line joining the springing points of either end.
11) Springer : It is the first voussoir at springing level : It is immediately adjacent to the skewback.
12) Abutment : It is the end support of an arch.
13) Pier : It is an intermediate support of an arcade.
14) Arcade : It is a row of arches in continuation,
15) Haunch : This is the lower half of an arch between the crown and skew back.
16) Ring : This is the circular course at the arch. An arch may be made up of one ring or more than one
ring.
17) Impost: It is the projecting course at the upper part of a pier or abutment to stress the springing line.
18) Bed Joints : These are the joints between the voussoirs which radiate from the centre.
19) Centre or Striking point: It is the geometrical centre of the curve of an arch.
20) Span : This is a clear horizontal distance between the supports.
21) Rise : It is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the springing line.
22) Depth or Height: This is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and extrados.
23) Thickness (or breadth of soffit): This is the horizontal distance measured perpendicular to the front
and back face of an arch.

STABILITY OF AN ARCH
An arch transmits the super-imposed load to the side walls (or abutments) through friction between
the surfaces of voussoirs and the cohesion of mortar. Every element of arch remains in compression. It has
also to bear transverse shear. An arch may therefore fail in the following ways :
(i) Crushing of the masonry
(ii) Sliding of voussoirs
(iii) Rotation of some joint about an edge and
(iv) Uneven settlement of abutment/pier.

8
 If the compressive stress or thrust exceeds the safe crushing strength of the materials (i.e.,
masonry units and mortar), the arch will fail in crushing. Hence, the material used for construction
should be of adequate strength, and the size of voussoirs should be properly designed to bear the thrust
transmitted through them. The height of voussoirs should not be less than l/12th the span. For span upto
1.5 m, 20 cm thick arch ring is provided, while for span between 1.5 to 4 m, 30 cm thickness is sufficient.
For span between 4 to 6.5 m, 40 cm thickness should be provided while for span more than 6.5 m, the
thickness at springing may be increased by about 20% of the thickness at the crown. Sometimes, voussoirs
of variable heights are provided-less height near crown and more height at skewback.
To safeguard against sliding of voussoirs past each other due to transverse shear, the voussoirs of
greater height should be provided. Also, the angle between the line of resistance of the arch and the normal
to any point should be less than angle of internal friction.
Rotation can be prevented if the line of resistance is kept within intrados and extrados. Also, the
line of thrust should be made to cross the joint away from the edge to prevent the crushing of that edge.
It should be within middle third of the arch height.
The uneven settlement of abutment may cause secondary stresses in the arch. Hence the
abutment, which has ultimately to bear all the loads transferred to it through the arch, should be strong
enough. Also, the arch should be symmetrical, so that unequal settlements of the two abutments is
minimised. Also, the abutment should be strong enough to take the thrust.

CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHES
An arch may be classified according to their:
1) Material of construction and workmanship
2) Shape of curve formed by their soffit or intrados
3) Number of centers.

Classification Based On Material and Workmanship

BRICK ARCHES
 Rough brick arches
 Axed brick arches
 Gauged brick arches
STONE ARCHES
 Rubble arches
 Ashlar arches
GAUGED ARCHES
 Precast concrete block arches
 Monolithic concrete arches

9
BRICK ARCHES
Rough Brick Arches (Fig. 13.24).
This type of arch is constructed with ordinary bricks, without cutting these to the shape of voussoirs.
In order to provide the arch curve, the joints are made wedge-shaped, with greater thickness at the extrados
and smaller thickness in intrados. Due to this, the appearance of the arch is spoiled. Therefore, this type of
arch is not used for exposed brick work.

Axed Brick Arches (Fig. 13.25)

In this arch, the bricks are cut wedge-shaped with the help of brick axe. Due to this the joints are of
uniform thickness along the radial line. However, the appearance of the arch is not very pleasant because the
bricks cut to wedge-shapes are not finely dressed.
Gauged Brick Arch
This type of arch is constructed of bricks which are prepared to exact size and shape of voussoir by
cutting it by means of wire saw. The surfaces of the bricks are fine dressed with the help of a file. For this,
only soft brick (called rubber bricks) are used. The joints formed in gauged brick arch are fine, thin (1 to 1.5
mm) and truly radial. Lime putty is used for jointing. Fig. 13.26 (a) shows a gauged brick flat arch while Fig.
13.26 (b) shows gauged bricks semi-circular arch.

STONE ARCHES
Rubble Arches
Rubble masonry arch is comparatively weak and is used for comparatively inferior work. These arches are
made of rubble stones^ which are hammer dressed, roughly to shape and size of voussoirs of the arch and
fixed in cement mortar. Rubble arches are used upto spans of 1 m. They are also used as relieving arches,
over wooden lintels. Up to a depth of 37.5 cm, these arches are constructed in one ring. For greater depths
(thickness), rubble stones are laid in two rings in alternate course of headers and stretchers.

10
Ashlar Arches
In this type, the stones are cut to proper shape of voussoirs, and are fully dressed, set in lime or cement
joints with proper bed joints. Upto depth of 60 cm, the voussoirs are made of full thickness of the arch. For
determining the wedged shapes of voussoirs, it is preferable to set out the arch on a level platform, marking
on it the keystone and voussoirs along with radial mortar joints. Fig. 13.22 shows some details of semicircular,
segmental and flat arches of ashlar stones.

GAUGED ARCHES
Precast Concrete Block Arches
Such arches are made from precast concrete blocks, each block being cast in the mould to the exact
shape and size of voussoirs. Special moulds are prepared for voussoirs, key block and skewbacks. Because of
exact shape and size of blocks, good appearance of the arch is achieved. Also, joints, made of cement mortar,
are quite thin. However, casting of blocks is costly, and such work is economical only when the number of
arches is quite large. Cement concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 mix is usually used.
Monolithic Concrete Arches.
Monolithic concrete arches are constructed from cast-in-situ concrete, either plain or reinforced,
depending upon the span and magnitude of loading. These arches are quite suitable for larger span. The arch
thickness is 15 cm for arches upto 3 m span.

11
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SHAPE
According to this classification, arches may be of the following types:
1) Flat arch 6) Venetian arch
2) Segmental arch 7) Florentine arch
3) Semi-circular arch 8) Relieving arch
4) Horse shoe arch 9) Stilled arch, and
5) Pointed arch or gothic arch 10) Semi-elliptical arch.

1. Flat Arch (Fig. a)

A flat arch has usually the angle formed by skewbacks as 60° with horizontal, thus forming an equilateral
triangle with intrados as the base. The intrados is apparently flat, but it is given a slight rise of camber of about
10 to 15 mm per metre width of opening to allow for small settlements. However, the extrados is kept
horizontal and flat. Flat arches are used only for light loads, and for spans upto 1.5 m.

2. Segmental Arch (Fig.b)

This is the common type of arch used for buildings. The centre of arch lies below the springing line.
The thrust transferred to the abutment is in an inclined direction.
3. Semi-circular Arch (Fig. c)
This is the modification of segmental arch in which the centre lies on the springing line. The shape of
the arch curve is that of a semi-circle. The thrust transferred to the abutments is perfectly in vertical direction
since the skewback is horizontal.
4. Horse Shoe Arch (Fig. d )
The arch has the shape of a horse shoe, incorporating more than a semi-circle. Such type of arch is
provided mainly from architectural considerations.
5. Pointed Arch ( Fig. e)
This is also known as Gothic arch. It consists two arcs of circles meeting at the apex. The triangle
formed may be equilateral or isosceles; in the latter case it is known lancet arch

12
6. Venetian Arch (Fig. a )
This is another form of pointed arch which has deeper depth at crown than at springing’s. It has four
centres, all located on the springing line.
7. Florentine Arch (Fig. b)
This is similar to Venetian arch except that the intrados is a semicircle. The arch has, thus three
centres, all located on the springing- line.
8. Relieving Arch (Fig. c)
This arch is constructed either on a flat arch or on a wooden lintel to provide greater strength. The
ends of the relieving arch should be carried sufficiently into the abutments. The relieving arch makes it
possible to replace the decayed lintel later, without disturbing the stability of the structure.
9. Stilted Arch (Fig. d )
It consists of a semi-circular arch with two vertical portions at the springing’s. The centre of the
arch lies on the horizontal line through the tops of the vertical portions.
10. Semi-Elliptical Arch (Fig. e)
This type of arch has the shape of a semi-ellipse and may have either three centres or five centres.

(e) Semi-Elliptical Arch

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF CENTRES
The arches may be classified as
(i) one-centred arch
(ii) two-centred arch
(iii) three-centred arch
(iv) four-centred arch and
(v) five-centred arch.

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1. One-centred arches. Segmental arches, semicircular arches, flat arches, horse-shoe arch and stilted arches
come under this category. Sometimes, a perfectly circular arch, known as bull's eye arch is provided for
circular windows, as shown in Fig.

2. Two-centred arches. Pointed arches come under this category. Semi-elliptical arch and florentine arch
come under this category.
3. Three-centred arches. Elliptical arches come under this category. Fig. shows a three-centred arch.

4. Four-centred arch It has four centres. Venetian arch is a typical example of this type. Another examples
are the Tudor arch (Fig.)

5. Five-centred arch. This type of arch, having five centres, gives a good semi- elliptical shape.

14
 MODULE -3

FLOORS AND ROOFS:

Floors: - Requirement of good floor, Components of ground floor, Selection of flooring material, Laying of
Concrete, Mosaic, Marble, Granite, Tile flooring, Cladding of tiles.
Roof: - Requirement of good roof, Types of roof, Elements of a pitched roof, trussed roof, King post Truss,
Queen Post Truss, Steel Truss, Different roofing materials, R.C.C Roof.

FLOORS
Floor is that part of a building on which the materials are stored and occupants move. Floors divide
the building into different levels for the purpose of creating accommodation within a restricted space one
above the other. The floor which is constructed on the ground level or very near to it is called Ground Floor.
The subsequent floors constructed above the ground floor are called first, second, third and so on floors. The
floors which are constructed below the ground level are called Basement floor.

COMPONENTS OF A FLOOR
A floor is composed of two elements:
 Sub-floor, base course of floor base,
 Floor covering/flooring.
The floor base is a structural component, which supports the floor covering. For the ground floor, the
object of floor base is to give proper support to the covering so that it does not settle, and to provide damp
resistance and thermal insulation.
Ground floor may either rest directly on the ground or may be supported a little distance above the ground.
The floors supported directly on the ground are known as solid floor as shown in fig (a) while the floors
supported above the ground level are called suspended floors as shown in fig (b) suspended floor are generally
made of timber.

The various types of floor commonly used are Timber floor, R.C.C. floor, Flat slab floor. Hollow tiled
ribbed floor, etc.

1
 SELECTION OF FLOORING MATERIAL / FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF
FLOORING / CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD FLOORING
Floor coverings or floor finish or flooring are provided to improve the appearance, cleanliness,
noiselessness and damp proofing.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting the type of flooring material:
1. Appearance
The flooring material should be of desired appearance and it should produce the colour effect in conformity
with the use of building
2. Cleaning
The flooring material should be such that it can be easily and effectively cleaned It should have effective
resistance against absorption of oil, grease, etc.
3. Comfort
The flooring material should be such that it gives comfort when used. If the flooring material possesses
reasonably good thermal insulation, it imparts comfort to the residents of the building to a great extent.
4. Cost
The cost of flooring material should be reasonable as compared to the utility of the building.
5. Damp resistance
The flooring material should offer sufficient resistance against dampness so that healthy environment
prevails in the building.
6. Durability
The flooring material should be durable and it should be strong enough to impart resistance to wear, tear,
chemical action, temperature changes, etc.
7. Fire resistance
This quality of flooring material is of more importance for upper floors. It should offer sufficient fire
resistance so that the fire barriers are obtained between different levels of a building.
8. Hardness
The flooring material should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to marks or signs caused by the
shifting or rubbing of furniture, equipment, etc.
9. Maintenance
The flooring material should be such that minimum maintenance is required. However, when repairs are
required, it should be possible to carry out them speedily, easily and with minimum cost.
10. Noise
If noise is created by the use of flooring material, it leads to discomfort and hence, at places where silence
is required, such flooring material giving less noise should only be preferred.
11. Slipperiness
The surface of floor should be smooth but at the same time, it should not be too slippery. It is dangerous
for old people, children and pregnant women.

2
TYPES OF FLOORING
There are various types of floorings which are commonly adopted in residential or public buildings these
days. Each type of flooring has its own merits and there is not a single type that could be suitably provided
under all circumstances.
The different types of flooring which are commonly used for ground floor construction are given below:
1. Cement concrete flooring
2. Terrazzo flooring
3. Tiled flooring
4. Stone flooring
5. Timber flooring
6. Resilient flooring
a) P.V.C flooring
b) Rubber flooring
c) Linoleum flooring
7. Brick flooring
8. Asphalt flooring
9. Glass flooring
10. Granolithic flooring
11. Acid proof flooring
12. Mud flooring

CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING

This type of flooring is commonly used both in residential as well as public buildings.
It is smooth, hard and pleasing in appearance. It is non-absorbent and hence can be easily cleaned and
washed. It is durable and economical. If properly constructed, it does not require any maintenance and can
serve life long without any problem.
Laying:
The method of laying cement concrete flooring on ground floor of a building can be broadly divided in
the following steps.
a) Preparation of sub-base
The earth filling in plinth is consolidated thoroughly so as to ensure that no loose pockets are left in the
whole area. A 10 to 15 cm. thick layer of clean coarse sand is then spread over the whole area. The sand layer
is consolidated and dressed to the required level and slope.
b) Laying of base concrete
The base concrete used under floors may be cement concrete laid to a thickness varying from 7.5 to 10
cm. The mix commonly used is 1:5:10 (1 cement: 5 sand: 10 stone or over burnt brick aggregates 40 mm.

3
nominal size). The base concrete layer is deposited over the whole area, thoroughly tamped and levelled to a
rough surface.
c) Laying the topping
When the base concrete layer has fully set and hardened, its surface is thoroughly cleaned and the entire
area is divided into rectangular or square panels by use of 4 mm. thick glass strips or 5 mm. thick plain asbestos
strips. The size of panel is basically governed by the location of floor (exposed or indoor), temperature and
other climatic conditions, thickness of topping and proportions of ingredients in concrete mix., etc. In general,
the area of one such panel should not preferably be more than 2 sq. m. The surface of base concrete should be
made damp and applied with a coat of neat cement slurry prior to laying the topping., The rough finished
surface of base concrete coated with cement slurry ensures adequate bond between the base and the topping.
The cement concrete topping, normally consisting of 1:2:4 (1 cement :2 sand : 4 stone aggregate) is then laid
in required thickness in one operation in the panels. The concrete is spread evenly by using a straight edge
and the surface is thoroughly tamped and floated with wooden floates till the cream of the mortar comes at
top. The surface is then smoothened and finally finished by means of steel trowels. In case glass or plain
asbestos strips are not required, the panels are formed by use of wooden or angle iron battens. The battens
should have depth equivalent to that of concrete topping. Concrete for the topping is then laid in alternate
panels and finished as described above. The battens used for forming panels are removed next day ana the
topping concrete laid in the alternate panels. The flooring should be cured for 10 days before use.
Merits and Demerits of Concrete Flooring
Merits:
1. It is non-absorbent and hence offers sufficient resistance to dampness. This is used for water retaining
floors as well as stores.
2. It possesses high durability and hence is employed for floors in kitchens, bath-rooms, schools, hospitals,
drawing rooms, etc.
3. It is smooth and pleasing in appearance.
4. It is easily cleaned and has proved overall economical due to less maintenance cost.
5. This flooring offers a fire-resistant floor.
Demerits:
1. The defects, once developed, in concrete floors whether due to poor workmanship or materials, cannot be
easily rectified.
2. The concrete flooring cannot be satisfactorily repaired by patch work.
3. It does not possess very satisfactory insulation properties against sound.

TERRAZZO FLOORING
On account of its decorative and good wearing properties, this type of flooring is commonly provided in
offices, schools, hospitals, residential buildings, banks etc. Terrazzo is a concrete surface with special
aggregate of marble chips (or other decorative material) mixed with white and/or coloured cement in

4
proportion of 3:1 (three marble chips: one cement). The aggregates are exposed by grinding the surface
mechanically or manually. The flooring may be laid in different thicknesses. This type of floor is very durable,
smooth, pretty in appearance, non-absorbent, can be easily cleaned and washed. Due to availability of varieties
of Tiles this, type of flooring is outdated.
TILED FLOORING
Tiles, either of clay (pottery) or cement concrete or terrazzo are manufactured in square, hexagonal and
various other shapes, sizes and thicknesses these days.
In India, the red oxide concrete floors were very common long ago. They were slowly replaced by terrazzo
floors/mosaic floors & now by marble and other stone floors. Nowadays, large types of ceramic and vitrified
tiles are becoming more and more popular especially due to the ease with which these can be placed and also
maintained.
There are various types of unglazed and glazed ceramic tiles to choose for floors and walls. The main
differences between earthenware, stoneware and terracotta tiles lie in the basic materials. Earthenware is made
from selected clay, stoneware contains a large percentage of silica in the form of sand, ground flint, crushed
stoneware, etc. to prevent shrinkage while being fired. Terracotta is manufactured from high grade fire clay.
Some of the tiles commonly used are :
 Mosaic tiles
 Glazed tiles
 Ceramic tiles
 Vitrified tiles
 Earthenware tiles
 Stoneware tiles
 Terracotta tiles
Merits and Demerits of Tiled Flooring
Merits :
1. It provides a non-absorbent, decorative and durable floor surface.
2. It permits quick installation or laying of floors.
3. It is easily repaired in patches.
Demerits:
1. Tiled flooring is generally costly in initial cost as well as in maintenance cost.
2. On becoming wet, it provides a slippery surface.
Mosaic tile flooring
The pre-cast concrete tiles with marble chips at top surface, known as the mosaic tiles. They are available
in standard sizes.
Mosaic tiles manufactured under hydraulic pressure are available in different sizes, such as 200 x 200 x
20 mm, 250 x 250 x 22 mm, 300 x 300 x 25 mm, etc.

5
 The total thickness of the tile comprises of two layers i.e., the upper layer and the backing. The thickness
of the upper layer (also known as wearing layer) varies from 5 mm. to 6 mm. and it consists of mix of cement,
marble chip aggregates and pigment (if required) taken in suitable proportions. The backing of the tile consists
of leaner mix of cement and aggregates usually taken in proportion of 1:3.
These are commonly used in residential houses, offices, schools, hospitals and other public buildings, etc.,
where floors are required to be installed in shorter time with pleasing appearance and good durability.
Method of laying Mosaic tile floors
The following procedure usually adopted for laying Mosaic tiles:
1. Sub-grade concrete (base course) on which the tiles are to be laid shall be cleaned, wetted. The bedding for
the tiles shall be with cement mortar of either 1:2 or 1:3. The ingredients shall be thoroughly mixed by
volume in dry form.
2. Cement mortar bedding shall be spread, tamped and corrected to proper levels and allowed to harden for
a day before the tiles are set over this bedding, neat grey cement slurry of honey like consistency shall be
spread at the rate of 4.4 kg of cement per square metre over such an area as would accommodate about
twenty tiles.
3. Tiles shall be washed clean and shall be fixed in this grout one after another. Each tile being gently tapped
with a wooden mallet till it is evenly bedded and in level with the adjoining tiles. The surface of the
flooring shall be checked with a straight edge during laying of each tile, so as to obtain a true surface with
the required slope.
4. In case when full size tiles cannot be fixed, there shall be cut to the required size with straight edge, rubbed
smooth to ensure a straight and true joint.
5. After the tiles have been laid, surplus cement grout that may have come out of the joint shall be cleaned
off.
6. The day after the tiles are laid all joints shall be cleaned of the grey cement grout with a wire brush or
trowel to a depth of 5 mm and all dust and loose mortar removed and cleaned. Joints shall then be grouted
with grey or white cement mixed with or without pigment to match the shape of the topping of the wearing
layer of the tiles. The same cement slurry shall be applied to the entire surface of the tiles in a thin coat
with a view to protect the surface from abrasive damage and fill the pin holes that may exist on the surface.
7. The floor shall then be kept wet for a minimum period of 7 days. The surface shall thereafter be grounded
evenly with machine fitted with coarse grade grit block. Water shall be used profusely during grinding.
After grinding the surface shall be thoroughly washed to remove all grinding mud, cleaned and mopped.
It shall then be covered with a thin coat of grey or white cement, mixed with or without pigment to match
the colour of the topping of the wearing surface in order to fill any pin hole that appear. The surface shall
be again cured. The second grinding shall then be earned out with machine fitted with fine grade grit block.
The final grinding with machine fitted with the finest grade grit blocks shall be carried out the day after
the second grinding.

6
8. For small areas or where circumstances so require, hand polishing may be permitted in lieu of machine
polishing after laying.
9. After the Final polish, oxalic acid shall be dusted over the surface at the rate of 33 gm per square metre
sprinkled with water and rubbed hard with a 'namdah' block (pad or wooden rags). The following day the
floor shall be wiped with a moist rag and dried with a soft cloth and finished clean.
10. If any tile is disturbed or damaged, it shall be reFitted or replaced, properly jointed and polished The
Finished floor shall not sound hollow when topped with a wooden mallet.
Glazed tiles
The white-glazed tiles are used for the flooring of water-closets, bathrooms, swimming pools, etc. These
tiles do not require polishing and keep excellent sanitary conditions. Glazed tiles are available in the following
standard sizes:
> 100 x 100x5 or 6 mm.
> 150 x 150 x 5 or 6 mm.
The tiles have only top surface glazed. The tiles are laid over a reasonably hard sub-grade which may be
of concrete or R.C.C. slab. Prior to laying, a 10 mm. thick layer of cement mortar 1: 3 is spread over.
Ceramic tile flooring
Ceramic tiles are non-slippery and are used in wet areas like bathrooms and kitchens. They are available
in a variety of interesting shapes, wide range of colours and textures. They are used in living rooms also.
Ceramic tiles are made from a mixture of clays which have been shaped, coloured and fired at high
temperatures, resulting in a hard body. This hard body may then be left untreated or it may receive a glazed
wear layer. Ceramic tiles are usually embedded in mortar. Special tile adhesives and tile grouts are also
available which allow easy laying and render the tiled area useable within 24 hours. Nowadays, tiles, specially
with previously ground edges, are available to produce thin invisible joints between tiles.
Method of laying Ceramic tile floors
Ceramic tiles should be laid on a strong base concrete in ground floors as otherwise the flooring will not
last long.
The following procedure usually adopted for laying Ceramic tiles:
1. Ceramic floors is laid on the base concrete in 1 : 3 cement mortar of average thickness 10 mm (but not less
than 5 mm at any place) with neat cement slurry poured on the mortar. The above mortar is first placed
and allowed to harden sufficiently so that wooden planks can be placed for the mason to squat on it.
2. Over this cement bedding, neat grey cement and water slurry (at the rate of 3.3 kg of cement per sq m and
the consistency of honey) is spread. Only areas sufficient for laying 20 tiles are taken at one time.
3. Tiles are soaked in water, washed clean and fixed in this grout one after the other by tapping each tile with
a wooden mallet to fit it closely with the previous tile and properly embedded level with adjacent tiles.
4. The joints should be as thin as possible and of the desired pattern.
5. If necessary, for small areas to be covered, the tiles should be cut to size with a tile-cutting machine.
6. All surplus cement and mortar are removed from the tiles.

7
7. The joints are then picked to remove the grey cement grout with wire brush 2 to 3 mm deep and flush
pointed with white cement to which colour is added, if necessary, to match the surface.
8. The floor is then cured by keeping it wet for seven days, after which the surface is washed clean. No part
of the floor should sound hallow when sounded with a wooden mallet after fixing the tiles.
9. Traffic should not be allowed on the floor till the tile work has been fully cured for at least seven days.

Vitrified tile flooring

Vitrified tiles have zero water absorption property. They resemble granite but offer a great variety in terms
of finish, colour and design options. Polished vitrified tiles such as mirror stone, granamite and marbogranite
are cheaper than marble and granite. Glazed tiles must be distinguished from fully-vitrified tiles which are
tiles made from a mixture of suitable clays and finely ground minerals fired at very high temperature. In fully-
vitrified tiles, the whole thickness is vitrified. Being hard, they stand up to heavy traffic. The surfaces can be
polished with diamond and carbide abrasive tools. They are said to be as hard as granite. In glazed tiles, there
is only a thin glazing at the top. Hence, they are not as long lasting as vitrified tiles.

STONE FLOORING
Stone floors are very much recommended for offices, educational institutions, spiritual places, etc. where
the traffic is heavy and maintenance has to be minimal. It is also recommended in residences for its good
appearance. It is also used in places such as kitchen as many of the natural stones such as granite are more
resistant than cement to light acids, etc. Machine cut and polished natural stones are extensively used both as
large slabs or smaller tiles. When used as large slabs, they should be much thicker than tiles. They are also
available in different colours to choose from. The commonly available stones are:
 Marble
 Granite
 Kota stone
 Red or white fine-dressed sandstone
 Shahabad stones
 Cuddapa slabs
The choice of stone depends on its requirement of maintenance, etc. Marbles and sandstones are somewhat
porous and get scratched if people walk on them with shoes. Marbles require repolishing once every six to
seven years. Granites are very durable and can be polished to a very high degree by modern machines.
Laying of stone floors
For laying stone floors, the subgrade concrete in the ground floor or the R.C.C slab in top floors is first
cleaned, wetted and mopped. The bedding of the slab is usually cement mortar 1: 4 of average thickness of 20
mm but not less than 12 mm in any place.
The procedure of laying stones is as follows:
1. Stone floors can be placed either with thin joints or with thick joints.

8
2. Cement mortar (1:4) is spread liberally under the slab after cleaning the subgrade concrete on which the
slab is to be laid.
3. The stone slabs are washed clean and laid on top. It is pressed and moved around so that all hollows
underneath get filled and surplus cement works up through the joints. The top is tapped with wooden
mallet and brought level with the adjoining slab.
4. If the joints are to be pointed, they are raked up when the mortar is green to a depth of 12 mm and pointed.
Marble flooring
It is a superior type of flooring, used in entrance, bath-rooms and kitchens of residential buildings, and in
public buildings, hospitals, auditoriums, temples, churches, mosques, gurudwaras, etc., where extra
cleanliness is an essential requirement.
The size of marble slabs to be used in flooring depends upon the pattern to be adopted. The slabs for
normal works are square or rectangular in shape and their thickness varies from 20 mm to 40 mm.
Method of laying Marble floor
The following procedure adopted for laying marble flooring:
1. The flooring is laid on prepared sub-grade of concrete or on the R.C.C. floor slab. Prior to laying flooring,
the sub-grade in cleaned, wetted and mopped properly.
2. A layer of bedding mortar which can be 1:4 cement mortar (l cement: 4 coarse sand) is spread in average
thickness of about 20 mm. under the area of each slab.
3. The marble slab is laid on top of the bedding mortar, pressed and tapped with wooden mallet and brought
to the level with the already laid adjoining slabs. The slab is thereafter lifted up and placed aside. Any
hollow space in the mortar bed is corrected by adding fresh mortar.
4. After the bedding mortar is hardened slightly, cement slurry is spread over the same at the rate of 4.4kg of
cement per sqm. The edges of the slab already laid are then smeared with cement slurry of the same shade
as that of the marble slab and the slab to be paved is again placed in position and tapped with wooden
mallet till it is properly bedded in level with the adjoining slabs.
5. The joint between two slabs has to be very fine (paper thick). The cement that oozes out of the joint is
cleaned. Remaining slabs are also laid in the same manner and the flooring work completed.
6. The paved area is cured for a minimum period of seven days.

TIMBER FLOORING
This type of floor covering is the oldest type, but nowadays it rs used for some special-purpose floors such
as theatres and hospitals. Timber flooring on top of concrete flooring is quite often used . in high class
buildings for drawing rooms, reception halls, dancing halls, badminton courts, etc. It possesses natural beauty
and has enough resistance to wearing.
Wooden floor covering may be carried out in one of the following three types:
> Strip floor covering: This is made up of narrow and thin strips of timber which are joined to each other
by tongue and groove joints.

9
> Planked floor covering: In this type of construction, wider planks are employed and these are joined by
tongue and groove joints.
> Wood block floor covering: It consists of wooden blocks which are laid in suitable designs over a concrete
base. The thickness of a block is 20-40 mm and its size varies from 20 x 8 to 30 x 8 cm. The blocks are
properly joined together with the ends of the grains exposed.
RESILIENT FLOORING
Floors made from materials such as PVC, linoleum, rubber, etc. are called resilient floors. Resilient floors
are generally laid in offices, computer rooms, show rooms, etc.
 PVC (vinyl floors)
 Linoleum flooring
 Rubber flooring
P.V.C. Flooring
P.V.C. tiles are now manufactured in variety of shades and design and are being commonly used in
residential as well as non-residential buildings.
It is made of plastic material, called Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (P.V.C), fabricated in the form of tiles of
different sizes and different colour shades. It gives a decorative floor finish which is resilient, smooth and can
be cleaned easily. The tiles are laid on concrete base. Adhesive of specified make is applied on the base as
well as on the back of P.V.C. tile with the help of a notched trowel. It is used is libraries, offices and high
class residential and other public buildings. P.V.C. tile flooring is resilient, smooth, good looking and can be
easily cleaned.
Linoleum flooring
Linoleum sheet is manufactured by mixing oxidized linseed oil in gum, resins, pigments, wood flour, cork
dust and other filler materials. Linoleum sheets are fixed to the cement concrete or wooden floors with the
help of glues. Linoleum covering are attractive, resilient, durable and cheap, and can be cleaned very easily.
These type of floor covering is largely used in residential buildings offices, schools, hospitals, libraries,
restaurants, railway carriages and buses, etc. It is subjected to rotting when kept wet or moist for some time.
It cannot, therefore, be used for bath-rooms, kitchens, etc.
Rubber flooring
It consists of sheets or tiles of rubber, in variety of patterns and colours with thickness varying from 3 to
10 mm. The sheet or tile is manufactured by mixing pure rubber with fillers such as cotton fibre, granulated
cork or asbestos fibre. The sheets or tiles are fixed to concrete base or wood by means of appropriate adhesives.
Rubber floorings are elastic, attractive, resilient and noise proof.
However, they are costly. It is used in residential buildings as well as public buildings like offices, hospitals,
school, etc.
BRICK FLOORING
This type of flooring is commonly provided in warehouses, stores and godowns or in places where heavy
articles are stored. The flooring may be done with brick laid flat or on edge arranged in herring bone fashion

10
or set at right angle to the walls. The floor is non-slippery, does not crack due to variation of temperature but
cannot be washed and cleaned properly, collects dust, and it is absorbent in nature and hence cannot be used
in latrines, bathrooms, kitchens, etc.
ASPHALTIC FLOORING
Formerly asphalt flooring was not used, because of its black colour and bad smell. But now flooring can
be made in varieties of colours and asphaltic tile floors are becoming very common and popular, now-a-days.
Asphaltic tiles are obtained from natural asphalt, asbestos fibres and colouring pigments. These tiles are
available different sizes and colours.
The Asphaltic tiles are cheap, resilient, sound proof, non-absorbent and moisture proof.
It is used for surfaces subjected to heavy wear as in case of dairies, breweries, hospitals, shops, restaurants,
loading platforms, swimming pools and terrace floors, etc.
GLASS FLOORING
This is a special purpose flooring, used in circumstances where it is desired to transmit light from upper
floor to lower floor, and specially to admit light at the basement from the upper floor. Structural glass is
available in the form of tiles or slabs, in thicknesses varying from 12 to 30 mm. These are fixed in closely
spaced frames so that glass and the frame can sustain anticipated loads. Glass flooring is very costly, but can
be used in aristocratic buildings both public and residential particularly to have smooth and pleasing surface.
Such as posh hotels, studio, big offices, etc.,
GRANOLITHIC FLOORING
It is a finishing coat provided over the concrete surface to form a hard, resistant to abrasion and durable
flooring. Granolithic concrete is composed of cement, sand and specially selected aggregates. Coarse
aggregates from basalt or limestone or quartzite are suitably graded from 13 mm. to I.S. Sieve No.240. Some
quantity of iron fillings or finely ground iron drippings is also added. The concrete mix is usually of 1:1:2 or
1:1:3. In order to get monolithic construction, the granolithic concrete should be laid before the base concrete
has set. The minimum thickness of finishing should be 13 mm.
This type of floor is used in heavy industries, warehouses, etc.
ACID RESISTING FLOOR
In chemical laboratories, acid manufacturing factories, storage battery factory buildings and such other
places where the floor is subjected to the action of acids, such type of floor finishing are used. It has been seen
that acid-proof asphalt blocks normally meet the requirement of an acid-proof floor. For the construction of
this type of flooring, asphalt blocks made by pressing: a mixture of crushed inert aggregate and acid-proof
asphalt. These asphalt blocks are laid on a hard concrete bed. When the blocks are laid, the whole surface is
then painted with asphalt and over it fine sand is evenly sprinkled and the surface is finished smooth.
MOORUM OR MUD FLOORING
Moorum is a disintegrated rock consisting of sand and clay. In rural areas of India, moorum or mud floors
are very common and popular. They are cheap, hard, fairly impervious, easy in construction and easy in
maintenance. They remain warm in winter and cold in summer and hence are most suitable for places where

11
the temperature is extreme during these seasons. The floor is maintained by giving a thin cement cow-dung
wash (1:2 to 1:3) once or twice a week.

ROOFS

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION:

A roof may be defined as the uppermost part of a building provided in the form of a framework to
protect the building against heat, rain, snow, wind, etc.
A roof basically consists of structural elements provided at the top of a building for the support of roof
coverings. These structural elements may be slabs, dooms, trusses, portals, etc., and the roof coverings may
be G.I. sheets, A.C. sheets, shingles, tiles, states, etc. Roofs and roof coverings receive rain and snow more
directly and in greater quantity than the walls. Therefore, it is essential to provide a positive barrier to the
entry of rain and moisture.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD ROOF :

Following are the requirements of a good roof :
i) It should be durable against wind, rain, sun etc.
ii) It should possess high strength and stability to carry the super-imposed dead and live load.
iii) It should be fire resistant.
iv) It should provide adequate thermal insulation.
v) It should provide adequate insulation against sound.
vi) It should have efficient water proofing arrangement.
vii) It should have good drainage system.

TYPES OF ROOFS :
Following are the different types of roofs :
1. Pitched or sloping roofs
2. Flat or terraced roofs
3. Curved roofs.

PITCHED ROOFS : (Fig. 1).

A roof with a sloping surface is known as pitched roof. These are suitable in those areas where rainfall
or snowfall is very heavy. The buildings with limited width and simple shape can be a pitched roof
comfortably. These are cheapest and generally found in villages, workshopes, factories, auditoriums,
godowns, warehouses, etc.

12
SOME TECHNICAL TERMS OR ELEMENTS USED IN PITCHED ROOFS : (Fig. 1)

1) Span : It is a distance between the supports of an arch, beam or roof truss.

2) Rise : It is a vertical distance between the top of the ridge and the wall plate.
3) Barge boards : These are wooden planks or boards fixed on the gable end of a roof. They connect the
ends of ridge, purlins and wall plates.
4) Battens : These are thin wooden strips fixed on the ceiling or rafters to support the roof ceiling.
5) Ridge : It is the apex line of the sloping roof. It is thus the apex of the angle formed by the termination
of the inclined surfaces at the top of a slope.
6) Pitch : It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal plane. It is expressed interms of
degrees or the ratio of rise to span.
7) Eaves : The lower edge of the inclined roof surface is known as eaves, from which the rain water
drops down coming from the roof surface.
8) Hip : It is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping surfaces, where the exterior angle is
greater than 180°.
9) Eaves board or Facia board : It is a wooden board fixed to the feet of the common rafters at eaves.
The ends of the lower most covering material rest on it.
10) Valley : It is a riverse of a hip formed by the intersection of two roof surfaces, making an external
angle less than 180°.
11) Gable : A vertical triangular upper part of the wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is called as
gable or gable end.
12) Verge : The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge, is known as a verge.
13) Hipped end : It is the sloped triangular surface formed at the end of a roof.
14) Ridge piece, ridge beam or ridge board : It is a horizontal wooden member, in the form of a beam
or board provided at the apex of a roof truss to support the common rafters fixed to it.
15) Rafters : These are pieces of timber extended from the eaves to the ridge.
16) Common rafters : These are intermediate rafters, which give support to the roof covering.
17) Jack rafters : Any rafter which is shorter than a common rafter known as jack rafter.

13
 18) Hip rafters : These are rafters provided at the junction of two roof slopes.
19) Principal rafters : These are the inclined members of a truss.
20) Cleats : These are small wooden blocks fixed on the trusses to prevent the sliding of purlins.
21) Dragon beam : The lower end of a hip rafter supported on a diagonal piece of wood which is laid
across the corner of the wall. This diagonal piece is known as a dragon beam or dragon tie or an angle
tie.
22) Purlins : The wooden or steel pieces which are placed horizontally on principal rafters to carry the
common rafters are known as the purlins.
23) Template : A wood or stone or R.C.C bedding block provided at the end of a truss is known as template
and it helps in spreading the load over a large area.
24) Wall plates : These are the long wooden members embedded on the top of walls to receive the
common rafters. They actually connect the walls to the roof.
25) Truss : A roof truss is a framework, usually of triangles designed to support the roof covering or
ceiling over rooms.
26) Boardings : These are similar to battens and are nailed to common rafter to support the rooling
material.
TYPES OF PITCHED ROOFS :
These are of three types :
1. Single roofs
2. Double or purlin roofs
3. Trussed roofs.
1. Single Roofs :
In these roofs, the common rafters are provided to each slope without any intermediate support. The
different forms of single roofs are :
1. Lean-to-roof
2. Couple roof
3. Couple-close roof
4. Collar and scissors roof.
1. Lean-to-roof : It is the simplest form of a sloping roof, in which rafters slope to one side only and it is
also known as pent roof or aisle roof. In this case, one wall is taken higher than the other one to give
necessary slope as shown in fig. 4.20. These are popularly used in construction of varandahas, sheds, out
houses, factories, etc., and it is suitable for a maximum span of 2.5 m. The rafters are suitably secured on
the wall plate and eaves boards, battens and roof coverings are provided.

14
2. Couple Roof : In this roof, the common rafters slope upwards from the opposite walls and they meet on
a ridge piece in the middle as shown in fig. 4.21. These roofs are not favoured due to their tendency to
spread out at the feet i.e., wall plate level and to pushout with force the walls supporting the wall plate.
These roofs are suitable for spans upto about 3.60 m.

3. Couple Close Roof: These are similar to a couple roof except that the legs of common rafters are
connected by a tie beam as shown in fig. 4.22. This tie beam prevents the tendency of rafters to spread out
and avoids the danger of overturning of the walls. This roof is suitable for a span of 4.5 m. The tendency
of the rafters to sag in the middle can be prevented by using central rod called king rod or king bolt
connecting the ridge piece and the tie beam.

15
4. Coller Beam Roof : In this case, the tie beam called as coller beam is raised and placed at a higher level
as shown in fig. 4.23. This type of roof is adopted for the span upto 4.8 m and it is used to increase the
height of a room and economise the span.

5. Coller and Scissors Roof : In this case, two coller beam which are crossing each other are provided as
shown in fig. 4.24.

2. Double or Purlin Roofs :

If the span of the roof exceeds 2.40 m, it is necessary increase the rafters size. In order to reduce the
rafter size, the intermediate supports called as purlins are used under the rafters as shown in fig. 4.25. Each
rafter is supported at three points : (i) at the bottom on wall through the wall plate, (ii) at the top by the ridge
beam and (iii) at the centre by a purlin. These roofs are economical for span upto 4.8 m. This roof is also
known as rafter and purlin roof.

16
TRUSSED ROOFS :
When the span exceeds 4.8 m and when there are no inside supporting walls or partitions for the purlins,
the framed structures known as trusses, are used. The spacing of these trusses depends upon the load on the
roof, position of cross-walls, span and material of the truss. But usually the spacing is 3 m is provided for
wooden trusses. The trusses carry the ridge piece and purlins on which the common rafters rest.
The different forms of roof trusses are as follows :
i) King post truss
ii) Queen post truss
iii) Steel trusses.
1. King post truss:
In these truss, the central post called as king post support the tie beam as shown in fig. 4.26. The
inclined members called as struts, prevent the principle rafters from bending in the middle. This truss is
suitable for roofs of span varying from 5 m to 8 m. Suitable jonts are provided between the rafter and tie
beam, between the principle rafter and the king post, between the king post and tie beam, and at the ends
of struts. These joints are strengthened by bolts.

Table 1: Dimensions of members of king-post timber trusses

Members
No. Span King-post Principals Struts Tie beam
(nun) (mm) (nun) (nun) (mm)
D B D B D B DB
1 3600 80 x 80 130 x 80 70 x 80 130 x 80
2 4200 80 x 80 140 x 80 70 x 80 130 x 80
3 4800 90 x 80 150 x 80 70 x 80 130 x 80
4 5400 90 x 80 150 x 90 70 x 90 140 x 90
5 6000 90 x 90 180 x 90 80 x 90 150 x 90
6 6600 100 x 90 190 x 90 80 x 90 160 x 90
7 7200 100 x 100 190 x 100 90 x 100 160 x 100
8 7800 100 x 100 200 x 100 90 x 100 180 x 100
9 8400 100 x 120 200 x 120 90 x 120 180 x 120
10 9000 100 x 120 210 x 120 90 x 120 190 x 120

17
2. Queen post truss :
This truss is having two vertical members called as queen posts. The upper ends of queen posts are
connected to a horizontal member called as straining beam and lower end is rests on straining sill,
introduced on tie beam as shown in fig. 4.27. An additional purlins are supported on the queen posts and
these truss are suitable for roof of span varying from 8 m to 12 m.

Table 2: Dimensions of members of queen-post timber trusses

Members
No. Span Queen-post Principals Struts Tie beam
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
D B D B D B D B
1 7800 130 x 100 200 x 100 70 x 100 180 x 100
2 8400 130 x 120 200 x 120 70 x 120 180 x 120
3 9000 140 x 120 210 x 120 70 x 120 190 x 120
4 9600 150 x 120 230 x 120 70 x 120 190 x 120
5 10200 150 x 120 240 x 120 70 x 120 200 x 120
6 10800 150 x 120 240 x 130 80 x 130 200 x 130
7 11400 160 x 130 240 x 130 80 x 130 200 x 130
8 12000 160 x 130 250 x 130 80 x 130 210 x 130

3. Steel roof trusses :

The trusses are used for the span greater than 12 m and these are generally constructed by using mild
steel rolled sections. As the timber becomes very costly in our country, hence the steel trusses are generally
used.
For small spans, the angles are riveted or welded together through plates called as gusset plates to
form a truss. For larger spans, die arrangement of different sections and sizes are properly designed
depends on the loading and wind pressure. The steel trusses can resist both the compression and tension
stresses. The roof trusses are so designed that the members carry only direct stresses i.e., either
compression or tension and no bending stresses are induced. The principle rafter as well as the main tie
beam are generally made of two angle sections placed side by side, while the strut, tie and suspender are
generally made by single angle sections as shown in fig- 4.28.

18
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL TRUSSES :
Following are the advantages of steel trusses :
1. The required sections in any dimensions a truss can be obtained easily with minimum wastage of
material.
2. These can be fabricated in any shape easily.
3. They are fire proof and termite proof.
4. They are light in weight.
5. They are stronger and more durable as compared to the timber trusses.
6. They can be easily and speedily installed, results in saving of time.
7. They are easy to transport.
8. They can be vised without any intermediate supports, hence they can be used for larger spans in
industries, workshopes, warehouses, etc.
9. They have a longer life, if the proper case is taken.
10. For larger works requiring large number of trusses, the steel trusses arecheaper than timber trusses.
The different forms of steel trusses with their suitable span are shown in fig. 4.29 and 4.30.

19
20
ROOF COVERINGS FOR PITCHED ROOFS :
These are the materials provided as a covering over the frame-work of roof structure to give protection
against rain, sun, wind, etc. The slection of these materials for covering depends upon the following factors :
1. Nature of the building.
2. Climate of the locality.
3. Initial cost and maintenance cost.
4. Durability.
5. Fabrication facility available.
6. Material availability.
7. Type of framework.
8. Resistance to fire and heat.
9. Spacial features of the locality.
The Common Roofing Materials :
Following are the common roof covering materials :
1. Thatch
2. Tiles
3. Shingles
4. Eternit slates
5. Corrugated galvanized iron sheets
6. Asbestos cement sheets.
1. Thatch : It is very light roof covering. But it is combustible, absorbs moisture rapidly and decay easily. It
is unstable against high winds. A matting bed is prepared to receive the thatch and a pitch of 45° is kept
to drain the roof easily. This is cheapest and simple in construction, therefore, these are used in rural areas.
2. Tiles : These are manufactured in similar manner as bricks. The clay tiles are available in various types,
these are half round country tiles, pan tiles, flat tiles, patent tiles and trafford asbestos-cement tiles.
Ordinary half-round tiles are used for cheap builings and not used for costly buildings as they are liable to
break easily. The patent tiles are very strong durable and economical for roof coverings. These are also
called as Man galore tiles. The clay tiles are widely used for residential buildings due to their following
advantages :
 These are non-conductor of heat and keep the building cool.
 They provide durable roof covering when they made by good burnt materials.
 There are quite strong and give pleasing appearance.
 They are economical.
 They are good resistant against fire and moisture.
3. Shingles : The wood shingles obtained from a well seasoned timber with lengths varying from 300 to
380 mm and widths varying from 60 to 250 mm can be used. They are laid like a tiles and slates.

21
4. Eternit slates : These are fire resisting, light and cool. These are used in those places where there is
heavy rainfall and snowfall, about eight slates are required for covering one square metre of roof area.
These slates are generally available in three colours - black, grey and red.
5. Corrugated galvanized iron sheets (G.I. Sheets) : These are prepared by pressing flat wrought iron
plates between rollers with grooves or teeth and then they are galvanized with a coat of zinc. These are
generally used in factories, sheds, workshops, etc. The corrugation help to increase strength and rigidity
and they permit easy flow of rain water. These are available in lengths varying from 1.20 to 3.60 m and
width from 600 to 900 mm and thickness from 0.18 mm to 1.60 mm. They are costly and do not offer
resistance to fire and sound.
6. Asbestos cement corrugated sheets (A.C. sheets) : These are prepared from the paste formed by the
mixture of asbestos fibres with 15% of cement which is pressed under rollers with grooves or teeth. A
series of waves or corrugations are formed to give additional strength and rigidity and they permit the
easy flow of rain water. These sheets are generally used for factories, workshops, bighills, garages, etc.
They are cheap, fire-resisting, light in weight, strong, tough, sound-proof, impervious and durable. They
do not require any protective paint and cannot be eaten away by the vermins. These sheets can be sawn
and screwed.

COMPARISON BETWEEN G.I. SHEETS AND A.C. SHEETS :

Sl.No. G.I. Sheets A.C. Sheets

1. Not breakable, can be handled with little Breakable, requires great care in handling.
care.
2. High initial cost. Initial cost is less.
3. Very thin sheets can be made. Cannot be made as thin as GI sheets.
4. Easy corroded. Do not corrode.
5. Non-fire resisting and deformed when a Fire resisting.
fire occurs.
6. Noisy when something falls over them. Less noisy when something falls over them.
7. Maintenance cost is high. Maintenance cost is less.
8. Affected by acids and fumes. Not affected by acids and fumes.
9. Appearance is not pleasing. Neat and pleasant in appearance.
10. Hot in summer and cold in winter. Not much affected be temperature.
11. Damaging possibilities are less by Possibility of getting damaged due to external
external forces. forces.
12. Prepared from wrough-iron plates and Prepared from a mixture of cement and asbestos
then galvanised. fibres.
13. Not sound proof. Sound proof.
14. Light in weight. Heavy in weight.

22
FLAT ROOFS OR TERRACED ROOFS :
A roof which is nearly flat or practically horizontal with a slope less than 10° is known as flat roof. We
known that no roof can be laid perfectly level. The roof must be slope in one direction or the other to cause
rain water to flow of rapidly and easily. The flat roofs are generally laid at a slope of 1 in 2 or 1 in 6.
The flat roofs can be constructed of flag stones, R.S.J and flag stones, R.C.C. reinforced brick work,
jack arch roof or precast cement concrete units. These roofs are very reliable against water proofing and heat
insulation therefore, these are widely used in all types of buildings including multistorey buildings instead of
pitched roofs. Eventhough the flat roofs are costly and difficult to construct, these roofs are extensively used
in the places where rain fall is heavy.
Effective and efficient water proofing and roof drainage is very important requirement of flat roof.
Therefore, the roof surface should be provided with proper water proofing treatment with necessary slopes.
In addition a layer of insulating material like mud, lime concrete, mud phusk, etc., is laid over roof surface to
give adequate thermal insulation to the space below. This type of layer is known as terracing or grading.
ADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS :
1. Easy in construction and maintenance.
2. The roof can be used for multipurpose such as playing, sleeping etc.
3. They can be made fire proof easily than pitched roof.
4. They have a better insulating properties.
5. They require lesser area of roofing material than pitched roof.
6. They are more stable against wind.
7. They do not require false ceiling, which is essential in pitched roofs.
8. These are economical.
9. Flat roof is the only choice for multistoreyed buildings, since over head tanks and other services are
located over the roof.
10. Upper floor construction can be done very easily over the flat roofs.
11. They avoid the enclosure of the triangular space, there by architectural appearance of the building can
be improved.
12. Simple in construction.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS :
1. They are not used for longer spans without the use of intermediate columns and beams.
2. They have very high self weight, hence, the size of beams, columns, foundations and other
structural members are heavy.
3. They are not suitable for the places of heavy rainfall.
4. They are highly unsuitable to hilly and heavy snow fall areas.
5. It is difficult to locate and rectify leak in flat roof.
6. High initial cost.

23
 7. They are affected by heavy temperature variations, due to which cracks are developed on the
surfaces.
8. The speed of flat roof construction is very slow than pitched roof.
9. It exposes entire building to the weather agencies, while projecting elements of pitched roof
protect the buildings.
COMPARISON BETWEEN FLAT ROOFS AND PITCHED ROOFS :
Sl.No. Flat roofs Pitched roofs
1. Simple in construction. Complicated in construction.
' 2. Heavy in weight. Light in weight.
3. Speed of construction is very slow. Speed of construction is fast.
4. It cannot be used for longer spans without It can be used for longer spans without any
intermediate supports. intermediate supports.
5. It is difficult to locate and rectify the leak. It is easy to locate and repair the leak.
6. These are suitable for residential and They are suitable for factories, workshopes,
multistoreyed buildings. auditorium, etc.
7. They do not require false ceiling. They essentially require the false ceiling.
8. They are unsuitable at places of heavy They are suitable for the places of heavy rainfall.
rainfall.
9. They require lesser area of roofing They require larger area of roofing material.
material.

FLAT R.C.C. ROOF:

Now-a-days the R.C.C. flat roofs are generally used in most of the modern buildings.
These are of following types :
1. Simple slab type.
2. Beam and slab type.
3. Flat slab and flat plate type.
4. Ribbed hollow block or voided slabs.
1. Simple Slab Type :
Flat R.C.C. roof or slab is commonly used in the construction of modern buildings. If the breadth of the
room is very small i.e., not more than 5 m as in residential buildings, the slab is of simple reinforced concrete.
If the length of the room is greater than twice the width, the slab can be made to bend only in the direction of
the breadth, this type of slab is known as one-way slab. If length of the slab is only 1.5 to 2 times the width,
the slab is made to bend like a dish in both the direction, this type of slab is called as two-way slab. The ends
of such slabs can be made to rest o walls or reinforced concrete beams.
In order to construct the R.C.C. slab, shuttering is constructed with proper slope. The reinforcement is
placed over the prepared shuttering surface. The main reinforcement and cross reinforcement are tied together
properly with M.S. binding wires. After construction of reinforcement, it is properly embedded in cement
concrete by using surface vibrators or with a tamping rod. Generally M15 or M20 concrete is used. The slab

24
is then allowed to dry about 36 hours and then it is subjected to curing by creating small bunds and filling the
spaces with water. The curing of R.C.C. slab is generally done for about 10-12 days. After 10-12 days of
curing the shuttering is removed and the lower portion is cleaned. Generally the shuttering surface should be
made so that, the lower surface of the slab should not require any plastering as shown in fig. 4.31 and 4.32.

2. Beam and Slab Type :

If the construction of the building is with reinforced frames, then to construct the slab monolithic with
the supporting beams as shown in fig. 4.33. For the roofs of larger spans to carry the heavy loads, R.C.C. slab
with beams are adopted during the construction of buildings. The slab acts like a flange of the beam and is
cast monolithic with the beams, such beams are called as T-beam or L-beam. Therefore, the slabs can span
between the beams instead of walls. In case of reinforced frame construction, these beams are generally span
between columns.

25
3. Flat Slab and Flat Plate Type :
In this case, the slab is directly supported on columns without any intermediate beams as shown in fig.
4.34. When the columns are enlarged at the columns and slabs junction, they are known as flat slabs and if
there is no any enlargement, them they are known as flat slab.

26
4. Ribbed, Hollow Block or Voided Slabs :
These roofs may be of following types :
 A series of concrete ribs with topping cast on forms which can be removed after setting the concrete.
 A series of concrete ribs are provided between precast blocks of concrete for light weight construction
which remain as part of the completed structure, the topping of concrete is of same strength as that used
in the ribs. OR
 These may have continuous top and bottom face but having continuous voids of rectangular or oval shape
as shown in fig. 4.35.

WEATHER PROOFING OR WATER PROOFING OF FLAT ROOFS :

All the flat roofs in these days are constructed with R.C.C. This material removes all the defects of flat
roofs except that the roof should be made water-proof by using any one of the following four methods :
1. Finishing.
2. Bedding concrete and flooring.
3. Mastic asphalt and jute cloth.

27
 4. Use of water-proofing compounds.
5. Application of modern elastomeric paints on concrete or on tiles laid over the concrete.
6. By applying spacial chemical slurry compounds to concrete.

1. Finishing : Generally for ordinary buildings of cheap construction, the finishing of roof surface is done at
the time of laying cement concrete. The finishing of flat roof is carried out in cement mortar of proportion
1:4 i.e., one part cement and four parts of sand by volume.

2. Bedding concrete and flooring : In this case, the surface of R.C.C. slab is kept rough and over which a
layer of concrete is laid. This concrete may be brickbats lime concrete 1:2:4 or brickbats cement concrete
1:6:12 or 1:5:10. The thickness of the concrete layer is about 100 mm. The surface of bedding concrete is
provided by a suitable flooring such as tiles, terrazo, indian patent stone, etc. A convex joint is provided
at the junction of parapet wall and roof as shown in fig. 4.36.

3. Mastic Asphalt and jute cloth : In this case, a layer of hot mastic asphalt is laid on the roof surface. The
jute cloth is spread over this layer. Then one more layer of mastic asphalt is applied so that die jute cloth
is sandwitched between the two layers of mastic asphalt. The sand is then sprinkled over the entire surface
of roof. For better grip, the lead sheets are inserted at the junction of parapet wall and roof as shown in fig.
4.37.

28
 MODULE - 4

Doors, Windows and Ventilators:

Location of doors and windows, technical terms, Materials for doors and windows, Paneled door, Flush
door, Collapsible door, Rolling shutter, PVC Door.
Paneled and glazed Window, Bay Window, and French window. Ventilators.
Sizes as per IS recommendations
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Doors, Windows and Ventilators
Definition and Purpose of Doors, Windows and Ventilators:
A door may be defined as an openable barrier secured in an opening left in a wall for the purpose of
providing an easy access to the inside of a room of a building.
Basically it consists of a two parts: (i) door frame (ii) door shutter. The door shutter is held in position by
the door frame which in term is fixed in the opening of the wall by some suitable means.
A window can be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing day light, vision and
ventilation.
It is just like a door consists of two parts: (i) window frame and (ii) window shutter. The window frame is
suitably fixed in the opening of the wall and the window shutter is held in position by the window frame.
The ventilators are small windows in heights and they are generally fixed at the top of door or window,
and about 30 to 50 cm below the roof level.
The ventilators are provided with glass panels, and steel grill is fixed in the ventilator for the purpose of
safety. The main purpose of ventilator is to ensure cross ventilation in the room even when the door is closed
and also assist in providing natural light to the rooms.
Location of Doors and Windows:
Following are the guidelines should be kept in mind while deciding the location of doors in a building:
1. From consideration of adequate air circulation within the room, the doors should be provided in
opposite walls facing each other.
2. From consideration of proper space utilization and privacy, the doors should be provided near the
corner of a room as far as possible.
3. The location of door should meet the functional requirements of the room.
4. The number of doors should be kept minimum, since large number of doors cause obstruction and
consume more area in circulation.
Location of Windows:
Following guidelines should be kept in mind while location the windows.
1. The size and number of windows should be decided on the basis of light, distribution, control of
ventilation and privacy of the occupants.
 2. The location of window should meet functional requirements of the room, such as interior decoration,
arrangement of furniture etc.
3. A window should be located in opposite wall, facing a door or another window, so that cross ventilation
is achieved.
4. For fresh air, a window should be located on the northern side of a room.
5. For fresh air, a window should be located in the prevalent direction of wind.
6. The sill of a window should be located about 70 to 80 cm about floor level of the room.

Size of Doors, Windows and Ventilators:

Size of Doors:
The size of the door should be such that, it should basically fulfils the functional requirements of the room.
It should allow the movement of largest object or tallest person likely to use the door. As per rule, the door
height not less than 1.8m to 2m and width must allow two persons can pass through it walking shoulder to
shoulder.
The common width-height relations used in India are:
i) Width : 0.4 to 0.6 height
ii) Height: (Width + 1.2) meters
Generally adopted sizes of doors for different types of buildings as follows:
1. Doors for residential buildings:
i) External doors : (1.0 m x 2 m) to (1.1 m x 2 m)
ii) Internal doors : (0.9 m x 2 m) to (1 m x 2 m)
iii) Bathrooms and water closet doors : (0.7 m + 2 m) to (0.8 m x 2 m)
iv) Doors for car garrages : (height 2.25 m x width 2.25 m) to (height 2.25 m x width 2.40 m)
2. Public buildings, such as hospitals, schools, libraries, etc.
i) 1.2 m x 2 m
ii) 1.2 m x 2.1 m
iii) 1.2 m x 2.25 m
As per the Indian standard recommendations, the door frame size should be derived after allowing a
margin of 5mm all around the opening for convenience of fixing. The width and height of an opening is
indicated by number of modules, with each module is of 100 mm. The opening height is considered from
below the floor finish to the ceiling of lintel. A designation 8 DS 20 indicates a door opening having width
equal to 8 modules (i.e., 8 x 100 = 800 mm) and height equal to 20 modules (i.e., 20 x 100 = 2000 mm); the
letter 'D' denotes a 'door openings' and letter 'S' stands for single shutter. Similarly 10 DT 21 indicates a door
opening with width equal to 10 module i.e., 10 x 100 = 1000 mm and height equal to 21 module i.e., 21 x 100
= 2100 mm; letter 'D' stands for door and T stands for double shutter. The table 1 shows the Indian standard
recommended dimensions for doors.
 Table 1: Recommended Dimensions for Doors
SI. Size of opening Size of door frame Size of door shutter
Designation
No. (mm) (mm) (mm)
(2)
(1) (3) (4) (5)
1. 8 DS 20 800 x 2000 790 x 1990 700 x 1905
2. 8 DS 21 800 x 2100 790 x 2090 700 x 2005
3. 9 DS 20 900 x 2000 890 x 1990 800 x 1905
4. 9 DS 21 900 x 2100 890 x 2090 800 x 2005
5. 10 DT 20 1000 x 2000 990 x 1990 900 x 1905
6. 10 DT 21 1000 x 2100 990 x 2090 900 x 2005
7. 12 DT 20 1200 x 2000 1190 x 1990 1000 X 1905
8. 12 DT 21 1200 x 2100 1190 x 2090 1000 x 2005

Door Frame:
The door frame is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members forming an enclosure, to which
door shutters are fixed. The vertical members are called as jambs or posts and horizontal top members
connecting the posts are known as head which has horns on both the sides. The size of the frame is worked
out by allowing a clearance of 5 mm to both the sides and the top of the opening. The c/s of the head and posts
are generally kept the same. Fig. 3.10 shows the door frame, having a rebate cut all-around it to receive door
shutter.

The door frames are generally made by the following materials:

i) Timber
 ii) Steel sections
iii) Concrete
iv) Aluminum sections and
v) Stone
Out of these the timber frames are more commonly used. In factories, workshops, etc., steel frames
are widely used. Aluminum frames are costlier and are used in commercial and residential buildings.
Size of Windows:
Size of the window depends on the following factors such as dimensions of the room, room location, use
of room, direction and speed of the wind, obstruction to light by side buildings and trees, climatic conditions,
relative humidity etc. Following are the general rules to be considered while deciding the size of window:
i) Breadth of window = 1/8 (width of room + height of room).
ii) For 30 m3 inside contents of the room, there should be at least one m2 of window opening.
iii) The total area of the window openings should be at least 15% of the floor area of the room.
iv) The total area of the glass panels in the window openings should be at least 10% of the floor area of
the room.
v) For public buildings, the provision of window openings should be more than above requirements.
Table 2 shows the Indian Standard (IS) recommended sizes for different windows.
Table 2: Recommended Dimensions for Windows
SI. Size of opening Size of window frame Size of window shutter
Designation
No. (mm) (mm) (mm)
(2)
(1) (3) (4) (5)
1. 6 WS 12 600 x 1200 590 x 1190 500 x 1100
2. 10 WT 12 1000 x 1200 990 x 1190 460 x 1100
3. 12 WT 12 1200 x 1200 1190 x 1190 560 x 1100
4. 6 WS 13 600 x 1300 590 x 1290 500 x 1200
5. 10 WT 13 1000 x 1300 990 x 1290 460 x 1200
6. 12 WT 13 1200 x 1300 1190 x 1290 560 x 1200
The windows are designated by letters W, S and T i.e., window, single shutter and double shutters
respectively. For example, 6 WS 13 denotes a window opening with single shutter having width equal to 6
modules i.e., 600 mm and height equal to 13 nodules i.e., 1300 mm. Similarly 12 WT 12 denotes a window
opening with two shutters having width and height each equal to 12 modules i.e., 1200 mm.
Size of Ventilators:
The recommended dimensions (as per IS) of ventilators are shown in table 3.3. These are designated
as 10 V 6 denotes a ventilator opening having width equal to 10 modules i.e., 1000 mm and height equal to 6
modules i.e., 600 mm.
 Table 3: Dimensions of Ventilators
SI. Designation Size of opening Size of ventilator Size of ventilator
No. (mm) frame (mm) shutter (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1. 6V6 600 x 600 590 x 590 500 x 500
2. 10 V 6 1000 x 600 990 x 590 900 x 500
3. 12 V 6 1200 x 600 1190 x 590 1100 x 500

Functional Requirements of Doors and Windows:

The different functional requirements of doors and windows are as follows:
i) These should provide insulation against heat loss and sound.
ii) These should be strong and tough enough to resist against adverse effects of rain, wind, and temperature.
iii) They should not allow the entry of moisture and should not be affected by termite.
iv) They should be fire resistant and durable.
v) They should provide privacy and should not offer any trouble.
vi) They should provide security against burglars.
vii) These should be acts as vertical barrier for passage of sound, heat and fire.

Technical Terms Applied to Doors and Windows:

Following are the technical terms used in connection with the doors and windows as shown in fig. 3.11.
1. Frame : It is a group of members which form a support for a door or a window.
2. Style : It is a outside vertical member of the shutter of a door or a window.

3. Head: The top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame is called as the head.
4. Sill: The bottom or lower most horizontal part of a window frame is known as the sill. The door frames
are usually not provided with the sills,
5. Top rail: It is the topmost horizontal member of the shutter.
6. Lock rail: It is the middle horizontal member of the shutter where the locking arrangement is provided.
7. Bottom rail: It is the lower most horizontal member of the shutter.
8. Intermediate or cross-rails: The additional horizontal rails fixed between the top and bottom rails of a
shutter are called as the intermediate or cross-rails. The rail fixed between the top rail and lock rail is
known as frieze rail.
9. Panel: It is an area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails.
10. Horn: It is a horizontal projection of head or sill beyond the face of the frame. It helps in fixing the frame
on the wall opening and its length is about 100 mm to 150 mm.
11. Shutter: The entire assembly of styles, panels and rails is called as the shutter.
12. Hold fast: It is a mild steel flat bar of section 30 mm x 6 mm and of length 200 mm. Each side of door
frame carries three numbers of such hold fasts and window frame carries two numbers on each side. These
will helps to keep the frame in its position firmly.
13. Sash: It is a special type of frame with light sections and designed to carry glass. It consists of two vertical
styles a top rail and a bottom rail. A sash can be devided vertically or horizontally by providing bars, these
bars are known as sash bars or glazing bars.
14. Transom: It is a horizontal member employed to subdivide a window or a door opening horizontally.
15. Mullion: It is a vertical member employed to subdivide a door or a window opening vertically.
16. Louver: It is a timber spice fixed in an inclined position within a frame.
17. Jamb: The vertical wall face of an opening which supports the frame of door and window is known as the
jamb.
18. Rebate: The recess or depression made inside the door or window frame to receive the shutter is known
as the rebate.
19. Reveal: An external jamb of a window or door opening at right angles to the wall face is called as the
reveal.
20. Putty: A mixture of linseed oil and whiting chalk is known as putty and is used for fixing glass panels.
21. Architrave: It is a moulded or splayed wooden strip, fixed around the sides and head of openings. It helps
in giving a decent appearance to the joint of frame with the masonry. It is only used when doors and
windows are placed flush with the face of masonry.

Types of Doors:
The doors can be classified depending upon the type of materials vised, method of construction,
arrangement of different components, etc. as follows:
1. Based on arrangement of components:
a) Battened and ledged doors.
b) Battened, ledged and braced doors.
c) Battened, ledged and framed doors.
d) Battened, ledged, braced and framed doors.
 2. Based on method of construction:
a) Framed and panelled doors.
b) Glazed or sash doors.
c) Flush doors.
d) Louvered doors.
e) Wire-gauged doors.
3. Based on the working operations:
a) Revolving doors.
b) Sliding doors.
c) Swing doors.
d) Collapsible steel doors.
e) Rolling steel shutter doors.
4. Based on metal used:
a) MS steel doors.
b) Corrugated steel sheet doors.
c) Hollow metal doors.
d) Metal covered plywood doors.
1. Battened and Ledged Doors:
These doors are formed by vertical boards known as battens which are usually tonged and grooved
and are fixed together by horizontal supports, known as ledges as shown in fig. 3.12. These doors are suitable
for narrow openings. The battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm to 30 mm thick.
The battens are secured by means of suitable joints and door is hung to the frame by means of T-hinges of
iron.
2. Battened, ledged and braced doors:
These are the improved type of battened and ledged doors. In this type, an additional diagonal members
known as the braces are provided to give more rigidity as shown in fig. 3.13. The braces are generally 100
mm to 150 mm wide and 30 mm thick. These doors are used for wider openings. The braces are usually housed
in the ledges and braces must slope upwards from the hanging side as they have to work in compression as
struts and not in tension.
3. Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors:
In this case, a frame work for shutters is provided in the form of two verticals, known as styles to make
the doors stronger and better in appearance. These styles are generally 100 mm wide and 40 mm thick, usually
three ledges are provided and battens are arranged as usual as shown in fig. 3.14. The thickness of the styles
equal to thickness of ledges plus the thickness of battens.

4. Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed doors :

This is the modified type of battened, ledged and framed doors with the provision of additional braces
provided diagonally between the ledges to form more durable and stronger and to give better appearance.
Therefore these doors consists of battens, two vertical members (styles), three ledges and two braces as shown
in fig. 3.15. The battens are tongued, grooved and V-jointed. The braces are housed into the ledges, at about
40 mm from the styles.
5. Framed and Panelled Doors:
These are the usual variety of doors consists of a frame work in which panels are fitted. These are strong and
give better appearance than batton doors. These consists of frame work of vertical members called styles and
horizontal members called rails which are grooved along the inner edges of the frame, to receive the panels.
The panels are usually of timber, plywood, A.C. sheets, block board or of glasses. A various types of panelled
doors are shown in fig. 3.16 consists of single panel, two panels, three panels or multiple panels. For further
vertical subdivision of panel, vertical pieces, known as mullions can be provided. Generally panelled doors
may be of single leaf (fig. 3.16) for small openings or may be double leaf as shown in fig. 3.17, for wider
openings. In double leafed door, each leaf has separate frames, each hinged to the corresponding iamb-post of
the door.
Salient Features of these doors:
1. The styles are continuous from top to bottom i.e. single piece.
2. Top, bottom and middle rails are connected to the styles at both the ends.
3. The rails and styles are connected by tenon and mortised joints.
4. If mullions are provided, are joined to the adjacent rails between which it is fixed.
5. The bottom and lock rails are made wider than top and frieze rails.
6. The entire frame is grooved on all the inside faces to receive the panels.
7. An additional timber beading is provided either on one or on both the sides to improve the door
elevation.
8. The lock rail elevation can be adjusted so that/ its centre line is at the height of about 800 mm from the
shutter bottom.
6. 9.. The minimum width of style is kept as 100 mm. The minimum width of bottom rail and lock rail is
kept as 150 mm.
9. If panels are of timber, minimum width should be 150 mm and thickness 15 mm.
10. The maximum area of single timber panel should not be more than 0.5 m2. The restrictions do not apply
to plywood, hard board panels.
6. Glazed or Sash Doors :
These doors are used to admit more light, in addition to the light coming from windows or where the
visibility of the room interior is required from the adjacent room. These doors may be fully glazed or partly
panelled and partly glazed and are commonly used in hospitals, schools, residential buildings, colleges etc.,
usually the ratio of glazed portion to panelled portion is 2:1. The glass is received into the rebates provided in
the wooden sash bars and secured by nails and putty or by wooden beads fixed to the frame as shown in fig.
3.18 and 3.19.
The area of glazed portion can be increased by decreasing the styles width above the lock rail as shown in
fig. 3.20 known as diminished styles or gunstock styles.

7. Flush Doors :
These doors consists a frame work of rails and styles covered by plywood or hardboard. There are two
types of flush doors:
 i) Framed flush doors
ii) Laminated flush doors.
i) A framed flush door consists of rails, styles, vertical and horizontal ribs and plywood as shown in fig.
3.21(a) and (b). The horizontal ribs are provided with holes for ventilation and the vertical ribs rest on
rails. The hollow space sometimes filled with granulated cork or any other light material. The lock
block and hinge blocks are provided to the shutter to fix mortise lock and hinges. These doors are light
in weight and cheap. But as they are weak they have been absolated.

ii) A laminated flush doors consists of rails, styles, laminated core and plywood as shown in fig. 3.22(a)
and (b). The laminae of wood are glued together under great pressure. The plywood sheets are also
glued on either side to the laminated core with high pressure. Therefore a laminated flush door is heavy
and require more materials for construction. The flush doors are available in standard sizes. The
thickness of plywood facing is about 6 mm on either side and total thickness of a flush door varies
from 25 mm to 40 mm. These doors are cheap and easy to clean, better in appearance, reasonably
strong, little affected by moisture, termite proof and crack proof.
8. Louvered Doors (Venetian Doors):
These doors consists of shutters with louvers, either partly or fully. The louvers arranged in such a way
that the horizontal vision is obstructed. Therefore, the upper back edge of louver will be higher than the lower
front edge of the louver just above it. These louvers may be fixed or movable as shown in fig. 3.23(a) and (b)
respectively.
A vertical piece of timber is provided in case of movable louvers to which louvers are attached by means
of hinges. The up and down movement of the louvers can be done by means of vertical piece of timber. The
louvers may be either of wood or glass. The louvers should be kept sloping away from the inner portion as
shown in fig. 3.23. This arrangement prevents the entry of moisture from outside.

The doors allow free passage of air when closed, at the same time maintain sufficient privacy. These are
used for sanitary blocks of public buildings, residential buildings, etc. These doors requires periodic cleaning
as they collect the dust easily.

9. Wire Gauged Doors :

These doors are provided to check the entry of flies, insects, mosquitoes, etc., wire mesh is provided
in the panels, and hence, they permit free passage of air. These doors are commonly used in hotels, cupboards
containing food and eatables, refreshment rooms etc. The door is formed of wooden frame work consisting of
vertical styles and horizontal rails, and the panel openings are fitted with fine mesh galvanized wire gauge by
means of nails and timber beading. Usually, these doors have two shutters, the inner shutter is fully panelled
while the outer shutter has wire gauged panels as shown in fig. 3.24.
10. Revolving Doors :
This door consists of a centrally placed rnullion or pivot in a circular opening. The revolving shutters
four in number are radially attached to the pivot as shown in fig. 3.25. The shutters may be fully panelled or
partly panelled, fully glazed and partly glazed. The central pivot is provided at the bottom with ball bearing
and bush bearing at the top so as to rotate smooth without noise. The shutters and pivot are enclosed in a
vestibule. At the rubbing ends of shutters, the vertical rubber pieces are provided to prevent a draught of air.
The shutter can be folded when traffic is more and the opening can be locked, when not in use.
 These doors provide simultaneously an entrance on one end and exit on the other end and also keeps the
opening in closed position automatically at the same time when not in use. These doors are useful for buildings
where there is heavy traffic and for air conditioned buildings such as hotels, banks, offices etc.
11. Sliding Doors :
In this case, the shutters slides on the sides with the help of runners and guide rails as shown in fig. 3.26.

The door may have one sliding shutter or more depending upon the size of the opening and the space
available on sides for sliding. These doors are used for entrances of godowns, sheds, shops, showrooms etc.
These are provided with lockings, handles, stopper etc.
12. Swing Doors :
These doors are provided with double action spring hinges, therefore, the shutters of the door are held in
closed position, when the door is not in use. The shutter may have one or several leaves as shown in fig. 3.27.
The size of the swing door is 0.90 m x 2.10 m with 35 mm thick flush shutter. The peep whole dimensions are
150 mm x 300 mm and it is placed at the distance of about 450 mm from tire top.
When the door is to be opened, a slight push is given and then the action of spring brings the shutter in
closed position. The closing edges of the meeting styles should not be rebated and should be of segmental.
The shutters of such doors are generally glazed and these doors are widely used in offices, banks, etc.

13. Collapsible Steel Doors :

These consists of mild steel frame. The two vertical pieces of MS channels, about 15 mm to 20 mm
wide, are joined together with the hollow portion of the channel inside. A vertical gap of about 12 mm to 15
mm is thus created. Such pieces are spaced at about 120 mm centre to centre and are joined to one another by
cross iron pieces as shown in fig. 3.28. The cross iron pieces are generally 10 mm to 15 mm wide and 15 mm
thick. The rollers, mounted on horizontal pieces provided at the top and bottom ends of the vertical pieces.

These doors may be opened or closed manually by a slight pull or push. These doors works without hinges,
but provided with handles, stoppers, locking arrangements etc. These doors are used for schools, colleges,
offices, god owns, workshops, etc. These doors are preferred where light and ventilation are required in closed
position.

14. Rolling Steel Shutter Door:

This door consists of a frame, .drum and a shutter of thin steel plates are thickness about 1 to 1.5 mm and
interlocked together as shown in fig. 3.29. The frame has steel guides on the sides in which the shutter moves
up and down, and coils in the drum as it moves up. The drum diameter varies from 200 to 300 mm.
The drum provided with horizontal shaft with springs, due to which the shutter is opened or closed by the
rolling. There are two types of rolling shutters: (i) pull-push type and (ii) mechanical gear type. The first one
is used where the door opening area does not exceed 10 sq.m. The latter one is used where the opening area
is very large, and these are operated by worm gears, connecting rod and winding handle or chain pulley blocks.
These doors are quite heavy and weighs 25 to 30 kg/m2.
15. Mild Steel Sheet Doors:
These doors are used for workshops, godowns, garrages etc, and are strong and durable. These doors
consists of a frame made by angles or T-sections and usually these doors have two shutters. Each shutter is
made by a frame of steel angles having two verticals and atleast three horizontals. Mild steel plates of suitable
thickness are than welded to the shutter frame. The shutters are attached to the door frame by means of steel
hinges welded to them as shown in fig. 3.30.
16. Corrugated Steel Sheet Doors :
These door are similar to the M.S. steel doors, except that corrugated steel sheets are welded to the
shutter frame instead of M.S. sheets. The corrugated sheets are made by galvanized iron. These shutters are
stronger and lighter than M.S. plate shutters.
17. Hollow Metal Doors :
These doors looks like a wooden doors, but are much stronger. These are made by furniture steel sections,
which are hollow from inside. The rails, styles etc., are strengthened by welding small T or I sections inside.
To avoid noise while opening and closing the doors, the styles of the doors are filled with any insulating
material.
18. Metal Covered Plywood Doors or Fire Check Doors :
These doors are the composite doors made by plywood and mild steel and are reasonably fire-proof. The
core of the door consists of two or three layers of planned, tongued and grooved seasoned teak or yellow pine
board of thickness 20 to 25 mm. The core is encased in tight fitting sheet metal like galvanized steel, furniture
steel etc., so that core does not ignite. Such construction prevents the flames and also heat to pass through core
from one end to another. These doors are strong against burglars.
19. Plastic Doors :
These doors consists of door frames with shutters made by plastics and plastic reinforced with steel. These
doors are used for bathrooms and other special areas. These are popular but their life may be limited.
These doors offers following advantages:
 These are rust-proof, water proof, termite proof.
 These are alternative to the wood.
 Provide better heat insulation and ideal for air conditioned rooms.
 These are strong against dry heat, saline air, tropical rains etc.
 These are economical and low maintenance.
20. Door with a Ventilator :
Sometimes the doors are provided with ventilators on its top as shown in fig. 3.31. Such doors offers
sufficient light and ventilation even when the doors are closed.
Types of Windows:
The windows can be classified depending upon the materials used for construction, manner of fixing,
nature of operational movements of shutters etc., as follows:
1. Casement windows 9. Gable windows
2. Double-hung windows 10. Dormer windows
3. Pivoted windows 11. Corner windows
4. Sliding windows 12. Bay windows
5. Louvered windows 13. Clerestorey windows
6. Sash or glazed windows 14. Lanterns and lantern lights
7. Metal windows 15. Skylights.
8. Circular windows
1. Casement Windows:
The shutters of these windows opens like doors and the construction of a casement window is similar
to the door construction as shown in fig. 3.32. It consists of a frame, styles, rails, vertical and horizontal sash
bars and sometime includes mullions and transoms.
2. Double-hung Windows:
These windows consists of a pair of shutters slides within the grooves provided in the frame. A pair of
metal weights connected by cord or chain over pulleys is provided for each sash. It is arranged in such a way
that upper sash moves in the downward direction, thus opening at the top and the lower sash moves upward
to open at the bottom. The chain is fixed to the style. When weights are pulled, the shutters open to the required
level as shown in fig. 3.33.
3. Pivoted Windows:
In this windows, the shutters are made to swing around the pivots. The frame of this window is similar
to the casement window except that no rebates are provided. These windows may be pivoted vertically or
horizontally as shown in fig. 3.34 and 3.35 respectively. These windows easy to clean and admit more light
than the side-hung windows.
4. Sliding Windows:
These windows are similar to the sliding doors and the shutters moves on the roller bearings, either
horizontally or vertically. Usually suitable openings are provided in the walls to receive the shutters when
windows are opened out. These windows are used in buses, trains, shops, etc.
5. Sash or Glazed Windows:
These are fully glazed casement windows. The sashes are rebated to receive glass panels. The width and
depth of rebates are about 15 mm and 5 mm respectively. The glass is secured in position either by small fillets
or by putty.
6. Louvered Windows:
In these windows, the louvers are provided just like louvered doors. They allow free passage of air
when closed and at the same time they maintain sufficient privacy. The shutter consists of top rail, bottom rail
and two styles which are grooved to receive the louvers. The louvers are generally fixed in position. The
economical angle of inclination of the louvers is 45°. The louvers can be raised or lowered by means of
operating device called as Venetian blind. Sometimes, the Venetian shutters are provided in which the louvers
can open or close and louvers are slope downward to the outside to run-off the rain water as shown in fig.
3.36(a) and (b).
The louvers may be of slats of wood or aluminum, pivoted at both ends in the frame as shown in fig.
3.36(a) and (b).
7. Metal Windows:
These windows are widely ued now-a-days in public buildings. The metal may be mild steel, bronze or
other alloys. The steel windows are manufactured in standard sizes. The window frame may be directly fixed
to the wall as shown in fig. 3.37, by using lags and plugs or it may be fixed to the wooden frame as shown in
fig. 3.38 by means of screws. These windows are cheaper.

Precautions to be taken for Fixing Metal Windows:

i) The frame and sash members should be welded properly.
ii) Precautions should be taken against corrosion.
iii) The glass panels should be fixed properly.
 iv) The metal frame should be embedded in cement or bituminous mastic to prevent entry of rain water or
moisture.
v) The windows units should be staked carefully at site.
vi) Before erecting the windows, movements of the shutters should be checked and adjusted.
vii) The handles should be fixed before doing the glazing work.
viii) The hinges should always remain clear of the plaster.
ix) The scaffolding members should not be tied down to the metal windows, otherwise the windows will
be damaged.
x) The masonry openings to receive these windows should be prepared in proper level and plumb.
Methods of Fixing:
1. Clear the opening prepared for fixing the steel window.
2. Mark the exact position of the window frame along verticals, head and sill of the window frame by the
chalk lines.
3. Measure the distances of fixing holes on the frame and mark these positions in the joints of the opening
by the chalk lines.
4. Cut the holes in the brick masonry, of size 5 cm square and 5 to 10 cm deep, to accommodate lugs or
hold fasts.
5. Place the frame in the opening and adjust the correct position with proper alignment by fitting the lugs
or hold fasts in their respective holes and filling with temporary wooden wedges in small gaps around
the frame and window opening.
6. The lugs are grouted into holes with cement mortar.
7. After grout has set, the wooden wedges are removed and space between the opening and the frame is
filled with cement mortar.
8. In case of R.C.C. or stone masonry work, wooden plugs are embadded at appropriate places during
construction itself and then window frame is fixed to those plugs by means of galvanized iron wood
screws.
Advantages of Steel Windows over Wooden Windows:
1. These are manufactured with greater quality and precision.
2. They have a elegant appearance and stream lined finish.
3. These are stronger and durable than wooden window.
4. Not affected by weather.
5. They are termite proof and rot proof.
6. They are highly fire resistant.
7. They provide effective area for light and ventilation, as they are fabricated by thin sections.
8. They offer greater facility to have different types of openable parts.
9. These are easy to maintain and negligible maintenance cost.
8. Circular Windows:
These are circular pivoted windows and these are useful for factories and workshops etc.
9. Corner Windows:
Such windows are provided at. The corner of a room as shown in fig. 3.39. As these windows fixed to the
corner of the room, hence, they will have two faces in perpendicular directions. This window allow the light
and air in two directions and also improves the building elevation. However a spacial lintel and the jamb post
of the window have to be made at the corner.

10. Gable Windows:

These windows are provided in the gable ends of a pitched proof as shown in

11. Dormer Windows:

These windows are provided on the sloping roof as shown in fig. 3.40. These windows provides ventilation
and lighting to the enclosed space below the roof, and at the sometime it improves the building appearance.
12. Bay Windows:
The bay windows are projected outside the external wall of a room. They may be circular, square, splayed,
polygonal or any other shape as shown in fig. 3.41(a) and (b). The projection of bay windows may start from
floor level to sill level. These windows admit more light with increased opening area and provide ventilation.
These windows improves the building appearance also.

13. Clerestory Windows:

These windows are provided in the room which has greater ceiling height than the surrounding room on
near the top main roof as shown in fig. 3.42. These are pivoted windows and provide the ventilation to the
room as the front is blocked by the verandah. The window shutter is made to swing on two horizontal shutters
provided on side styles. It can be opened or closed by means of two cords, one attached to the top rail and
other to the bottom rail of the shutter. These windows provide good appearance to the building. These windows
should opens upper part inside and the lower part outside to avoid rain water to enter into the room and it is
essential to provide a rain-shed or chhajah over the window.
14. Lanterns or Lantern Lights:
These windows are fixed on flat roofs to provide light to the inner portion of the building where light
coming from the windows in the external walls is insufficient. They may be square or rectangular or curved.
The fig, 3.43 shows the square lantern light. The glass panels are generally fixed. But if ventilation is also
required in addition to light, a pivoted windows may be provided.

15. Skylights:
These windows are provided on the sloping surface of a pitched roof. The common rafters are suitably
trimmed and the skylight is erected on a curb frame as shown in fig. 3.44. The skylights are mainly meant for
light and they are usually provided with glass panels. The opening of skylight is properly treated by lead
flashing to make water-proof the roof area surrounding the opening.

Types of Ventilators:
Ventilators may be fixed at the top of the window or door as shown in fig. 3.45 and 3.46. These ventilators
are provided with glass panels. The steel grill is fixed in the ventilators for the purpose of safety. Ventilators
may also be movable as shown in fig. 3.47 and pivot hung as shown in fig. 3.48.

Fig. 3.45: Window with ventilator

Fig. 3.46: Door with ventilator

Functions of Ventilators or Reasons for Providing Ventilators:

Following are the functions of ventilators:
1. To permit the fresh air.
2. To keep the building cool by removing the heat from the building.
3. To avoid the backdraft of gas burnings.
4. To give the exists for fire.
5. To give the architectural looks.
6. To introduce psychrometric conditions.
Ventilators are different from windows because: Ventilators are small in size as compaired to windows
and they are fixed at the top of the window or doors and their main purpose is to control the indoor air quality,
to provide thermal comfort and to achieve the desired indoor psychrometric conditions.
Fan Light:
It is a ventilator fixed to the window or door opening at the top as shown in the fig. 3.45 and 3.46. This
fan light is provided to have adequate light and ventilation when doors or windows are closed. The shutters of
the fan light may be pivoted at the center or it may be top hung.
 These fan lights are extensively used in the schools, colleges, hospitals, government buildings, offices,
etc. Generally the height of the fan light is not more than 30 to 45 cm.
Fixtures and Fastenings for Doors and Windows:
The fixtures and fastenings for doors and windows may be of iron, aluminum or brass. Iron fixtures are
generally copper oxidized or black enameled. Brass fittings are chrome plated or bright finished and aluminum
fittings are generally anodized.
Following are the types of fixtures and fastenings are used for doors, windows and ventilators:
1. Hinges
2. Bolts
3. Handles and
4. Locks.
The different types of hinges, bolts, handles and locks with their uses are given below in table 3.4.
Table 3.4 : Fixtures and Fastenings for Doors and Windows
Sl.No. Type Use
Hinges (Fig. 3.49)
1. Black flap hinge Useful when shutters are thin.
2. Butt hinge Most commonly used.
Counter flap hinge The two leaves can be folded back to back as there are
3.
three distinct parts with two centres.
4. Garnet hinge Used for ledged and braced doors.
Parliamentary hinge To avoid obstruction due to shutters which lie along the
5.
wall when this hinge is used.
Pin hinge To hang heavy doors. The centre pin can be removed
6. and two leaves of the hinge can be fixed separately to
frame and shutter of the door.
Rising butt hinge To raise the door by about 10 mm when being opened
7.
and also to close it automatically.
8. Strap hinge Used for heavy doors.
9. Nar-madi hinge Used for heavy doors.
Spring hinges Bolts (Fig. Single acting spring hinge used for swinging doors and
3.50) when door shutter opens only in one direction. Double
10.
acting spring hinge used when door shutter opens in
both the direction.
11. Aldrop bolt Used on external doors.
12. Barrel bolt Used to fix back faces of doors.
13. Espagnolette bolt Used for high doors.
 Flush bolt Used when it is desired to keep the bolt flush with the
14.
face of the door.
15. Hasp and staple bolt Used for external doors.
16. Latch Used for secure doors.
Tower bolt Similar to barrel bolt except that instead of barrel, there
17.
are two or three staples.
Locks (Fig. 3.51)
18. Cupboard lock Used to secure doors of minor importance.
19. Hook and eye Used to keep window In an open position.
20. Mortise lock Fixed in the mortise formed on the edge of a door.
Pad lock Used for securing doors when aldrop bolts or hasp and
21.
staple bolts are employed.
Peg stay Used for steel windows. The width of opening can be
22.
adjusted by holes which are provided in the peg stay.

Rim lock Used for thin doors.

23.
Handles (Fig. 3.52)
24. Bow handle To facilitate opening of the door.
Lever handle Works with a lever and the door closes automatically
25.
when handle is released.
26. Wardrobe handle Elliptical in shape. Used for better appearance.
QUESTIONS
1. Define the "lintel" and "arch".
2. Differentiate between lintels and arches.
3. Explain the functions of lintels and arches.
4. Draw a neat sketch of an arch. Explain the functions of arches and lintels.
5. Explain with a sketch, the elements of a segmental arch.
6. Draw a neat sketch of an arch and show on it various technical terms used in its construction.
7. Name the different types of lintels used and explain with a sketch, the RCC lintel.
8. What are the different types of arches that are used in building construction?
9. Define the following terms:
i) Crown ii) Intrados
iii) Extrados iv) Spandril
v) Soffit vi) Voussoirs
10. Define the ''sunshade" and "sunbreakers".
11. Define the "canopy".
12. Differentiate the "sunshade" and "sunbreaker".
13. List the guidelines for location of door.
14. List the guidelines for location of windows.
15. Write a note on location of doors, windows and ventilators.
16. List ihe types of doors, explain with a neat sketch panelled door.
17. List the type of windows.
18. Define the following terms :
i) Mullion ii) Transom
iii) Reveal iv) Rebate
v) Style vi) Sash bar
19. How the sizes of the doors and windows are fixed ?
20. With a neat sketch, explain details of six panelled door with wooden panels.
21. List the types of doors. Explain ledged doors.
22. Explain a revolving door with a neat sketch.
23. List the functional requirements of doors and windows.
24. Draw a neat sketch of half panelled and half glazed doors and lable its parts.
25. List the types of doors based on method of construction.
26. List the types of doors based on arrangement of components.
27. Explain with neat sketch the battened, ledged, braced and framed doors.
28. List the salient features of framed and panelled doors.
29. Explain with neat sketch the construction of glazed or sash doors.
30. Draw a neat sketch of louver door and name the parts.
31. Mention the suitability of the following doors:
i) Glazed door ii) Collapsible door iii) Sliding door iv) Revolving door v) Wire gauged door.
32. List the advantages of steel windows over the wooden windows.
33. List the types of windows. Explain dormer window with a sketch.
34. Name the different types of windows. Explain clerestorey window, with e sketch.
35. Mention the suitability of the following:
i) Louvered window ii) Sliding window iii) Dormer window.
36. With a neat sketch, explain bay window.
37. Write a note on the following:
i) Lean-to-roof ii) Ventilation
38. Distinguish between sty light and lantern.
39. State the advantages of flush doors.
40. Draw a neat sketch of a half panelled and half glazed window.
41. State the advantages of plastic doors.
42. Explain with a neat sketch, the door with a ventilator.
43. Explain with a neat sketch the louvered windows.
44. State the precautions to be taken for fixing the metal windows.
45. Name the fixtures used for doors, windows and ventilators.
46. List the uses of the following:
i) AL drop bolt ii) Barrel bolt
iii) Back flap hinge iv) Hook and eye.
1. List the different types of windows used in general.
2. Define the following terms:
i) Mullion ii) transom
iii) Reveal iv) style
v) Horn.
3. Classify the lintels based on the materials used.
4. What are lintels? Sketch a lintel and combined sunshade for an external doorway.
5. Explain briefly the RCC lintel with chejja.
6. Distinguish between Intrados and extrados.
7. Write short notes on :
a) Spandrel of an arch b) flat arch
c) Segmental arch d) semi-circular arch
8. Distinguish between through lintel and cut lintels.
9. Write a note on :
i) Sliding door ii) revolving door
iii) Collapsible door.
10. Sketch and label the various components of an arch.
11. Explain with a neat sketch the following types of Windows:
i) Louvered window ii) bay window
iii) Lantern window iv) sky light
12. Explain with a neat sketch the following types of Doors: i) Flush doors ii) Louvered doors.
13. Briefly explain the different types of fittings used in doors.
14. What are the functions of a ventilator? How it is different from a window.
 MODULE - 4

STAIRS
Definitions, technical terms and types of stairs, Requirements of good stairs. Geometrical design of RCC
doglegged and open-well stairs
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DEFINITION AND TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN STAIRS :
A stair can be defined as a sequence of steps leading from one floor to the other. It is provided to
afford the means of ascent and descent between the floors or landings of a building. The room or apartment
of a building in which the stair is located, is known as a staircase and the space occupied by the stair, is
known as stairway.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN STAIRS :
The technical terms used in stairs as shown in fig. 4.1 with its components and their definitions as follows :
1. Step : This is a portion of stair which permits ascent or descent. It consists of a tread and a riser.
2. Riser : It is a vertical or front position or member of a step providing a support to the tread.
3. Flight: An unbroken series of steps between landings is known as flight, or it is a series of steps
without any landing or platform or break in their direction.
4. Tread : The horizontal upper portion of a step is known as tread.
5. Landing : The horizontal platform between two flights of a stair is known as a landing as shown in fig.
4.2(b). A landing facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest during the
use of stair.
6. Rise : It is a vertical distance between the two successive tread faces.
7. Going : It is a horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.
8. Nosing : The projecting part of the tread beyond the riser face is known as nosing. It is usually rounded
off from the point of architectural considerations.
The term line of noisings is used to denote an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential to the
noisings. It is useful in the construction of handrails, the underside of the handrail should coincide with
the line of noisings.
9. Scotia: The moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of the step to provide
strength to the nosing.
10. Line of nosings : This is an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential to the nosings. It is
used for construction of hand rails.
11. Sofit : It is the underside of a stair.

12. Baluster : It is a vertical member of wood or metal, supporting the hand rail.
13. Pitch or Slope : An angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the horizontal is known as
pitch or slope.

1
14. Newel post: A vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect the ends of strings and
hand rail is called nowel post.

15. Strings or Stringers: These are the sloping members which support the steps in a stair. They run along
the slope of the stair.
16. Balustrade or Barrister: It is a combined framework of handrail and balusters.
17. Head Room: It is the minimum vertical distance between the tread and overhead structure or ceiling.
18. Hand Rail: The inclined rail over the string is known as handrail as shown in fig. 4.1. It is generally
moulded or rounded. The handrail serves as a guard rail and it should be provided at a convenient height
so as to give grasp to the hand during ascent and descent.
19. Run: This is the total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including landings.
20. Spandrel: This is a triangular framing under the outside string of an open string stair.
21. Waist: The thickness of structural slab in case of an R.C.C. stair is known as a waist as shown in fig.
4.2(a).
22. Header: This is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or landings.
23. Stair well or well: The space provided between the flights of a half turn or quarter turn is known as stair
well.

Common Types of Steps:

Following are the common types of steps (fig. 4.3) :
i) Commode steps: This step has a curved riser and tread.
ii) Bullnose step: It is usually provided at the bottom of flight and projects in front of the newel post
with its end forming a circular quadrant in plan.

2
 i. Flier : It is an ordinary step or rectangular shape in plan.
ii. Dancing or Balancing Step : These are the steps which do not ordinate from a common centre.
iii. Splayed Step : This step has one end or both ends splayed in plan.
iv. Round-ended Step : It is similar to the builnose step except that its end or ends are semicircular in
plan.
v. Winder : It is a tapering step and it is used to change the direction of a flight. These steps radiate
from a common centre as shown in fig. 4.3.
Types of String :
There are two types of string :
i. A Cut or Open String : In this case, the upper edge is cut away to receive the ends of steps as shown
in fig. 4.4.
ii. A Closed or Housed String : In this case, the ends of steps are housed between straight parallel edges
of the string as shown in fig. 4.5.

Requirements of Good Stair :

Following are the requirements of well-designed stair :

1. The location of the stair should be such that it should be easy accessible to the occupants.
2. It should be well lighted and ventilated from the exterior.
3. It must have convenient approaches and spacious.
4. The width of the stair should be wide enough for two persons to pass on it side by side and to carry the
furnitures comfortably. Generally, for residential buildings 90 cm wide and for public buildings 1.5 m to
1.8 m width may be adopted.
5. Generally the number of steps in flight should not be more than 12 and not less than 3.

3
6. The rise and go to the stair should be convenient for ascending and descending the stair.
7. The pitch of the stair should be limited to 30° to 45°.
8. Each flight of a stair should have a sufficient wide landing at its end. The minimum width of landing
should be equal to the width of stair.
9. For determining the number of treads and risers, the procedure as follows: as the height of floor is
known.
a) The positions of first and last risers are fixed with respect to positions of doors, windows,
varandahs, etc.
b) Number of risers = Total height of floor/ Height of riser

c) Number of treads in a flight - Number of riser -1 (This is due to the fact that the surface of the upper
floor forms the tread for the top step).
10. The sizes of tread and riser of step should be well proportioned with following thumb rule:
a) (2 x Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 60
b) (Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 40 to 45
c) (Rise in cm) x (Going in cm) = 400 to 450
d) Adopt rise = 14 cm and going = 30 cm as standard : then for every 20 mm subtracted from going,
add 10 mm to the rise.
Therefore, combinations of rise and going would be 15 cm x 28 cm : 16 cm x 26 cm; 17 cm x 24 cm.
For residential building the size of steps is 16 cm x 26 cm.
11. Winders should be avoided as far as possible. If winders are unavoidable, they should be placed at the
bottom rather than top of the flight.
12. If the flight is of more than three steps, a hand rail at least on one side is considered. The height of hand
rail above the riser should be approximately 800 mm. The wider stairs should have hand rails on both
sides.
13. There should be adequate head room is necessary for a good stair. It should not be less than 2 m.
14. The stair material should be fire-resisting qualities.
15. The stair should be constructed with sound material and good workmanship to give strength and
durability to the stair.
16. A single step flight should not be introduced in a stair for any purposes.
17. The open well stairs must be provided with balustrade to minimise the danger of accidents.
Types of Stairs :
The stairs may be classified into the following :
1) Straight stairs
2) Turning stairs
3) Circular stairs
4) Spiral stairs

4
 5) Geometrical stairs
6) Helical stairs.
1. Straight stair : In this case, all steps lead in only one direction as shown in fig. 4.6. This type of
stair can consists of one or more flights and these are used when the space available for staircase is
long but narrow in width.

2. Turning stairs : In this case, the flights take turn and these are as follows:
i) Quarter-turn stairs : These stairs turn through one right angle as shown in fig. 4.7(a). If a quarter-
turn stair is branched into two flights at a landing is known as bifurcated stair shown in fig. 4.7(b). Such stair
is commonly used in public buildings neat their entrance hall. This stair has a wider flight at the bottom and
bifurcates into two narrow flights at the landing.

ii) Half turn stairs : These stairs turning through two right angles and these may be of dog-legged type
and open newel type as shown in fig. 4.8(a), (b) and (c). In dog-legged stair, the flights turn in opposite
directions and there should not be any space between them in plan. These stairs are useful when total width
of spare available for the staircase is equal to twice the step width.

5
 In open newel stairs a well is formed between flights in plan. This plan may be rectangular or of any
geometrical shape. These stairs used where the available space for staircase is greater than the twice the step
width and it can be used for fixing lift.

iii) Three quarter turn stairs : These stairs turning through three right angles as shown in fig. 4.9. In
this case also an open well is formed and this is used when the length of the staircase is limited and when the
vertical distance between the two floors is quite large.

3. Circular Stairs :
In this case, the steps of the stair radiate from the centre and do not have any landing or any
intermediate newel post. The flights consist of winders only and continued through any desired number of
turns. Generally these stairs are provided at rear of a building to give access to occupants at various floors as
shown in fig. 4.10.

6
4. Spiral Stairs :
These stairs are similar to the circular stairs, but the radius of curvature is small as shown in fig.
4.11. These stairs are supported by a central post. These stairs may be of cast-iron, concrete or of mild steel.
These stairs are complicated in nature and constructed in a minimum possible space at rare side of the
buildings.

5. Geometrical Stairs :
These stairs do not have any newel post but have any geometrical shape. The hand rail of these stairs
continues without any interruption and any angular turns. The change in the direction in these stairs is
achieved by winders. A curved well formed between the forward and backward flights as shown in fig. 4.12.

6. Helical Stairs :
A helical stair is as shown in fig. 4.13, which looks beautiful but its structural design and
construction is complicated. It is generally constructed by R.C.C with large portion of steel to resist the
bending, shear and torsion.

7
Difference between Spiral Staircase and Helical Staircase :
Spiral Staircase Helical Staircase
1. These are of spiral shape with a newel. 1. These are of helical shape without newel.
2. Handrail is present on the outerside. 2. Handrails are present on both sides.
3. These are limited to a circular shape. 3. They are also built in an elliptical or oval
shape.
4. The require less floor space. 4. They require more floor space.
5. Inner side of the staircase contains the 5. There is no central pole.
central pole.
6. Normal material and constructional 6. Better material and constructional design is
design is enough. required.

Stairs of Different Materials :

Following are the different materials used for construction of stairs :
1. Stone stairs
2. Timber stairs or wooden stairs
3. Brick stairs
4. Metal stairs
5. R.C.C. stairs.
1. Stone stairs : The stones used for stairs should be hard, non-absorbant and fire resistant. These stairs
are used for workshops, warehouses, etc. These are widely used in the places where the ashlar stones are
readily available. These steps are constructed in any of the following shapes :
i) Rectangular step with rebated joint
ii) Triangular in shape
iii) Tread and riser step
iv) Cantilever tread slab step
v) Built up step.
2. Timber or Wooden stairs : These are light in weight and commonly used for residential buildings.
3. Brick stairs : These stairs are not used frequently now-a-days. A brick stair may be of solid
construction or arches may provided.
4. Metal stairs : Generally the external fire-escape stairs are made of metal. Usually cast-iron, bronze
and mild steels are used for construction of these stairs.

8
 5. R.C.C. stairs : These stairs are commonly used now-a-days in most of the buildings and these are
good wear and fire resistant and can be moulded to a any desired shape. A typical R.C.C. stair as shown in
fig. 4.14.

Advantages of R.C.C Stairs :

i) They have good fire and wear resistant.
ii) They are strong and durable.
iii) They are pleasant in appearance and non-slipping.
iv) Negligible maintenance cost.
v) They can be cleaned very easily.
vi) They can be desined to any desirable width and length.
vii) For framed structures these are the only choice.
Escalators :
An electrically operated, ever moving and inclined flights used for rising and lowering the passangers
are known as escalators. There escalators are kept in continuous motion by a revolving drum. A few steps at
top and bottom are kept level through moving individually. The only thing a person has to do is to occupy a
step of the escalator for his upward or downward motion.
Escalator consists of three parts : Steel trussed framework, handrails and an endless belt with step an
accurately prepared tracks are attached to the steel trusses and the steps move on these tracks. There
escalators are generally used when the traffic of persons is heavy between the floors. They are used for
commercial buildings, tube railways, etc. The escalator consumes less power, possess large capacity and
require no operators for their working. Generally, the accepted speed for the moving stair is 450 mm/sec.
Lifts or Elevators :
Lifts or elevators are the vertical transportion cars or cabs used for carrying the goods or passangers up
and down in the tall buildings having four or more than four storeys. The elevators may be operated by
electrically or hydraulically. Electrically operated elevators are used for tall buildings and generally
hydraulic elevators are used in buildings having six or less than six storeys. Generally, the lifts are consists
of cab or car moving on guide rails, counter weight, wire rapes, machie room and a pit as shown in fig. 4.17.

9
The car and counter weights are moved up and down by means of ropes attached at the top and driven by the
motor placed in the machine room. The lifts are provided with vents for proper ventilation to the users.
In general the lifts are classified into :
i) Service lifts
ii) Passanger lifts
iii) Goods lifts
iv) Fireman's lifts
The factors to be considered while designing the elevator system are :
i) Location of the building.
ii) Number of floors in the building.
iii) Distance between the floors.
iv) Population on each floor.
v) Type of service in the building.
vi) Peak demand from the users per 5 minute period.

10
Ramp :
Generally a ramp is a sloping or gradient surface and it is used as a substitute for stair for easy
connection between the floors. The ramps are usually provided in places such as railway stations, office
buildings, stadiums, hospitals, bus stands, etc., where there is a large movement of people or vehicles is
likely to occur. These ramps should be constructed with non-slippery surface. Normally the ramps are given
a slope or gradient of 15%, but a slope of 10% is generally preferred.
The ramps require large space and they need not be straight for the entire distance. The ramps may be
spiraled or zigzagged.
The power operated ramps carrying standing passengers are usually made to operate at 8° at the speed of
50 to 60 m/min. Sidewalk access ramps are also provided at highways with the slope of 1:12 for vehicles
and 20" in 20' length for foot ramp. Situations where Ramps can be used:
1. for taking the patients in hospitals from one floor to another.
2. for moving goods from one platform to another in railway stations, airports, etc.
3. To move wheeled objects in shopping complex.
4. for the movement of pedestrians at the highways.
5. for the movement of pedestrians in railway stations, etc.
There are permanent and semi-permanent ramps may be used and are usually of aluminum, concrete or
wood.

11
 MODULE - 4

Formwork: Introduction to form work, scaffolding, shoring, under pinning.

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SCAFFOLDING
INTRODUCTION:
During the building construction and repair or renovation of the old buildings, it becomes necessary
to have some type of temporary structure or support so as to carry out the work for an unsafe structure.
These temporary arrangements take up in the form of scaffolding, shoring and underpinning.

DEFINITION OF SCAFFOLDING:
When the height of column, wall or other structural member of the building exceeds about 1.5 m, a
temporary structure, usually of timber, is erected close to the work to provide safe working platform for the
workers to carry out the construction work and to provide a limited space for the storage of plant and
building materials. These temporary frameworks is known as a scaffolding or scaffold. This is useful in
construction, repair and demolition works.

COMPONENT PARTS OF A SCAFFOLDING :

The scaffolding consists of following parts :
1. Standards : These are vertical members of a framework, supported on the ground or drums or
embedded into the ground.
2. Ledgers : These are horizontal members parallel to the wall.
3. Putlogs : These are transverse members, placed at right angles to the wall with one end supported on
ledgers and other end on the wall.
4. Braces : These are diagonal members fixed on standards.
5. Bridle : It is a member used to bridge an opening in a wall and it supports one end of the putlog at the
opening.
6. Transoms : These are those putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers.
7. Guard rail : This is a rail, provided like a ledger at the working level.
8. Racker : It is an inclined support.
9. Toe board : It is a board placed parallel to the ledgers and supported on putlogs, to give protection at the
level of working platform.
The different members or components of a scaffold are secured by means of nails, bolts, rope etc.

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SCAFFOLDING :

1. The material used for scaffolding should be of high quality.
2. Each scaffold and scaffold component should be capable of supporting maximum intended load.
3. Scaffolds should be designed by a well qualified person.
4. The scaffolding should be constructed and loaded in accordance with the design.

1
5. Each platform on all working levels of scaffolds should be fully planked or decked between the front
uprights and the guardrail supports.
6. Proper space should be given between the platforms.
7. Each scaffold platform and walkway should be at least 18 inches.
8. The maximum distance from the face for plastering and lathing operation should be 18 inches.
9. Proper connecting hardwares and ropes should be used to support the load without failure.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING :
Following are the different types of scaffolding :
1. Single scaffolding or bricklayer's scaffolding.
2. Double scaffolding or mason's scaffolding.
3. Cantilever scaffolding or needle scaffolding.
4. Suspended scaffolding.
5. Trestle scaffolding.
6. Steel scaffolding.
7. Patented scaffolding.

1. Single Scaffolding or Bricklayer's Scaffolding :

It is most commonly used in construction of brick work. It consists of a single row of standards placed at
a distance of about 1.20 m from the wall. The distance between the successive standards is about 2 m to 2.50
m. Tire ledgers are then fixed to the standards at a vertical distance of about 1.20 m to 1.80 m as shown in
fig. 5.1.
The putlogs are placed with one end on the ledger and the other end on the wall, at an interval of 1.2 to
1.5 m. The braces, guard rail and toe board are also fixed as shown in fig. This is also known as putlog
scaffolding.

2
2. Double Scaffolding or Mason's Scaffolding
The double scaffolding is stronger than single scaffolding and this is used in the construction of stone
work. This framework is similar to single scaffolding except that two rows of standards are provided. The
distance between the first row of standard and the face of the wall is about 200 to 300 mm and the distance
between the two rows of standards is about 1 m. Putlogs are then used to support the two frames. The cross
braces and rackers are also provided to make the scaffolding more stronger and stable as shown in fig. 5.2.
This scaffolding is also known as independent scaffolding.

3. Cantilever or Needle Scaffolding :

These scaffolding are used under the following conditions:
i) When the ground is very weak to support the standard.
ii) The construction work is to be carried out for upper parts of a multistoreyed building.
iii) When it is required to keep the ground, near the wall free for traffic, etc.
This scaffolding may be single frame type (putlog scaffolding) as shown in fig. 5.3 or double
frame type (independent scaffolding) as shown in fig. 5.4. In single frame type, the standards are supported
on series of needles taken out through holes in the wall. In double frame type, the needles or projecting
beams are strutted inside the floors through the openings.

4. Suspended Scaffolding :
It is very light weight scaffolding and it is used only for maintenance works such as white washing,
pointing, distempering, painting etc. The working platform is suspended from the roofs by means of ropes,
wires, chains etc. The platform can be raised or lowered at any desired level.
5. Trestle Scaffolding :
The trestle scaffolding is used for painting and repair works inside the room, upto a height of 5 m. The
working platform of scaffolding is supported on the top of movable contrivances such as ladders, tripods
etc., mounted on wheels.

3
6. Steel Tube Scaffolding : (Fig. 5.5)
In this case, the steel tubes are used for scaffolding work instead of timber. The diameter of tubes is
about 40 to 50 mm and their thickness is about 5 mm. The tubes are available in standard lengths with
special couplings and set screws.

Advantages of Steel Tube Scaffolding :

1. They can be used up to any height.
2. These are strong and more durable.
3. These can be easily assembled and dismentled.
4. High fire resistance.
5. Economical for longer period.
6. Possesses high scrap value.
7. Do not suffer any damage during usage.
Disadvantages of Steel Scaffolding :
1. High initial cost.
2. They require skilled labour.
3. They requires periodical painting.

4
7. Patended Scaffolding :
Now-a-days many types of scaffoldings are available in market, made up of steel, with special types
of couplings and frames. Usually the working platform is supported on bracket which can be adjusted to any
suitable height.
Points to be Considered in Scaffolding :
Following are the points to be considered while carrying the scaffolding :
1. If standards are not resting on the hard ground, the suitable base plates should be provided at the bottom
or a timber sole plate may be provided.
2. The scaffolding should not be loaded heavily as it is temporary structure.
3. The scaffolding must be tied to the building at suitable levels.
4. A vertical or horizontal tube, wedged by means of a reveal pin, may be provided in an opening and one
of the ends of the putlogs may be coupled with this tube.
5. A tube may be provided across the opening inside the wall and one of the ends of the putlogs may be
coupled with this tube.
6. The planks used in this case, should not be defective.
7. The rackers, strutting from the ground level may be provided to give lateral support to the scaffold.
8. As the work proceeds, the standards are suitably lengthened and fresh ledgers and putlogs are inserted.
The working platforms are then shifted to new levels.
9. The loading on scaffolding decides the spacing of standards. It is less for heavy loading and more for
light loading.
10. After removing the scaffolding, the holes of putlogs in the wall should be filled up immediately.

SHORING:

DEFINITION: The construction of a temporary structure required for supporting an unsafe structure to
prevent the movements due to unequal settlement of foundation or removal of adjacent building or any other
reason is known as shoring.
It is essential for structures which have become unsafe due to above said reasons. In such cases, a
temporary structure is constructed for lateral support known as shoring. It is provided until the structure
becomes stable.
The Circumstances under which the Shoring is required as follows:
• The adjacent structure is to be dismantled.
• Developments of cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation in a wall are to be repaired.
• When openings are to be made or enlarged in the wall.
• When a wall shows signs of bulging out due to bad workmanship.
• Defective walls of a building are to be dismantled.

5
TYPES OF SHORING :
Following are the types of shoring :
1. Raking or Inclined Shores.
2. Flying or Horizontal Shores.
3. Dead or Vertical Shores.

1. Raking or Inclined Shores :

This is an arrangement of inclined supports given to the external walls from the ground as shown in fig.
5.6. It consists of a wall plates, needles, rakers, cleats, sole plate and bracing. The wall plate is placed
against the wall and is secured by means of needles which penetrate into wall for a distance of about 150
mm. The wall plate distributes the pressure evenly. The needles are nailed to the wall plate and secured by
cleats. The rakers are interconnected by means of braces or struts or lacings. The feet of rakers are stiffened
by braces and hoop iron and they are interconnected with the sole plate by means of iron dogs. The
following points should be noted :
• The rakers should be inclined to the ground by 45°, to make them more effective. In practice the angle
may vary from 45° to 75°. The top raker should not be inclined steeper than 75°.
• For tall buildings, the length of rakers can be reduced by providing a rider raker.
• The rakers should be braced at intervals.
• The raker size may be decided by the anticipated thrust from the wall.

6
• The sole plate is usually embedded in the ground and the legs of rakers rest on the sole plate.
• The centre line of raker and the wall should meet at floor level.
• It is not desirable to do wedging as it damage the building which is already in an unsafe condition,
• The sole plate should be long enough to accommodate all rakers and cleat on the outside.
• The necessary permission of the owner of the adjacent building should be obtained.

2. Flying or Horizontal Shores :

In flying shores, the horizontal supports are given to parallel walls which are unsafe due to removal or
collapse of intermediate building.
When the maximum distance between adjacent parallel walls is about 9 m, then a single flying shore is
used as shown in fig. 5.7. It consists of wall plate, needles, cleats, straining pieces, struts, and folding
wedges. The depth of flying shore should not less than one-thirtieth of the clear span and width not less than
one- fiftieth of its length.

When the maximum distance between the adjacent walls is between 9 m to 12 m a double flying shore is
provided as shown in fig. 5.8 both the horizontal shores are symmetrically placed with respect to the floor
level

7
 The centre line of flying shores, struts and walls should meet at the floor levels. If floor levels of two
buildings are at different levels, the frame work may be suitably designed and made unsymmetrical. The
struts are generally inclined at 45° and should not more than 60°. When one building is higher than the
other, the racking shores may be provided on the horizontal shores.
The flying shores are generally erected at a distance of about 3 m to 5 m in plan and horizontal struts are
introduced.

3. Dead or Vertical Shores :

In this shores, the horizontal members called as needles are supported by vertical members called as the
dead shores. The needles are driven at right angles to the wall through holes made in, the wall as shown in
fig. 5.9. The dead shore is generally used in the following situations :
a) When the foundations are to be deepened.
b) When the bottom of the wall is to be rebuilt.
c) When large openings are to be made in the existing wall.
d) When the bottom of the wall become defective.

Following Points are to be considered:

i) It is possible to calculate the stresses in the various members of the dead shore.
ii) The floors are suitably supported inside.
iii) The openings above and near a dead shore are suitably strutted.
iv) The needles are placed at a distance of about 1.50 m to 2 m and they are suitably braced.
v) A racking shore may be provided as an additional safety in case of weak walls.
vi) The shores should be removed at least after 7 days of construction of new work.

8
 MODULE - 5

PLASTERING AND POINTING: purpose, materials and methods of plastering and pointing, defects in
plastering-Stucco plastering, lathe plastering
DAMP PROOFING- causes, effects and methods.
PAINTS- Purpose, types, ingredients and defects, Preparation and applications of paints to new and old
plastered surfaces, wooden and steel surfaces.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PLASTERING:
Plastering is a process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and other building
components with thin coat of plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface.
Plastering on external exposed surfaces is known as rendering.
OBJECTS OF PLASTERING:
Following are the objects of plastering:
1. To protect the exposed surfaces from the effects of atmospheric actions.
2. To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
3. To protect the surfaces against vermit.
4. To provide decorative effects.
5. To rectify the defective workmanship.
6. To conceal inferior materials.
7. To cover up the inferior quality and porous materials.
REQUIREMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PLASTERING:
Following are the requirements of good plastering:
1. It should be hard and durable.
2. It should adhere to the background and resist the effects of variation in atmospheric conditions and
seasons.
3. It should possess good workability.
4. It should be cheap and economical.
5. It should be possible to apply during all weather conditions.
6. It should give smooth, non-absorbent and washable surface.
7. It should have good insulation against sound.
8. It should have good fire resistance.
9. It should check effectively the penetration of moisture from the surface.
ADVANTAGES OF PLASTERING:
The advantages of the plastering are as follows:
1. It is hard and durable.
2. It is cheap and economical.

1
3. It possesses good workability.
4. It gives smooth finishing to the walls.
5. It avoids all the irregularities of workmanship.
6. It covers all the porous materials.
7. It improves appearance of the structure.
TERMINOLOGY USED IN PLASTERING WORK :
1. Background : It is the surface to which the first coat of plaster is applied.
2. Blistering : The development of local swelling on the plastered surface is known as blistering. This
is due to unslaked lime nodules.
3. Cracking : It is the development of one or more fissures in the plaster due to movements in the
background.
4. Crazing: It is the development of hair cracks, in an irregular pattern, over the finished surface.
5. Dado : This is lower part of plastered wall, where special treatment is given to make it better
resistance.
6. Dots: These are small projections of plaster, laid on background for fixing of screeds etc. The size of
the dots may be 15 cm x 15 cm.
7. Dubbing coat: This is the process of filling up hollow spaces in the solid background, before
applying the main body of the plaster.
8. Finishing coat : It is the final coat of plaster. Such a coat is also known as setting coat or skimming
coat.
9. Flaking : It is the process of scaling away patches of plaster of previous coat, due to lack of adhesion
with the under-coat.
10. Gauging : It is the process of mixing various constituents of plaster.
11. Grinning : It is the reflection or appearance on the surface of plaster, of the pattern of joints or
similar patterns in the background.
12. Grounds : These are the wooden strips fixed to the background to which primary finishing may be
secured.
13. Hacking : It is the process of roughening the back-ground to provide suitable bond or key for
plastering.
14. Keys : These are the openings on the back-ground to which plaster will form mechanical bond.
15. Laitance : When freshly laid concrete or morter is subjected to excessive trowelling, a screen
consisting of thin layer of fine cement particles is formed. This layer is known as laitance.
16. Peeling : It is a term applied to the dislodgment of plaster work from the background.
17. under coats: These are the coats of plaster applied under the finishing coat.

2
METHOD OF CEMENT PLASTERING:
Following procedure is adopted for cement plastering in two coats:
1. The mortar joints are racked out for a depth of 20 mm and the surface is cleaned and well watered.
2. If the surface is to be plastered very rough and uneven, a preliminary coat is applied to fill up the
hollows before the just coat of plaster is put up on the surface.
3. The first coat of plaster is now applied on the surface; usually thickness of first coat for brick masonry is
9 mm to 10 mm. In order to maintain uniform thickness, the screeds are formed on the wall surface by
fixing dots as shown in fig. 5.10. To fix a dot a small quantity of plaster is laid on the surface making
roughly a square of 150 mm x 150 mm. Another dot is fixed vertically below at a distance of about 2
meters. The two dots are plumbed by means of a plumb bob.
4. After fixing the dots, a vertical strip of mortar is formed in between the dots. The vertical strip of mortar
is known as screed. Sufficient number of screeds should be prepared to obtain the uniform thickness of
the plaster.

5. The cement mortar is placed between the successive screeds and the surface is properly finished.
6. The second coat of plaster is applied after about 6 hours and the thickness of second coat is usually about
3 mm to 2 mm. It is finished as per requirement. For smooth surface, the neeru or sagol is applied and
for hard surface, the paste of cement is applied.
7. The completed work is allowed to rest for 24 hours and then, the surface is kept well-watered for at least
one week.
Plaster in Three Coats:
The procedure for plaster in three coats is same as the above except that the number of coats of plaster is
three. The following table describes the plaster as follows :

3
Table : Plaster in three coats with cement mortar
Name of coat Thickness Remarks
First coat Rendering coat 9 to 10 mm This is left for a period of 3 to 4 days to
harden. Its surface is kept rough.
Second coat Floating coat 6 to 9 mm The purpose of this coat, of plaster is to
bring the work to an even surface.
Third coat Setting coat or 3 mm This coat is similar to second coat of
finishing coat two coat plaster.

USE OF LATH IN PLASTERING

In order to provide a foundation to the plaster work, the lath is adopted for instance the lath becomes
inevitable when plaster is to be provided to the ceiling of floor with wooden joist. When lath is used the
plaster is invariably carried out in three coats.
The laths may be divided broadly into the following two categories namely
1) Metal laths
2) Wooden laths
DEFECTS IN PLASTERING :
Following are the usual defects in plastering work :
1. Blistering of plastering surface : The small patches swell out beyond the plane of the plastered surface
(commonly seen inside the building).
2. Cracks : These are formed on the plastered surface and may be hair cracks or cracks which may be
easily seen. The development of fine hair cracks is known as crazing.
3. Efflorescence : The soluble salts are present in plaster making material as well as building materials
such as bricks, sand, cement, etc. Even water used in the construction work may contain soluble salts.
When a newly constructed wall dries out, the soluble salts are appear over the surface like whitish
crystalline called as efflorescence. This seriously effects the adhesion of paint with wall surface.
4. Flaking : The formation of small loose mass on the plastered surface called as flaking and it is mainly
due to bond failure between successive coats of plaster.
5. Peeling : The plaster from some portion of the surface comes off and a patch is formed, it is called as
peeling and it is mainly due to bond failure between successive coats.
6. Popping : Sometimes the plaster mix contains particles which expand on being set. ^ conical hole in
plastered surface is formed in front of the particle. This conical hole is known as the blow or pop.
7. Rust-stains ; These are sometimes seen on the plastered surface, especially when the plaster is applied
on the metal lath.'

4
8. Softness : The excessive dampness at certain points on the plastered surface makes that portion soft.
This may due to thinness of finishing coat, presence of deliquescent salts or excessive suction of
undercoat, etc.
9. Uneven surface : This defects becomes prominent only due to poor workmanship of the work.
10. Bloom : In this defect, dull patches are formed on finished polished surface due to defect in paint or due
to bad ventilation.
11. Crawling or Sagging : This defect occurs due to the application of too thick a paint.
12. Fadding: It is a gradual loss of colour of paint due to the effect of sunlight or pigments of the paint.
13. Grinning : This defects is caused when the final coat does not have sufficient opacity so that
background is clearly seen.
14. Sponification : This is the formation of soap patches on the painted surface due to chemical action of
alkalies.
REMEDIES FOR MINIMIZING THE DEFECTS IN PLASTERING :
Following are the remedies for minimizing the defects in plastering :
1. The brickwork and plastering should be carried out with best workmanship.
2. The bond of brickwork should be properly maintained.
3. The efflorescence is removed by rubbing brushes on the damaged surface by means of a solution
consists of part of HCL acid or sulphuric acid and 5 part of clean water and then cleaned by spraying
clean water.
4. The superior quality bricks should be used.
5. The water free from salts should be used for the brickwork and plastering work.
6. The surface to be plastered should be well-watered so that it may not absorb water from the plaster.
7. The excessive trowelling should be avoided.
8. The damp proof courses should be provided at convenient places in the building.
9. The plastering should prevent the penetration of moisture.
10. The plastered surfaces should be protected from rain water and excessive heat from sun.
Types of Plaster Finishes :
There are various forms of external finishes. The common varieties are as following :
1. Smooth cast finish
2. Sand faced
3. Rough cast
4. Pebble dash
5. Depeter
6. Scrapped
7. Textured finish.

5
 1. Smooth Cast Finish :
In this work, smooth, levelled and finish surface is obtained. The mortar used for this may be of 1:3 (1
cement: 3 fine sand). The plastering is done with wooden floots instead of steel floats to avoid
cracking and crazing. As steel floots give very fine finish and which is liable to crack or crazing.
2. Sand Faced Finish :
It is obtained by plastering in two coats. The first coat is applied in 1:4 cement sand mortar for 12 mm
thickness. It is provided with zig-zag lines. After curing it for 7 days, the second coat is applied in the
thickness of 8 mm with 1:1 cement sand mortar. Sponge is used in second coat in wet condition. The
final coat is finished by rubbing clean and washed sand of uniform size by means of wooden float.
This results in surface having sand grains of equal and uniform density.
3. Rough Cast Finish or Spatter Dash Finish :
In this case, the mortar of 1:1 y:3 (cement : sand : aggregate) is used. The mortar is dashed against
the prepared plastered surface by means of large trowel. The surface is then roughly finished by
wooden float. Such a finish is water proof, durable and resistant to cracking and crazing and may be
used for external rendering.
4. Pebble Dash or Dry Dash Finish :
In this the final coat, having mortar of 1:3 (cement: sand) is applied in 12 mm thick. Clean pabbles of
sizes vary from 10 to 20 mm size then dashed against the surface, so that they are held in position. The
pebbles may be lightly pressed into the mortar, with the help of wooden float.
5. Depeter Finish :
It is similar to pebble dash finish in which the 12 mm coat is applied and while it is still wet, the pieces
of gravel or flint are pressed with hand on the surface. Flints of different colours may be used to obtain
beautiful patterns.
6. Scrapped Finish :
In this, the final coat of 6 to 12 mm thick is applied and after it has stiffened for few hours, the surface
is scrapped in patterns for a depth of 3 mm. For scrapping, steel straight edge, old saw blade or such
other tool may be used. Such scrapped surface is less liable to cracks.
7. Textured Finish :
This is used with stucco plastering. Ornamental patterns or textured surfaces are made on the final coat
of stucco, plastering by working with suitable tools.
TOOLS FOR PLASTERING:
Following are tools generally used for plastering work :
1. Gauging trowel: It is the ordinary trowel and useful for applying mortar to mouldings, corners, etc. It
has a pointed or bull-nosed end as shown in fig. 5.11
2. Float: It is a tool used to spread the mortar on the surface. It is made of thin tempered steel and it is also
known as the laying trowel. Wooden float is known as skimming float and it is used for final or finishing
coat of plaster as shown in fig. 5.12 and 5.13. A float provided with nails projecting by about 3 mm from

6
 the surface is known as the devil float and it is used to make zig-zag lines on the plastered surface so as
to form a key for the subsequent coat.
3. Floating rule : As shown in fig. 5.14. This tool is used to check the level of the plastered surface
between the successive screeds.
4. Plumb bob : This tool is used for forming screeds in the same vertical plane as shown in fig. 5.15.
5. Miscellaneous tools : In addition to above tools, some other tools such as brushes, spirit level, set
squares, straight edges, etc., are used for plastering.

POINTING:
The term pointing is used to denote the finishing of mortar joints of either stone masonry or brick
masonry.
In exposed masonry, joints are considered to be the weakest and most vulnerable spots from which rain
water or dampness can enter. Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 to 20 mm and filling it
with better quality mortar in desired shape.
MORTAR FOR POINTING :
Pointing is done with the following : Cement mortar 1:3 mix (1 cement : 3 sand) and Lime mortar 1:2 mix (1
lime : 2 sand or surkhi)
OBJECTS OF POINTING :
Following are the objects of pointing :
1. To protect the exposed surfaces from the effects of atmospheric actions.
2. To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
3. To protect the surfaces against vermit.
4. To provide decorative effects.
5. To rectify the defective workmanship.
6. To conceal inferior materials.
7. To coverup the inferior quality and porous materials.

7
METHOD OF POINTING :
The pointing work is carried out as follows :
1. The mortar of the masonry joints to be covered by pointing is raked out at least to a depth of 20 mm.
2. The dust from the masonry, joints is removed by the brushes.
3. The surface is then washed with clean water and it is kept wet for a few hours.
4. The mortar is then carefully placed in desired shape in these prepared joints. The mortar is placed by a
small trowel and it is slightly pressed to bring it into close contact with the old interior mortar of the
joint.
5. The finished surface is well-watered for a period of at least 3 days if lime mortar is used and 10 days if
cement mortar is used.
Types of Pointing :
Following are the usual types of pointing :
1. Beaded pointing : This type of pointing is as shown in fig. 5.16 and it is formed by a steel or iron rod
with a concave edge. The bedded pointing is good in appearance. But it is difficult to maintain as it can
be easily damaged.

2. Flush pointing : It is formed by removing the excess mortar from the joint as shown in fig. 5.17.
The joint is made flush with the face. This pointing does not gives good appearance. But it is
durable as it does not provide any space for accumulation of dust, water, etc., and hence, it is
extensively used.
3. Recessed pointing : In this case, the face of pointing is kept vertical and it is pressed inside the
wall surface by a suitable tool to a depth of about 5 mm or more as shown in fie. 5.18. This
pointing gives very good appearance.
4. Rubbed or Keyed or Grooved pointing : In this case, a groove is formed at the centre of height
by a pointer as shown in fig. 5.19. This type of pointing gives better appearance and is generally
adopted.
5. Struck pointing : In this case, the face of pointing is kept inclined as shown in fig. 5.20. The
upper edge of joint is about 10 mm inside the face of masonry. The joint disposes water easily. If
the lower edge of joint is kept inside the face of masonry, it is known as the overhand struck
pointing. But it will not form a satisfactory joint as water will be collected in the joint.

8
6. Truck pointing: In this caes, a groove is formed at the centre of joint. The width and depth of groove
are respectively 5 mm and 3 mm. The groove is then filled in or tucked in by white cement putty with a
projection of 3 mm as shown in fig. 5.21. If projection is done in the mortar, it is called the Bastard
pointing or half- tuck pointing.

7. Vee pointing : In this type, a Vee groove is formed in the mortar joint as shown in fig. 5.22.

8. Weathered pointing : In this type, a projection in the form of a Vee- shaped is formed as shown in fig.
5.23

9
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLASTERING AND POINTING :
Sl.No. Plastering Pointing
1. It is the process of applying thin mortar It is the process of closing the joints of
layer over the masonry surface. the masonry with mortar.

2. Cement plaster, lime plaster, mud Beaded pointing, flush pointing, Vee
plaster, etc., can be used. pointing, etc., can be used.
3. It provides strength to the masonry. It provides strength to the joint.
4. Trowel, float and flat are used for Small trowel is used for pointing.
plastering.

PAINTING:
Painting is the process of applying the paint coatings over the surfaces of timber, metal, concrete,
masonry plaster etc., to impart the decorative finish and protect them from weathering, corrosion, other
chemical and biological effects.
Paints are the liquid compositions of pigments and binders which when applied to the surface in thin
coats dry to form a solid film to impart the surface of a decorative finish apart from giving protection to the
base material (concrete, timber, cloth, plaster, metal, etc.) from weathering corrosion and other chemical and
biological attacks.
Calcareous surfaces, like lime and cement plastered surfaces are highly alkaline in the initial stages, they
retain large quantities of water during construction and it takes long time for the greater part of the water to
evaporate even when the atmospheric conditions are favourable. Therefore, in applying a paint system on
these surfaces, it is essential to take cognizance of the stored up moisture and also the alkalinity of the
surfaces.
OBJECTS OF PAINTING :
Following are the objects of painting:
1. To protect the surface from weathering effects of the atmosphere and actions by other liquids, fumes
and gases.
2. To prevent the decay of wood and corrosion in metal.
3. To give decorative effect on surfaces.
4. To provide smooth and easy cleaning surface.
5. To give hygienically good surface.
6. To improve the illumination of the surface.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL PAINT :

Following are the characteristics of an ideal paint :
1. It should possess a good spreading power.
2. It should be cheap and economical.

10
 3. It should be easily and freely applied over the surfaces.
4. It should be dries in reasonable time and not too rapidly.
5. It should maintain its colour for a long time.
6. It should form hard and durable surface.
7. It should give attractive surface.
8. It should show hair cracks on drying.
9. It should not be affected by atmospheric agencies.
METHOD OF PAINTING ON DIFFERENT SURFACES :
1. Painting on Wood-Work :
a) Painting new wood-work : Normally four coats of paint are required for new wood-work. The process of
painting is as follows :
i) Preparation of wood-work : The wood work is sufficiently seasoned, and it does not contain
more than 15% moisture at the time of painting. The surface of wood work is properly cleaned
and the heads of nails are punched to a depth of 3 mm below the surface.
ii) Knotting : It is the process of killing or covering of all knots in wood work with a substance (the
red lead ground in water and mixed with strong glue size is used in hot condition) through which
the resin cannot come out
iii) The priming coat is then applied on the surface of new wood work. This fills pores existing on
the surface of wood work.
iv) Stoping and filling : It consists of rubbing of dry primed surface by means of pumice-stone or
glass paper or both. Before rubbing commences, the holes, cracks, etc., on the surface are filled
with ordinary pxitty made from whiting and linseed oil.
v) The second coat: Its work is to increase the smoothness, uniformity and durability in paint
colour. This coat is applied longitudinally in thin film and crossed by a good brush. No brush
marks are seen on the surface and allowed to dry perfectly.
vi) Final coat: After the succeeding coats, the final coat is applied in the same mariner as explained
above.
b) Painting of old wood work : If the paint on the old wood work has cracked or has developed blisters, it
is to be removed. If the surface has become greasy, it should be cleaned by rubbing down by sand paper
or fine pumice stone. After this the holes, cracks, etc., are filled with putty and allowed to dry and then
the surface is rubbed down once again to have a smooth surface, then apply, 2 to 3 coats of oil paint so
that there should not be any brush marks on the surface. Every coat should be allowed to dry before
applying the next coat.
2. Painting of Steel Work :
a) Painting of new iron work or steel work :
i) The surface of steel to receive the paint should be cleaned from rust, dirt etc. The water with
castic soda or lime is used to remove grease.

11
 ii) The cleaned surface is provided with a film of phosphoric acid to protect the surface from rust
and facilitates the adhesion of paint.
iii) After this the coat of paint is applied with the brush or by spraying.
iv) After drying previous coat, the final coat is applied so that no brush marks are left on the surface.
b) Painting of old iron or steel work : Before repainting, the old surface should be properly cleaned with
soap water and if grease is present, it should be cleaned by lime and water. If it is necessary to remove
old paint, the surface should be burnt, and then old paint should be scraped off or dissolved and removed
by using any paint solvent. After the surface is thus prepared, one or two coats of paint are applied in the
same manner as discussed in painting of new steel work.
3. Painting of Plastered Surfaces :
For freshly plastered surfaces, it is necessary to allow the moisture content to escape, usually it requires
3 to 6 months.
i) At first, the coats of alkali resistant primer paints should be applied or paints not containing any oil
should be used because alkalies present in the plaster.
ii) The defects in cement plastered surface should be removed and prepared to receive paint
iii) The spots showing efflorescence should be brushed off and surface should be watched for few
days, if it repeats, the same procedure is carried out.
iv) The surface is now ready for giving four coats of paint. The usual recommended paints for the
plastered surfaces are cement paints, emulsion paints, oil paints, silicate paints, etc., are applied so
that no brush marks are seen on the surface.

DISTEMPERING:
Distempers are considered to be water-paints, and it is composed of base, carrier (water) colour pigments
and a binder like glue or casein. A base may be a whiting or chalk. The main object of applying to the
plastered surfaces is to create smooth surface. The distempers are available in market under different trade
names. They are cheaper than paints and varnishes. They present a neat appearance and available in variety
of colours.
METHOD OF DISTEMPERING :
The application of distempering is carried out as follows :
1. Preparation of surface :
i) The new plastered surfaces should be kept exposed for a period of two months so as to dry out
completely, before distemper is applied on them. The presence of dampness on surface results in
failure of distemper coating.
ii) The surface should be free from any efflorescence pa tches if any should be cleaned by clean cloth.
iii) Irregular surfaces such as holes, cracks, etc., are to be filled by lime putty and allowed to hard, and
cleaned.

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 iv) If distemper is to be applied on the existing distempered surfaces, the old distemper should be
removed by profuse watering.
2. Primary coat : After preparing the surface, a primary coat is applied and allowed to dry.
3. Coats of distemper :
The first coat of distemper is then applied on the surface which should be light tint. The second coat is
applied after first coat is dried and hard. Following points should be considered for effective coating.
i) The distempering should be done in dry weather to achieve better results.
ii) The oil-bound distemper or washable distemper adheres well to oil-painted walls, wood,
corrugated iron, etc. But a priming coat of pure milk should be applied before distempering is done
on such surfaces.
iii) The application of distemper by a spraying pistol is superior to that of brushes. The spraying offers
smooth and durable film of distemper.

VARNISHING:
It is the process of applying the varnish to the wooden surfaces of doors, windows, roof trusses, floors,
etc., to protect them from the actions of atmospheric agencies.
A varnish is a solution of resins or resinous substances prepared either in alcohol, oil or turpentine. Its
main ingredients are Resins, driers and solvents.

MAIN OBJECTS OF VARNISHING (FUNCTIONS OF VARNISHING) :

1. To brighten the appearance of the grain in wood.
2. To render brilliancy to the painted surface.
3. To protect the painted surface from the atmospheric actions.
4. To protect the unpainted wooden surfaces of doors, windows, etc., from atmospheric actions.

METHOD OF VARNISHING:
The application of varnishing is carried out as follows :
1. Preparation of surface : The wood work is thoroughly rubbed down by means of sand paper or
pumice stone. The surface is then made smooth and clean.
2. Knotting : The process of knotting is carried out as explained in case of painting.
3. Stopping : This is done by means of hot weak glue size. It will fill up the pores on the surface. In of
glue will form about one litre of glue size. Alternatively, the boiled linseed oil can be applied in two
coats. When the surface becomes dry, it should be rubbed once again with sand paper.
4. Coats of varnish : The varnish is then applied on the surface in thin coats and allowed to dry
completely and next coat is applied with varnishing brushes and allowed to dry.

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