饮料技术 - 5

• Citrus peel oil.
The oil extracted from the peel is sold to flavour manufac-

turers for the production of various flavour compounds. It is sometimes used
by blending houses for blending into concentrate.
• Essences. These are the volatile components that are recovered during the
evaporation process. There is an aqueous phase and an oil phase products,
which are separated. The aqueous phase products (aroma) are sometimes
added back to the concentrate within the processing plant, but may be sold
separately to juice packers and blending houses. The oil phase (essence oil)
is different from peel oil and contains more of the fruit flavour. Essence oil
may also be added back to the concentrate. Both aroma and essence oil are
a raw material source to the special flavour processing companies for their
flavour product manufacturing.
• d-Limonene is a by-product recovered in the feed mill area from the produc-
tion of citrus molasses. d-Limonene is sold for use in the plastic industry, as
a source for the manufacture of synthetic resins and adhesives, and more
recently as a solvent in e.g. the electronics industry.
• Animal feed. The peel, rag, unrecovered pulp and seed residue is dried and
pelletized as a concentrated feed for dairy, beef cattle and sheep.
• Citrus molasses is the syrup produced from the concentration of liquor
pressed from the wet peel. It is used either as an additive to the animal feed
or as a feed stock in the fermentation production of citrus alcohol.
• Pectin. This is a less common by product of the fruit. Pectin can be extracted
from the peel for use in the jam, jelly and preserve manufacture. However,
this is not a common outlet for the peel.
Citrus processing plant overview
15 1 2 3 4
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21
5
6
16
20 19 18 17 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
Fruit reception
Fruit is received in trucks (20 000 kg loads). The trucks discharge their load
into pre-wash, de-stemming (removal of leaves and any stems that remain at-
Technical Training Centre 1/9610 TM-00004 Training Document. For training purpose only. 5
tached to the fruit after picking) and pre-grade area (manual inspection to re-
move any damaged or obviously bad fruit). Damaged fruit that is eliminated
goes directly to feed mill.
Sampling of fruit is carried out to determine quality/colour/acid/brix for future
blending data input. Juice yield is measured and can be used as basis for pay-
ment to growers. Fruit is stored in special bins designed to minimize pressure
on fruit. From the storage bins, fruit goes to final washing and final grading
(another visual inspection of the fruit). Any culls (the rejected fruit) are sent
directly to feed mill.
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
reception extraction
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice
Wet peel, pulp,seeds
Feed Clarification Pulp Peel oil

mill production recovery
Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
production production
Flow chart: Orange juice production
Extraction
From final grading, fruit is sized mechanically into different streams or lanes
so that each fruit is directed to the most suitable extractor. Extractors are set
up to handle fruit according to size to achieve optimum yield efficiency and
performance. If the fruit is too big, then it will be over squeezed and rag and
peel will get into the juice (with resulting bitterness). If the fruit is too small,
insufficient yield will result.
From the extraction and primary finishers, four streams will flow:
1. Wet peel together with pulp, rag and seeds will flow directly to the feed
mill.
2. Pulpy juice will go to juice production through clarification. Then to con-
centrate or NFC production.
3. Recovered pulp intended for sale as pulp (either premium or washed) goes
to pulp production.
4. Oil frit, an emulsion of oil and water, goes to peel oil recovery.
Juice production
The pulpy juice (approximately 55% of the fruit) passes to the primary finish-
ers to separate juice from pulp. (The “finishing” process is a separation process
by mechanical means, normally a rotating screen.) The pulp stream may then
go to pulp recovery.
The juice stream may be clarified to reduce the amount of sinking pulp. De-
sired content of sinking pulp is normally stated in the product specifications.
There are also legal standards on maximum levels of sinking pulp. Bottom
pulp (or sinking pulp) separated in the clarifier goes to pulp recovery.
Juice is buffer stored before further processing. At this stage it is possible to
blend the juice to even out some of the differences between loads of fruit. Juice
should be cooled to 4 °C to minimize microbial growth as early in the process-
ing chain as possible. (Either before the primary finisher or before the clarifier
but at least before storage vessels)
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice

Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
Concentrate production
From the buffer/blend tanks, juice goes to the evaporator. Within the evapora-
tor circuit, the juice is first pre-heated to pasteurisation temperature, then it
passes through the evaporation stages of the process to be concentrated to
65 °Brix. During the evaporation process, volatile components will flash off
and can be recovered in an essence recovery unit.
The concentrate is cooled and blended with other production lots if needed. It
then goes to refrigerated tank storage (-10 °C) or drum storage. FCOJ is some-
times stored for several years.
Blending of concentrates also occurs before dispatch to achieve the required
profile. Product is dispatched in drums at -18 °C or in bulk tankers at -10 °C
to -25 °C.
Condensate from the evaporation process is re-cycled to the fruit reception
area and used as wash water.
NFC Production
Instead of going to concentrate production the juice may be processed at single
strength as an NFC product (Not From Concentrate). Juice is pasteurised (typ-
ically 95 °C for 15 seconds) before storage. De-oiling may be required to re-
duce oil levels in the juice. It is good practice to deaerate during pasteurisation
to remove oxygen.
Since product is consumed year round, but production is only seasonal, NFC
juice must be stored for at least a year. There are two principle alternatives
available for storage:
1. Bulk freezing after pasteurisation. The advantage for freezing is that the
chemical aging of juice is retarded at these temperatures. The negative is
that energy consumption is high for the freezing, storage and thawing
processes. After thawing the juice is normally blended with juice (and/or
pulp) from another region or part of season, then it must be re-pasteurised
before filling into the consumer package.
2. Aseptic storage after pasteurisation. Storage is carried out in large aseptic
tanks or in bulk bag-in-box. Product is kept refrigerated (-1 °C) to minimise
the chemical aging effects. Re-pasteurisation after storage is common prac-
tice.
Florida processors normally blend NFC juice from early and late varieties to
get a constant quality and keep costs down.
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice

Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
Pulp production
The pulp stream represents some 3-5% (in finished form) of the total fruit
product stream.
Commercial Pulp. Pulp leaving the primary finisher has a concentration of
approx. 500 grams/litre. Heat treatment (stabilisation) at 95 - 110 °C for 15-30
seconds is applied to deactivate enzymes and to provide microbiological sta-
bility. Further finishing (“drier” or final finisher) increases the pulp content to
950 -1000 g/l. This pulp is still wet from liquid being absorbed to the fibrous
membranes. However, no more liquid can be removed by mechanical force.
Juice from the finishers typically goes to evaporation. Pulp is normally pack-
aged into 20 kg card board boxes (less often into 200 kg drums).It is stored and
shipped frozen. Potential exists for aseptic packaging into bulk bag-in-box.
Pulp wash. If pulp is not recoevered for commercial sales, pulp from the final
finishers and the clarifiers can be washed to remove juice solubles. These re-
covered juice solubles can then be returned to the juice stream prior to the
evaporator (if the law permits). This stream is called pulp wash. Alternatively,
the pulp wash stream can be separately concentrated (by evaporation) to make
base materials for juice drinks.
Washed pulp; Most of the resulting washed pulp goes to the feed mill to pro-
duce animal feed. It may also be stabilised (heat treated) and boxed (in a sim-
ilar manner to commercial pulp). Washed pulp is used as an ingredient in the
production of juice drinks but not normally added to pure orange juice (quality
and legal reasons).
Peel oil recovery
Recovered peel oil represents some 0.3% of the fruit intake.
The oil frit, an emulsion of oil and water coming from the extractor section, is
first centrifuged to obtain a concentrated oil phase. It is then further purified.
The oil contains dissolved waxes which can cause haze formation at low tem-
peratures. These waxes are removed by the “winterizing process”. In this proc-
ess the oil is normally stored in refrigerated conditions (1 °C) for several
months, causing dissolved waxes to crystallize and precipitate. Oil is decanted
off from tanks. Tank bottoms can be further centrifuged to reclaim any resid-
ual oil.
The reclaimed water from the centrifuges can be re-circulated to the extraction
process. The percentage of water recycled must be regulated to prevent the
build up of microbes, and of highly homogenized oil globules (which will in-
hibit the removal of oil from the peel).
Feed mill
For larger plants, it is economically feasible to include a feed mill operation.
Smaller plants will truck their solid waste to such larger facilities.
The raw material for the feed mill represent some 40 - 45% of the fruit intake.
The wet peel, rag, seeds, culls from the fruit receiving line, excess pulp are
waste streams sent to the feed mill. First, the incoming material is broken
down by hammer mills to smaller pieces. Lime is often added to the material
to aid the de-watering process. Large hydraulic presses (batch charged) or
screw presses squeeze the material to remove moisture.
The “press liquor” contains sugars which are concentrated (in the form of mo-
lasses) in the waste heat evaporator (so called since it uses exhausted moist air
from the peel drier). The molasses can be returned to the dried peel (to increase
the nutritive value of the peel), or used as a source for alcohol production by
fermentation. d-Limonene (an oil derivative) can be removed in the waste heat
evaporator. Condensate from the evaporator will be recycled to the washing
system at fruit reception.
The peel from the presses is dried in a rotary drier, then pelletized for sale as
animal fodder
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice

Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
Final note
The operation of a by-products recovery line can be profitable for the citrus
processor provided that the volume of production is sufficient to sustain the
operation.
In order to maximise their opportunities, the processors in Florida design their
operations for flexibility, both in the production of primary products (juice or
concentrate) and in by-products.
If market forces dictate that the production of concentrate is more advanta-
geous one week over another, they can readily change the emphasis of their
production. In contrast, the Brazilian processor generally operates a more ded-
icated plant that is optimized for a specific product and by-product mix.
This influences the manner in which investment decisions are made. The Flor-
idian processor will look for a high degree of flexibility in an item of process
equipment. One unit may need to be able to operate under a range of condi-
tions. The Brazilian processor may accept a more dedicated process compo-
nent.
1000 Boxes of Total orange yield

Valencia Oranges
(40.8 tons)
41,4% 3% 55,3% 0,3%

Peel, rags & seeds Frozen pulp Juice, 11.8° Bx Cold pressed oil
17.0 tons 1.2 tons 22.7 tons 113 kg
65° Bx concentrate Natural orange aroma Orange essence oil

4.1 tons + 45.5 kg + 3.2 kg
Fruit reception line

Truck unloading
Fruit picked in the groves are loaded onto trucks (typically 20 000 kg size in
Florida) and taken to the processing plant. The trucks are unloaded on a spe-
cially designed tipping ramp. It lifts the front of the truck to allow the fruit to
roll out at the rear of the trailer directly onto a conveyor, which takes the fruit
to the pre-wash station. Alternatively, the truck may be reversed down a ramp
so that the fruit is unloaded again directly onto the conveyor.
Pre-washing, de-stemming and pre-grading

The fruit undergoes an initial washing to remove dust, dirt and residues of pes-
ticides. The roller conveyor of the de-stemming and pre-grading tables allow
any leaves or tree stems to fall from the fruit stream. Manual inspection, pre-
grading, at this stage removes visibly damaged or rotten/undesirable fruit. Re-
jected fruit can be sent to the feed mill. Water used for pre-washing can be con-
densate recovered from the evaporation process. There is a strong need to
reduce total water demands for the orange processing plants.
Truck Pre-wash De- Pre-grade

unloading stemming Sampling
Final grading Final fruit Surge bin Fruit storage

wash
Sizing Extraction
Flow chart:
Fruit reception
Sampling
From each truck, a sample of fruit is taken to be analysed. The main parame-
ters to be analsysed are juice yield, brix, acidity and colour. This gives the
processor an indication of the maturity of the fruit. As the fruit goes into bin
storage, provided that the fruit is tagged, it is possible to select fruit from var-
ious sources to blend during the extraction process to achieve the desired final
product quality. In Florida the measured juice yield forms the basis for pay-
ment to the fruit supplier.
Fruit storage
The pre-graded fruit is stored in bins. These bins are specially designed with
inclined multi level internal baffles that direct the fruit forward and back in the
bin to avoid too much weight coming to bear on the fruit. Time period that the
fruit stays in the storage bins should be as short as possible, but can be up to
24 hours.
Surge bin
Fruit is drawn from the storage bins to the surge bin. In this bin, streams of fruit
from one or more storage bins may be combined.
Final fruit washing

A second and final wash of the fruit is carried out immediately before the ex-
traction process. The wash water may include a mild disinfectant to assist in
lowering the micro-biological count on the surface of the fruit.
Typical water consumption for the washing stages of the fruit reception line is
between 110 and 200 l per 1 000 kg of fruit. In plants with concentrate produc-
tion, condensate from the evaporators may be used for final washing. Other-
wise fresh water has to be taken in for this duty.
Final grading
The fruit passes over a series of grading tables for final visual inspection and
removal of damaged or unsuitable fruit. The rejected fruit are called “culls”.
Juice extraction
Once the fruit has been washed and graded, it is nearly ready for the extraction
process. The extraction process has a major effect on the total economics of
the process (yield) and the quality of product produced. For the extraction
equipment to operate close to the optimum condition, the raw fruit must be
sorted according to size.
Fruit sizing
After grading, the fruit will pass over the sizing table to divide the fruit into
several streams according to the diameter of the fruit. A sizing table is gener-
ally made up a series of rotating rollers over which the fruit must pass. The dis-
tance between the rollers is pre-set, and increases as the fruit travels over the
table. Over the first set of rollers, the smallest fruit will drop between the gap
onto a conveyor, and pass to an extractor set up for that size range of fruit. As
the gap increases, so the larger fruits will pass through and on to extractors set
for that size. In this way, the fruit is selected to suit the individual setting of
the extractor.
A well functioning sizer is necessary to produce juice of high quality and/or
high juice yield.
Extractor types
The objective of the extraction process is to reclaim as much juice from the
fruit as possible, but to avoid the presence of rag, oil or other components of
the fruit which may lead to bitterness in taste or other defects later in the life
of the juice.
Generally, two major manufacturers of extraction equipment are used, FMC
(squeezer style) and Brown (reamer style). Both FMC and Brown are US com-
panies. In Florida, the total installed extraction capacity is about equal for
Brown and FMC. Outside Florida, however, FMC has a dominant position on
the extractor market.
There are other manufacturers of extraction equipment, such as Formesa
(FMC copy) and the more multi-purpose machines from Italian Indelicato and
Bertuzzi. For citrus they are of little significance in comparison to FMC and
Brown.
The FMC extractor

Extractors are laced into lines with 8-10 extractors in each line. Each extractor
may be fitted with 5 “heads”. The job of the FMC extractor is to separate the
fruit into four streams, pulpy juice, peel, core (rag, seeds and pulp), and oil
emulsion.
The “heads” are available in different sizes; 23/8", 3", 4", and even 5" (used
mainly for grapefruit). Choice of “head” size depends upon the type and qual-
ity of fruit available. “Head” sizes for each extractor in a line are chosen so that
the fruit (which will range in size over the line) can be handled optimally.
The “head” of an extractor is comprised of an upper and a lower cup. The cups
have metal “fingers” that mesh together as the upper cup is lowered to the low-
er cup. A cutter connected to the perforated “strainer tube” (sometimes re-
ferred to as the pre-finisher) comes up through the centre of the lower cup to
remove core material.
Once the strainer tube has cut into the fruit and travelled up to meet the upper
cup, this upper cup squeezes down on the lower cup. This pressure initially
forces the juices to break from the juice vesicles and pass through the perfora-
tions of the juice tube. Some pieces of the juice vesicle (pulp) will pass through
with the juice. The upper cup continues to squeeze down on the lower cup to
extract as much of the juice as possible. Eventually the downward pressure
causes the peel to break up and disintegrate, passing up through the fingers of
each cup.
The core material is discharged from the bottom of the strainer tube through
the orifice tube. Juice flows out from the strainer tube through the juice man-
ifold.
As the peel is forced through the fingers of the cups (step 4), oil is released
from the peel. At this time the peel bits are washed with recycled water to ex-
tract the oil. This is discharged from the extractors as an emulsion.
The operation of the extractor is explained in the picture below.
1 2 3 4
Upper
cutter
Upper cup
Lower cup
Lower
cutter
Prefinisher
tube
Juice
manifold
Orifice
tube
With the FMC process, the one item of equipment (i.e. the extractor) is used
to separate the four principle streams in one basic step. The claim of the man-
ufacture is that contact is avoided between the juice and oil, and the juice and
peel. This avoids any transfer of bitterness and helps to produce a high quality
of juice.
For successful operation of this equipment, the correct selection of cups and
the adjustment of the movement of the cups and cutter are important. Too
much pressure brought on the fruit, due to small cups, may result in peel en-
tering the juice stream. Too little pressure, then yield will drop.
The capacity of a five-head extractor will vary according the quality of fruit
and its size. The standard operating speed of the FMC extractor is 100 rpm (or
500 fruits per minute). The following are approximate juice flowrates assum-
ing 100% feed efficiency.
Fruit size Average juice flowrate per extractor
21/2" diameter 2700 l/h (=12 US gallon/min)
3" diameter 3420 l/h (=15 US gallon/min)
FMC Premium Pulp extractor
The standard FMC extractor will tend to break up the pulp to small pieces (typ-
ically less than 5 mm in length). This is acceptable if the pulp is intended for
pulp wash rather than for sale as commercial pulp.
Market demands are changing, and the need for more “natural” pulp that has
been subjected to less shear is increasing. FMC have consequently developed
a Premium Pulp system to ensure that larger pulp pieces flow forward with the
juice stream (the cells are up to 15 - 20 mm long). The main difference in the
extractor is the use of a different strainer tube. The modified strainer tube will
put more pulp into the juice stream. The pulp is then separated from the juice
and treated in a modified pulp recovery system.This is the latest in a series of
developments by FMC. Today (1995) there are some three FMC Premium
Pulp lines in Florida, but none in Brazil.
FMC Low oil extractor

Certain fruit varieties (e.g. the Florida Valencia) will express more oil into the
fruit stream than other varieties. This can lead to oil levels in the juice in excess
of 0.035% (max level in Florida for grade “A” juice) The high oil levels can
lead to increased harshness in the flavour of the finished juice when intended
for NFC production.
To avoid this problem FMC offer a “low oil” extractor. Again the difference
are in the strainer tube and orifice tube area. The intent is to put less pressure
on the fruit. However, this may lead to a reduction in juice yield. As an alter-
native, Tetra Pak can supply “single strength de-oiling” centrifuges that will
operate in conjunction with the standard FMC extractor set up. The higher
juice yield can be maintained, and the oil is removed by centrifuge immediate-
ly after the extraction process. See the later section on de-oiling.
The Brown juice extractor

The Brown extractors are different to FMC as they are of the reamer type. A
Brown extraction line also comprises several extractors. As for FMC, it is very
important to set up each extractor to suit the size of fruit that is fed to it. Below
is a picture of a Brown extractor.
Fruit in
Feed wheel
Peel ejector
Reamer head
Side peel discharge

with pulp recovery roll
Air cushioned cup

track adjustment
Knife
Peel chute
Juice outlet in rear
Fruit is fed into the feed wheel and cut in half. The halves are orientated and
picked up in synthetic rubber cups mounted on a continuous belt system. A se-
ries of nylon serrated reamers (cone shaped inserts that have ridges moulded
into the form from tip to base of the reamer) are mounted on a rotating turnta-
ble (for most models in the vertical plane). These reamers meet each fruit half,
rotating as they penetrate the fruit. The speed of rotation varies as the reamer
penetrate the fruit (slower towards the end). Juice, pulp, rag and seed pass out
through one outlet, the peel segment out through the peel shute.
The juice and pulp are separated from the rag and seed by a strainer, then pass
on to the finishers.
The pressure that the reamer operates and the speed of rotation can all be ad-
justed to suit the maturity, size and quality of fruit.
The Brown system will typically give a better quality of pulp (longer and larg-
er cell fragments) than the standard FMC extractors. Juice yields between the
Brown and FMC systems are comparable.
The Brown oil recovery system

Peel oil can be recovered from the peel using the BOE (Brown Oil Extraction)
system. The BOE is placed upstream of the juice extractors. (See BOE flow-
chart below).
Peel oil is retained in glands within the flavedo (coloured portion of the peel).
The Brown Oil Extraction system operates on the principle of puncturing these
oil glands and washing the oil out to make an emulsion. In the first stage of the
oil extraction system, the whole fruit passes over a series of semi-submerged
rollers with small but sharp needle-like projections. The oil glands are pricked
rather than scraped open, so little damage is done to the peel, and the amount
of other material washed away with the oil is minimal. This makes the water
stream cleaner and easier to re-cycle.
Oil extractor Water

Fruit in
Dryer
Screw
finisher
Surge
tank
Middle phase
recirculation
Oil
Waste
Desludger Polisher
Sludge Sludge
The water washes out the oil from the pierced glands. After a finishing stage
to remove any large particles of peel, the oil-water emulsion can be concen-
trated and polished in a series of centrifuges (see section on Peel oil recovery).
Much of the water can be re-cycled for further oil removal washings.
Instead of the recently developed BOE system, older Brown installations use
“peel shavers” after the juice extraction stage. The outer layer of flavedo is lit-
erally shaved off from the peel mechanically. As the flavedo is shaved off from
the peel (albedo), it is washed and pressed to remove the oil. The emulsion is
then centrifuged in the traditional manner.
Although the Brown extraction system requires two separate “steps” to extract
juice and oils from the fruit, it is often considered that the Brown oil emulsion
is easier to centrifuge (giving higher oil yields) and that the juice has less con-
tact with the oil (consequently has a better flavour).
Downstream of the juice extractors

The juice streams leaving either an FMC line or Brown system then flow for-
ward for clarification and onto evaporation (or pasteurisation if end-product is
NFC juice).
The oil emulsion passes forward to peel oil recovery, using centrifuge tech-
niques. Peel, rag, seed and other solid material pass on to the feed mill. Solid
waste streams from some of the other processes (e.g. discharge from centrifug-
es) are sometimes added to the feed mill streams. This material is then dried.
Sometimes residual oil is removed (d-Limonene).
Clarification
The juice leaving the extraction process will contain too much pulp and mem-
brane material (typical pulp levels at this stage are around 20 - 25% having
both “floating” and “sinking” pulp present). The juice is therefore finished, i.e.
pulp is removed from the juice. A finisher is fundamentally a sieving cylindri-
cal screen.
Extractor suppliers also install the finishers. There are two types of finishers:
1. Screw type finishers. A
Unfinished juice stainless steel screw con-
veys the pulp juice
through the unit to press
the pulp against the cylin-
drical screen, so pushing
the juice out through the
screen holes. The pulp is
consequently “concen-
trated” inside the screen
and is discharged at the
end of the finisher. A sche-
matic of an FMC screw
type finisher is shown to
the left
2. Paddle finishers. These
units incorporate a set of
paddles rotating on a cen-
tral shaft within the finish-
Finished Pulp ing cylinder, again pushing
juice the pulp against the screen
as in the screw finisher.
Two finishers are often placed in series at the end of the extraction line. The
upstream “primary” finisher is not set as tight as the downstream “second-
ary” unit and so will have a higher flow capacity.
The exact set up of the clarification stage will vary depending upon both the
manufacture of the extractor system, and the type of pulp that the processor
wishes to recover. A Brown system or FMC Premium extractor may use a clas-
sifying finisher (with larger holes) to remove peel and membrane pieces before
entering the primary finisher. Whereas the standard FMC extractor will use a
pre-finishing tube in the extractor, so that the pulpy juice can flow direct to the
primary finisher.
Pulpy juice from Flow chart: Clarification

extraction line
Pulp
Primary finishers Pulp Pulp recovery

line
Juice
Juice
Bottom pulp
Bottom pulp
Juice
Juice Clarifying
centrifuge
Product chiller
Clarified juice
Clarified juice
Buffer storage
tanks
NFC production Concentrate

production HQOJ: U 2567 J
Typically the pulp content in the juice leaving the secondary finisher is about
12%. This pulp is predominately “sinking” pulp. If the market requires a juice
with a lower pulp content (pulp standardization), the juice can be further clari-
fied using a. For this application a 2-phase machine (clarifier) is normally used.
However, if the juice needs to be de-oiled, a 3-phase centrifuge could be used so
achieving two duties at the same time (de-oiling and pulp standardization).
Clarification by centrifuge can often lead to improved operation of the evapo-
ration system by reducing the overall levels of pulp in the juice.
After clarification the juice often undergoes some degree of blending before
further processing to harmonise the flavour, colour, acidity and Brix levels.
The juice leaving the clarification section should therefore be cooled to 4 °C
before passing into the buffer blend tanks to minimise the potential for micro-
biological activity.
Turbofilters, a recent development from a Californian based company, Mecat,
have been introduced into Brazil on some FMC lines. The Turbofilters have
been installed to replace the FMC primary finishers. They are claimed to give
a more constant sinking pulp level of the juice, so that fewer clarifying centri-
fuges would be needed for juice standardization.
NFC Production
The objective of NFC (Not From Concentrate) production is to prepare a prod-
uct with the minimum of thermal processing so that the flavour characteristics
are subjected to the least possible damage. Yet the thermal process should be
sufficient to ensure that the product is physically and microbiologically stable.
Since fruit harvesting is seasonal and the juice consumption is year round, the
product must be stable enough to be stored for several months, up to one year,
so that the seasons are bridged.
Juice
from clarification Flow chart: NFC Production
Buffer tank
De-oiling centrifuge
Pasteuriser Deaeration
Storage
Blending
Tetra Allink Re-pasteurisation
In some instances the NFC juice will be processed and packaged for immedi-
ate distribution in the retail market. When this is the case, following the clar-
ification step, some blending may occur (to minimize hourly variations in
acidity/Brix), and some pulp may be added (depending upon market de-
mands).
Alternatively, the juice is processed and bulk stored (frozen or aseptic) for
some months until it is re-processed and packaged. The re-processing often in-
volves the blending of juice from early and late season fruit in order to stand-
ardize Brix, ratio, colour, etc. The addition of pulp to the consumer product (if
required) is done at this stage. Sometimes, if volatiles have been removed from
the juice prior to storage these are added back to the juice during the blending
step.
Prior to pasteurisation but after the clarification stage, the product should be
cooled as soon as possible to avoid microbiological growth or enzymatic reac-
tions. Unfortunately in the traditional citrus processing facility, this is seldom
done. A plate heat exchanger or tubular heat exchanger can be employed for
this duty (choice of which will be dictated by the type and quantity of pulp
present in the juice).
High oil levels
Depending upon fruit source and extractor operation, the oil level in the juice
from the extractor may exceed acceptable levels. The levels can be according
to a legal standard (e.g. grade A juice under the USDA directives has a maxi-
mum oil content of 0.035%).
Alternatively, the levels may be decided on the basis of consumer preference
(too high oil content can make a harsh flavour or a burning sensation). Desir-
able levels of oil in the juice, when consumed, range from 0.015 to 0.025%.
Oil reduction can be achieved by:
• Adjusting the extractor (with FMC extractors: apply less pressure on the
fruit during extraction, or use a Low Oil Head. Either approach may lead to
lower juice yields).
• Vacuum flashing as an integral part of the thermal processing of the juice.
This method can remove desirable volatiles from the juice.
• Centrifugal separation of the oil phase from the juice. This is discussed in a
separate section.
The (de-oiled) juice is then buffer stored for a short period prior to pasteurisa-
tion. At this stage, some blending (as described above) may be carried out.
Primary pasteurisation
The purpose of the primary pasteurisation is two-fold:
• To de-activate the enzymes (which otherwise lead to cloud loss and brown-
ing).
• To make the juice microbiologically stable.
Pasteurisation is carried out using plate or tubular heat exchangers. The choice
of heat exchanger type is according to pulp quantities in the product (tubular
units will be used when the juice contains floating pulp or cells) and to proc-
essor’s preference.
The long shelf life expected for NFC going to storage, demand stricter hygi-
enic design of the systems employed. Single strength juice is more sensitive to
microbial contamination than concentrate. The use of chilled storage instead
of frozen also adds to much stricter hygiene requirements for NFC production
than FCOJ producers may have been accustomed to.
Good manufacturing practice now dictates that the pasteuriser system should
be pre-sterilised at 95 °C or higher prior to production, and CIP program inte-
grated into the control system. Tetra Pak can offer a range of TA/Drink sys-
tems as modules for this application incorporating high degree of energy
recovery.
Thermal treatment is a concern among many NFC producers. The combined
effect of time and temperature can lead to degradation of the product flavour.
To a certain extent, this can be minimized by using well designed heat ex-
changers using low temperature differentials between heating media (hot wa-
ter) and product. This reduces the “shock” to the product. Some processors
will specify the maximum allowed time for the product above a certain tem-
perature. For example, some processors require that the product is above 35 °C
for a maximum of 50 seconds, in order to minimise the thermal degradation of
the product.
Oxygen effects - Vitamin C losses

Oxygen can also lead to degradation of the juice. Browning and vitamin loss
is caused by oxygen contact with the product. The processes of extraction and
finishing will expose the juice to air, and can cause a high proportion of air to
be introduced into the product. Buffer storage can assist in allowing some en-
trained air to escape. However, some entrained air and always dissolved air
will be present in the juice.
Deaeration is a desirable process, especially in the production of NFC juice.
Many processors fear the loss of volatiles during deaeration, consequently will
carry out deaeration at ambient or lower temperatures. The reduction of dis-
solved oxygen is low under such conditions. The Tetra Alrox systems incor-
porate volatile recovery, so deaeration by vacuum flashing at elevated
temperatures (50 °C) can be carried out.
It is generally recognized that by oxidation reactions:
1 ppm oxygen can lead to a loss of 11 mg/l of vitamin C
Some numbers for orange juice:
• Non-deaerated juice contains typically 7 ppm oxygen.
• Deaerated juice contains typically 0.5 ppm of oxygen.
Thus, between non deaeration and deaeration, the difference in level of vita-
min C can be 70 mg/l.
This difference is significant when considering the facts that:
• Typical levels of Vitamin C in juice at the time of extraction is 500 mg/l.
• Minimum contents at consumption date is legally 350 mg/l in many
countries
Long term storage

After primary pasteurisation, the juice is then bulk stored. Three major options
are employed;
1. Frozen. Juice is filled into drums and stored frozen (-18 °C). Vitamin and
flavour changes over storage period are minimized by freezing. Energy
and ware house costs of freezing and storing frozen NFC are large. Large
volumes and juice freezes to solid blocks.
When the product is then thawed to be ready for final processing, the logis-
tics of handling the product are difficult. It takes time for the bulk to thaw,
however the outer layer of juice may be exposed to microbiological con-
tamination during that process which will have a negative impact on the
product quality. Crushing systems are high in energy consumption and in-
vestments
Systems to freeze larger blocks of product using novel techniques for rapid
freezing and rapid thawing have been presented to the industry. However,
presently (1995) none seem to be commercially viable.
2. Aseptic storage in tanks. Technology exists to build tanks up to 4 million
litres capacity for aseptic storage of juice. These tanks are specially fabri-
cated, using unique coating techniques of the internal surfaces of the tanks.
The tanks are sterilized prior to filling juice by flooding with a sterilizing
fluid (iodoform). The juice is stored within these tanks under refrigerated
conditions (-1 °C). Rather than build the tanks with cooling jackets, typi-
cally these tanks will be built within a large refrigerated building.
The juice must be periodically agitated to avoid separation of sinking pulp
and maintain uniformity of the brix level. A top pressure of nitrogen is of-
ten maintained to minimize the risk of vitamin C loss through oxidation.
Normally, when product is required from these tanks, it is drawn off, blend-
ed with juice from another part of the season (and with pulp) and re-pas-
teurised.
3. Aseptic storage is bulk bag-in-box. As an alternative to aseptic tanks, the
juice may be filled into 1140 l (300 US gallon) aseptic bag-in-box bins.
These bags are then stored in refrigerated conditions. When required, the
product is accessed by cutting open the bag and pumping the product out
of the bags.
This approach to storage requires more labour when filling and emptying
the product. However, it gives more flexibility for storage capacity as the
investment required to store additional volumes of juice is moderate. The
aseptic tank route has a restriction in that a finite volume for storage is
available unless a major investment is undertaken. Consequently, the bag-
in-box route is often taken by those entering into NFC production. The
aseptic tanks are installed with established NFC producers.
Tetra StarAsept is the Tetra Pak aseptic bag-in-box system. Compared to the
rival bag-in-box systems, Tetra StarAsept offers a high degree of product pro-
tection. The simplicity of the filling system (spout and filling valve) combined
with the use of steam as sterilising agent make Tetra StarAsept superior in
aseptic security. The super-barrier bag (foil based laminate) provides superior
protection against ingress of oxygen compared against metalized laminates.
Such technology when combined with refrigerated storage ensures a high
product quality even after prolonged storage. Further details and reference list
of installations can be supplied by Tetra StarAsept.
Re-processing
Traditionally, NFC juice taken from storage is blended with juice from a dif-
ferent part of the season and/or with pulp. The juice blend is then re-pasteur-
ised. The second pasteurisation will add thermal impact to the product. Tetra
Allink, applicable to Tetra StarAsept bags only, can be utilized to empty prod-
uct from aseptic bags and transfer it aseptically, via an aseptic tank, to consum-
er packages without the need to re-pasteurise. By unloading bags from
different production dates using the Tetra Allink system, blending can be
achieved within the aseptic tank.
Tetra Allink
Aseptic Aseptic Filling machine

unloading tank
Steam
Steam
Concentrate production
For production of orange juice concentrate the juice from the clarification
stage is sent to the evaporators.
The most widely used citrus evaporator is the TASTE evaporator. It was intro-
duced in the 1950’s and replaced low-temperature plate evaporators and Cen-
tritherm units.
Flow chart: Juice

Concentrate production from clarification
Condensate recovery
TASTE returned to
evaporator fruit reception
Essence
recovery/storage
Cold wall
blend tanks
PHE cooler
Frozen concentrate
storage
The TASTE evaporator

The TASTE evaporator is generally described as a continuous, high tempera-
ture short time evaporator of the long vertical tube falling-film type.The name
is an acronym: Thermally Accelerated Short Time Evaporator.
The four basic elements that comprise a TASTE system are;
• the pre-heater
• distribution cones
• tube bundles
• liquid-vapour separators
The development of the TASTE evaporator has been extensive. Examples of
installations with as many as 7 effects (7 juice stage) are installed. Such sys-
tems have extremely low specific steam consumption (only 1 kg of steam is
used to evaporate 6 kg of water).
The overall concept is to first pre-heat (and consequently pasteurise) the juice
to 95 - 98 °C. Then product passes through a number of effects under vacuum,
until a concentration of 65 °Brix is reached. By this time the product temper-
ature has fallen to some 40 °C. The residence time within the evaporator sys-
tem is in the region of 6 or 7 minutes.
The significant technical innovation in the TASTE evaporator is the method
by which the product is distributed across the tube bundle. Good distribution
is of primary importance in the design of an evaporator to ensure that all prod-
uct is uniformly treated and that the heat exchange surface is used to its max-
imum potential.
15.3 Brix 22.6 Brix Juice feed 12 Brix 41.7 Brix Juice distributor
No. 8 Pre−heater
(juice stabilizer) Vapor effect
Juice stage Tube nests Barometric condenser
I III V
VII
15.3 Brix 12 Brix 12 Brix Steam
3 5 1
Vacuum jets
7
No. 1
Vapor liquid Pre−heater
separator
18.3 Brix No. 5 29.5 Brix No. 3 No. 2
Pre− Pre−heater 13.4 Brix Pre−heater
No. 7 No. 6 heater No. 4
Pre−heater Pre−heater d−Limonene
Pre−heater
II IV VI
4 6 2
Cooling booster
43 C
15.3 Brix Flash cooler Condenser water

Steam for Vapor Steam Return to
evaporation 22.6 Brix cooling tower
41.7 Brix
Transfer pumps Hotwell

Evaporator Concentrate out Evaporator
Seven stage TASTE condensate 65 Brix 13 C feed 12 Brix
evaporator
The product is fed into the distribution section at a temperature and pressure
greater than that in the entry zone of the tube bundle. The liquid product is fed
through a diverging expansion nozzle that converts the all liquid product into
a liquid/vapour mixture. The expanding vapour accelerates the liquid vapour
mixture through a second nozzle and cone assembly. Further flash expansion
of the vapour causes atomization of the liquid phase into a turbulent mist. This
mist is evenly distributed across the tube bundle. As it flows down the tubes,
the vapour driven off from the liquid mist through evaporation, accelerates the
mist. Thus high heat transfer rates are achieved and a uniform heating effect
maintained. The high degree of turbulence prevents burn on and helps achieve
long operating hours. The acceleration effect can cause mist velocities to ex-
ceed 50 m/s on leaving the tube bundle! The high vapour speeds help separate
the vapour and liquid centrifugally in a drywall separator.
The TASTE evaporator can handle efficiently the large capacities that are of-
ten encountered in a citrus plant. Evaporator capacities can exceed
100 000 kg/h water evaporated.
While the TASTE evaporators were developed by Ralph Cook of Gulf Ma-
chinery Corporation in Florida, also other companies have licensed the rights
to manufacture and sell TASTE evaporators. (In 1994 these were GUMACO
of Brazil and FMC in Parma Italy).
Homogenisation
APV have patented (for US) the application of the homogenisation of concen-
trate within the evaporator system. This is normally carried out prior to the last
effect of stage of the evaporator. The concentrate, at that stage, is approximate-
ly 40 - 42 °Brix.
The effect of the homogenisation process is to breakdown the pectin, so low-
ering the viscosity of the concentrate. This increases the efficiency of the final
stage of the evaporator, making the final concentration process easier to
achieve. APV also claim that homogenisation reduces the sinking pulp level
in the final juice. This could allow for higher pulp levels in the juice going to
the evaporator, and as a consequence, increase juice yields by tighter operation
in the finishers.
Many homogenisers have been installed into existing evaporator systems to
help increase throughput of the total process (and yield??).
Other evaporation systems

GEA-Wiegand have also entered the citrus evaporator market with a design
similar to TASTE but incorporating thermal recompression to increase steam
economy. However, they have a conventional mechanical method to distribute
product across the tube bundles.
Plate evaporators are also used for the smaller capacities. Often these evapo-
rators also process other products outside the orange juice season. A number
of Tetra Pak evaporator systems are installed in Africa and the Middle East.
Essence recovery
Vapours from the first effect of the evaporator can be recovered to extract the
volatile essences. These essences can be separated from the vapour by distil-
lation and subsequent condensation. Essence recovery systems are normally
supplied by the evaporator manufacturer as the process is an integral part of
the mass and thermal balance of the concentrating system.
The recovered essences contain both oil phase and aqueous phase products.
The aqueous phase sometimes being added back to the concentrate to enhance
flavour. The oil phase (essence oils) hold the aroma and flavours characteristic
of fresh juice, and have different properties to those of the peel oil. The essence
oils and the water phase (aroma) are either sold as a separate product to con-
centrate blending houses or juice packers, or alternatively purchased on con-
tract by specialty flavour manufacturing companies and processed further into
flavour products.
Concentrate storage
After evaporation, the 65 °Brix concentrate is chilled (normally within a plate
heat exchanger) to -10 °C. The concentrate is stored in bulk storage tanks, for
later blending at dispatch, or blended and stored in 200 l drums. Drum storage
is normally maintained at -20 to -25 °C, bulk storage in large tanks is generally
-6 to -10 °C.
The concentrate is traded as Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice, FCOJ. The
term may be misleading as concentrate of 65 °Brix does not freeze solid due
to its high sugar content. FCOJ has a very high viscosity but is still pumpable.
Alternative concentration methods

Alternative methods for juice concentration have been developed and tested.
However, the economics of operation have not been able to justify investing
in new systems.
Freeze concentration. Grenco Process Technology B.V., Hertogenbosch,
The Netherlands, developed a system of freeze concentration of pasteurised
juice. Pasteurisation prior to freezing was found to be necessary to ensure that
enzymes were fully de-activated. Capital costs for such a system are extremely
high, and throughput extremely limited. No commercial plant is in operation.
Membrane Technology. FMC developed a system, Fresh Note, together with
DuPont. It uses Ultrafiltration to separate the pulp from the serum. Then by
Reverse Osmosis, concentrates the serum while the retentate of the UF system
(the pulp) is thermally pasteurised. After re-combining the two streams, a con-
centrate of approximately 42 °Brix can be obtained. Operating costs and con-
trol instability (unable to maintain a constant Brix level) have prevented this
system from being further developed.
Peel oil recovery

“Oil frit” from the extraction process is sent to the Peel Oil Recovery section.
Flow chart: Peel oil emulsion

Peel oil recovery
from extraction line
Reclaimed water
Oil returned to
finisher extraction line
First stage centrifuge
Second stage centrifuge
Winterisation
Drum filler Bulk transport
The oil frit will contain some larger particles of peel or other substance. Thus,
the first step is a “finisher”, as a form of filtration or straining, prior to passing
to the centrifuges.
The oil emulsion entering the first stage centrifuge contains typically
0.5 - 2.0% of oil. The objective of this centrifuge is to concentrate the oil up to
70 - 90% oil. This centrifuge is a typical three phase machine, the light phase
being the concentrate oil, the heavy phase water. Some solids are ejected from
the sludge space. The control of the solids discharge is critical to the overall
performance of the oil recovery system. If the discharge frequency is set too
often, then product will be lost, but if the sludge space is allowed to become
filled up, then separation efficiency will be lost.
The water stream is often re-cycled back to the oil recovery system. It is im-
portant that some water is “lost” so that a degree of make up water can be add-
ed into the system. Microbiological issues can occur if too much re-cycle
occurs. Also, the centrifuged water will contain microscopic particles of oil
that are too small to be separated by the centrifuge. The level of oil will build
up with re-cycling. As the level of oil builds, the effectiveness of the water to
extract the oil from the peel will decrease. This will lead to an overall drop in
efficiency of oil recovery.
In this application, the hermetic centrifuge has many clear advantages over the
open bowl type design. The fully flooded bowl ensures that oil does not con-
tact air. Air will oxidize the oil and lead to loss of performance (flavour). The
precise manner in which the interface between oil and water may be controlled
in the hermetic machine leads to higher efficiency of separation. (For details
on the specific machine advantages, please see the Orange Juice Application
Manual from Alfa Laval Separation in Tumba.)
The concentrated oil stream then passes to a second stage centrifugation proc-
ess (polishing). Within this machine, the oil is further purified to 99% purity.
The flowrates are extremely small in comparison to the flowrates that might
be seen in juice clarification or single strength de-oiling. Since the product has
already undergone one centrifuge process, the presence of solid particles in the
product is virtually non-existent. For smaller applications, a solid bowl ma-
chine is used. Periodic take down removes any material that collects in the
bowl periphery. The water and oil then are continuously discharged. For larger
flowrates, when the oil feed stream comes from two or more desludgers (first
phase centrifuges), a solids ejecting clarifier is used. The discharge mecha-
nism is set up to shoot frequently. The water (heavy phase) collects in the
sludge space. Regular discharges remove the water as it accumulates.
The winterisation process

The polished oil will contain trace amounts of wax (from the peel of the fruit).
This wax is dissolved in the oil. At temperatures above 15 or 20 °C, this wax is
totally dissolved. However, at lower temperatures it may give a haze to the prod-
uct to which it is added. To obtain a pure product, the polished oil is winterized.
Winterisation is a process involving precipitating the wax by first causing it to
crystallize and then settle. The oil is stored in tanks at 1 °C (or lower). The
waxes come out of solution and sediment. The process typically takes 30 days
or more. The winterized oil is then decanted from the tank. A larger processor
will collect the sludge from the winterizing tanks. Once sufficient material
from several tanks has been accumulated, the waxes can be removed by using
one of the centrifuges and the oil recovered.
The winterized oil is then packed off in 200 l (55 US gallon) drums or road
tankers. Normally the oil is stored under refrigeration (-10 °C). It is traded as
Cold Pressed Peel Oil, CPPO. It is used as a raw material in the flavour man-
ufacturing industry or by the concentrate blending houses.
Pulp production
Pulp production can be split into two process lines;
• Production of pulp for add back into juice and juice drinks
• Production of pulp wash (= the juice sugars obtained by washing pulp with
water). The remaining cells are sold as “washed pulp” or as cattle feed.
There is an excess of pulp present in the fruit compared to pulp required in the
juice market. Initially most pulp went to pulp washing. With the current mar-
ket trend to add more pulp (cells) to final juice, the proportion of pulp from the
extractors going to commercial pulp production is increasing.
In some plants the extractors used for production of commercial pulp have
been adjusted, in order to optimize pulp quality rather than to maximize juice
yield. In other plants this is not the case.
The downstream processing to produce commercial pulp differ between geo-
graphical markets and if FMC or Brown extractors are used. The choice of ex-
tractor and how it is operated will influence the quality of the pulp produced.
Pulp washing
The reason to apply the pulp washing process, is the fact that the pulp stream
from the final finishers, and the pulp discharged from the centrifuges in the
clarification or de-oiling processes, contain valuable juice solubles. Although
no more liquid can be squeezed from the pulp stream by mechanical force, a
lot of juice is still adsorbed to the cells.
These juice sugars can be reclaimed by a counter current water washing system.
The pulp passes through an extra finisher between the washing stages. The re-
sultant “juice” is called pulp wash. It can be concentrated by evaporation and
used as an add back to juice (if the law permits) or as a base for juice drinks.
The number of stages in a pulp wash system will be determined by the eco-
nomics of operation. In the first stage washing operation, typically 50% of the
available “juice sugars” can be reclaimed. With two stages, as much as 63%
can be reclaimed. Three stages can give 75% recovery and four stages (today’s
maximum) about 80%. Typical flow rates through the system is 1.5- 2 vol-
umes water/volume pulp.
Through pulp washing (assuming all pulp is washed) the overall yield of sol-
ubles solids can be increased by 4 - 7%. The value is dependent on e.g. fruit
variety and maturity. The yield increase from pulp washing is significant to the
overall plant economics.
Pulp from Multistage Pulp wash Continuous

Finisher/Clarifier counter current heater stirred tank
wash system reactor
Water
Washed
pulp
Box/drum
filler
Blend tanks TASTE Evaporator Centrifuge

evaporator feed tanks
Drum Pulp wash

filler concentrate storage Flow chart: Pulp wash production
Enzyme treatment and Pulp wash is high in limonin (a bitter flavour) and pectin. Consequently, non-
debittering treated pulp wash has limited use for add back into high quality beverages.
However, a debittering process can be applied to remove the bitter compo-
nents. These are adsorbed onto a polymer bed.
The presence of pectin in pulp wash leads to a greater increase in viscosity dur-
ing the evaporation than is normal for pure juice. This can lead to a limit of 40
°Brix for pulp wash concentration. Therefore enzyme treatment, which breaks
down the pectin, is often part of the pulp washing process. Enzyme treated
pulp wash can be concentrated to the normal 65 °Brix level.
After the counter current washing of the pulp, the resulting pulp wash stream
is heated to about 45 °C and enzyme is added. The mixture is held up to one
hour to allow for the enzyme to react on the pectin. The pulp wash may then
be centrifuged (clarification process) and sent to the evaporator. The 65 °Brix
concentrate is filled into 200 kg drums.
Pulp wash is often used in formulated drinks as a sugar source and as a cloud-
ing agent providing body and mouth feel.
Washed cells The washed cells can either be sent to the feed mill (for final use as cattle feed)
or be bulk packaged into card board boxes of 25 kg or 200 l drums. These are
stored frozen. The product is traded as washed pulp or washed cells and used
as a pulp source in some drink applications.
Regulations for pulp wash In the USA pulp wash concentrate must be labelled “pulp wash” and cannot
be added back to FCOJ.
Also EU regulations do not allow a product, which contains pulp wash, to be
called orange juice. If pulp wash has been debittered, it is, however, very dif-
ficult to detect it in the juice product. There is suspicion that non-declared ad-
dition of pulp wash is sometimes practised.
Production of commercial pulp

The exact set up of the line will vary from installation to installation. The de-
sign will depend on type of extraction system and processor preference. The
basic process steps are shown in the flow chart below.
Reclaimed juice
to evaporator
Pulp from Pulp recovery Pulp stabiliser Drying Box/drum

extractor system /steriliser finisher filler
Tetra StarAsept Frozen pulp

filling machine storage
Aseptic pulp
Chilled storage Flow chart: Pulp production
Pulp recovery system The juice from the extractor will contain pulp. These two components will be
separated either in the pre-finisher tube (part of the extractor for standard FMC
pulp) or some form of classifying finisher (FMC Premium pulp or Brown sys-
tems). At this stage, pulp content is typically in the 200 - 250 g/l range.
A further concentration of the pulp stream is achieved in the primary finisher,
where the pulp content is typically increased to 400 - 500 g/l.
Overflow This stream from the primary finishers, in Florida called “pulpy
juice”, will contain defects. Defects are normally described as small
fragments of peel, membrane or seed. They have to be removed from
the pulp. There is a density difference between the pulp slurry and a
Feed typical defect, so one or two hydrocyclones can be incorporated to
separate out the higher density defects.
The figure shows the operating principles of a hydroclone. Immature
seeds, on the other hand, are lighter and more difficult to remove.
Underflow
Heat treatment The pulp stream contains enzymes that have to be in-activated. In fact enzyme
activity is higher in the pulp fraction than for the corresponding juice. Conse-
quently, the pulp stream is heat treated (typically referred to as “stabilisation”).
Time/temperature combinations vary between 95 - 110 °C for 15 to 30 sec-
onds.
Typically this heat treatment is carried out in tubular heat exchangers. The
product is very unpredictable as regards flow characteristics, consequently
great care has to be exercised in designing processing systems. Pumps should
be slow rotating positive displacement lobe pumps to minimise pulp break up.
The selection of heat exchanger is also difficult. Contact points or any form of
flow restriction should be avoided, as pulp will build up and potential block or
severely restrict flow. Pressure drops through the systems are also normally
high, 1 500 - 2 000 kPa (15 - 20 bar), is quite normal. Typically, some form of
single tube heat exchanger is desired. However, as capacities increase, pres-
sure drops will also increase in the single tube heat exchanger.
The immediate tendency is to build a larger diameter tube for the higher ca-
pacities. Unfortunately, with the unpredictability of the flow behaviour of this
product, “coring” tends to occur. The velocity of the product flow in the centre
of the stream is much greater than the flow at the side (i.e. laminar flow). This
loss of turbulence drastically reduces effective heat transfer coefficients which
can lead to a poor performance of the system (failure to attain design temper-
ature) or a wide variation in product temperature (over processing and under
processing). This leads to inadequate enzyme in-activation and consequently
poor product quality.
Tetra Spiraflo have investigated this phenomenon in detail, and have devel-
oped a multi-tube heat exchanger that can process high pulp flow rates without
the negative of high pressure drops. A specially designed inlet to the Spiraflo
Multi-tube heat exchangers ensures that pulp does not “hang up” at the tube
entrance (so leading to flow path blockage). The use of the multi-tube provides
a high ratio of heating surface to product throughput, hence a more even and
consistent thermal treatment.
Thermal processing of pulp streams at levels much above 500 g/l is not viable
for today’s tubular heat exchangers. Heat transfer coefficients in tubular heat
exchangers rapidly decline at levels above 550 g/l. (The high cellulosic con-
tent of the product itself, severely limits heat transfer through the product.)
Consequently the design of the heat exchanger becomes large, and the added
disadvantage of slow heat up and cool down times effectively over processes
the pulp with consequent loss in product quality.
Air The nature of the pulp recovery process tends to incorporate air into the prod-
uct stream (paddle finishers). Air entrainment can provide some difficulties
within the heat treatment process. As air bubbles pass through the system,
small air pockets will act as insulators to the pulp (air tends to adhere to the
pulp membrane material). Larger air pockets will tend to expand with heat. Air
bubbles alter the designed time/temperature relationship. The consequence is
loss of control of the system with localised over or under heating of the prod-
uct. It is also possible that microbes contained within an air bubble, will not be
effectively heated, so will survive the process and recontaminate the product.
Deaeration has been attempted in some installations, but is not in widespread
use.
Frozen storage and chilled Traditionally, the heat treated (stabilised) pulp is further concentrated using a
aseptic storage final or “drying” finisher (up to 950 - 1000 g/l). The concentrated pulp is then
packed off. Normally in 20 kg corrugated cardboard boxes (lined with a poly-
ethylene bag), which are then frozen. The freezing time of the pulp is normally
some 7 days, and it is stored at -18 °C. Sometimes pulp is also filled into 200 l
(55 US gallon) drums, again for frozen storage. Drum are, however, less com-
mon.
Some processors have modified the stabilisation process into a stabilisation/
sterilisation process and aseptically pack the pulp immediately after the heat
treatment step. Further concentration of the pulp under aseptic conditions is
not possible using present day technology but pulp is bulk filled at a concen-
tration of ca 500 g/l.
The disadvantage of packing pulp aseptically (with refrigerated storage) at
500 g/l concentration, is that larger storage and shipping volumes are needed
compared to frozen pulp. The advantage is that the pulp is easier to handle. No
thawing and crushing of frozen blocks. The larger juice content (effectively
NFC juice) of the aseptic pulp product compared to frozen pulp, gives some
flavour top notes to the juice product to which the pulp is added. Thus enhanc-
ing the final product.
Feed mill operations

About 50% of the incoming fruit is a “by-product”, i.e. not juice. Much of this
material is seemingly low grade material in the form of peel, rag, core material,
seeds and pulp (assuming that pulp is not recovered for sale as commercial
pulp). The overall moisture content of this combined material is in the region
of 80%.
The operation of the feed mill section represents a significant part of the total
plant running costs. Improvements in operating efficiency and increasing re-
cycling of liquids to other parts of the plant are desirable, not only for econom-
ical but also for environmental reasons. Legislative pressures for
environmental control are growing.
The world market for orange juice concentrate has been very competitive the
1990’s. Thus, the revenue from sale of by-products from feed mill, such as
d-Limonene and animal feed, are important contributions to the overall prof-
itability for orange processors.
Process steps
The feed mill is the general recipient of this material together with the culled
fruit (rejected bad fruit) from the grading tables in the fruit reception area. This
material is conveyed (using screw conveyors) to the wet peel bins of the feed
mill. From there, it is broken down to small pieces by hammer mills. Small
amounts of lime (0.15 to 0.25%) are added in order to aid the de-watering
process. In the reaction screws, the lime is mixed throughout the material. Af-
ter a dwell time of about 15 minutes the mixture passes to the peel presses.
Peel, pulp, rag

& seed from
extraction line Flow chart: Feed mill
Wet peel bin
Hammer mills
Reaction screws
Static screens Reaction screws

Peel presses
Press liquor tanks Peel presses
Waste heat
evaporator Peel drier
Molasses tanks d-Limonene tank Pellet mill
Bulk tanker Bulk tanker Bulk storage

loading loading
In the primary peel presses some 10% of the moisture is removed. Batch hy-
draulically operated presses are traditionally used, however continuous screw
presses have recently been introduced for this duty although continuous screw
presses have recently been introduced. Further addition of lime and secondary
pressing can remove a further 2 or 3% moisture.
The press liquor contains some 9 - 15% solids, much of which are sugar solids.
Oil content can be between 0.2 to 0.8% (depending on fruit type, etc.). The
press liquor normally flows over static screens to remove peel solids, then to
the “waste heat” evaporator. The press liquor is concentrated to form a molas-
ses of approximately 72 °Brix. This molasses can be blended with the dried
peel, or sold as a feed stock for a fermentation process to make alcohol. The
“waste heat” evaporator has got its name because the thermal energy used for
its operation is waste wet heat from the peel drier.
The press liquor contains a high proportion of suspended materials. Often this
material is high in sand type content. This process liquid can be clarified in a
decanter centrifuge, however special “tiles” within the bowl of the centrifuge
are essential to minimise erosion. A clarified press liquor can increase the run-
ning time of the waste heat evaporator, and reduce cleaning time substantially
to contribute to an overall economic benefit to the operation of the feed mill.
d-Limonene can be striped off within the waste heat evaporator and recovered
as a separate stream from the vapour phase. d-Limonene is used within the
chemical and solvent industries.
The pressed peel is dried in a rotary drier to a moisture content of about 10%,
then pelletized to make animal feed. During the drying process, molasses from
the press liquor stream can be added to adjust the nutrient value of the material.

饮料技术 - 5

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饮料技术 - 5

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• Citrus peel oil.

The oil extracted from the peel is sold to flavour manufac-

Citrus processing plant overview

Recycled wash water

Feed Clarification Pulp Peel oil

Juice Juice Juice

Flow chart: Orange juice production

Recycled wash water

Feed Clarification Pulp Peel oil

Juice Juice Juice

Recycled wash water

Feed Clarification Pulp Peel oil

Juice Juice Juice

Recycled wash water

Feed Clarification Pulp Peel oil

Juice Juice Juice

1000 Boxes of Total orange yield

41,4% 3% 55,3% 0,3%

65° Bx concentrate Natural orange aroma Orange essence oil

Fruit reception line

Pre-washing, de-stemming and pre-grading

Truck Pre-wash De- Pre-grade

Final grading Final fruit Surge bin Fruit storage

Final fruit washing

The FMC extractor

FMC Low oil extractor

The Brown juice extractor

Side peel discharge

Air cushioned cup

Juice outlet in rear

The Brown oil recovery system

Oil extractor Water

Downstream of the juice extractors

Pulpy juice from Flow chart: Clarification

Primary finishers Pulp Pulp recovery

NFC production Concentrate

Tetra Allink Re-pasteurisation

Oxygen effects - Vitamin C losses

Long term storage

Aseptic Aseptic Filling machine

Flow chart: Juice

The TASTE evaporator

15.3 Brix Flash cooler Condenser water

Transfer pumps Hotwell

Other evaporation systems

Alternative concentration methods

Peel oil recovery

Flow chart: Peel oil emulsion

First stage centrifuge

Second stage centrifuge

Drum filler Bulk transport

The winterisation process

Pulp from Multistage Pulp wash Continuous

Blend tanks TASTE Evaporator Centrifuge

Drum Pulp wash

Production of commercial pulp

Pulp from Pulp recovery Pulp stabiliser Drying Box/drum

Tetra StarAsept Frozen pulp

Feed mill operations

Peel, pulp, rag

Wet peel bin

Static screens Reaction screws