MODULE 2: LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY

1: Language vs A Language; Characteristics of Language

Language: a system of signs and symbols used for communication. It is a dynamic and creative
tool for communication and building interpersonal relations.

A Language: a system of signs and symbols specific to a society/community/culture that is used

for communication among members of said society/community/culture. A
language entails rules of grammar, symbols and meanings, as well as its own
pronunciation.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE

Language is:
1. Dynamic. Language changes to satisfy the
needs of society.
2. Creative. There is no limitation to
language production.
3. Systemic. It is not subject to individual
determination, but follows rules of grammar,
syntax and semantics.
4. Culturally transmitted. Language is used
to propagate culture, and is also propagated
by culture.
5. Verbal and Non-Verbal in nature.
6. Community specific.
7. Arbitrary. There is no specific relation
between the signifier (word) and the
signified (meaning).
8. Maturational. Language is subject to
growth and development, as concepts learnt
can be built upon.
9. Symbolic. Words are used to represent
symbols or ideas.
10. Non-instinctive. Language must be
learned.

2. Purposes, uses, roles and functions of language

PURPOSES OF LANGUAGE

1. To persuade.
2. To question.
3. To direct. This is the giving of instructions for specific tasks.
4. To provide aesthetic pleasure or entertain.
5. To inform.
6. To command.
7. To criticise.
8. To advise.

USES OF LANGUAGE

1. To discriminate. 6. To assert authority.

2. To alienate. 7. To mark identity.
3. To ridicule. 8. To mark solidarity.
4. To stereotype. 9. To make social linkages.
5. To threaten. 10. To promote cultural awareness.

ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

Language is:
1. Expressive.
2. Phatic. It is used to maintain or form relationships through the exchange of pleasantries.
3. Metalinguistic. It is used to talk about…you guessed it… language.
4. Reflective. It is used to reminisce.
5. Ritual/Identification. To mark identity, culture, heritage, community etc.
Idiolect: each person has their own specific way of speaking.
6. Communicative.
7. Heuristic. Using language to explore the environment; to question; to think about the
unknown.
8. Regulatory. Using language to regulate the behaviour of others.
9. Instrumental. Using language to make requests.
10. Imaginative. Language is used to tell stories or create.

3. Factors influencing Language

HISTORICAL FACTORS

The language situation in any country can normally be linked directly to historical
factors. These are often related to colonization or migration. Colonization is, in fact, the greatest
factor responsible for the spread of certain languages from more homogenous populations to
distant and diverse geographic locations.

SOCIAL FACTORS

The social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the one that assumes the
place of importance in society, and is considered to be the standard language of that society.
Language is dynamic and never static (unchanging) unless there are no more speakers of that
language. Much of the dynamism of a language is due to constant social change and the
emergence of new cultural phenomena as a result. However, the elements of social and economic
class always affect attitudes to, and choice of, language. Social factors also determine which
types of language are considered desirable and which ones are ‘improper’.

CULTURAL FACTORS

The global movement of people has been a major influence on language. Many migrants
and refugees are eager to assimilate quickly as much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate
their ability to ‘fit in’ with their society. As generations are born into the new culture, much of
their original language is lost. Sometimes, the language of the host country also undergoes
change as a result of the new cultural influences. Inevitably, the co-existence of different
languages from different cultures in a society results in linguistic changes in all the languages.
However, the nature of the cultural changes determines which language is more widely
influential and what types of change take place. In some cases, the new culture introduced
contributes to the existing language, causing it to change, albeit slightly.

POLITICAL FACTORS

The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national constitution or

other official sources. Recognition given to other languages is also a political or governmental
decision. Most countries maintain the designated status of their language, regardless of political
change. However, in some nations, language is significantly influenced by political events.
Language policies typically define a government’s plan regarding their approach to the treatment
of language in the specific country. Political influences on language can determine the extent to
which minority languages are accepted, recognised, or utilised in a society.

4. Language and Dialectal Variation

LANGUAGE VARIATION

There are many varieties or types of language. Different languages are spoken in different
geographic locations. Sometimes, the same language may be spoken in countries quite a distance
apart. So, the varieties of the same language can be distinguished; this is known as internal
variation. The term DIALECT refers to any variety of a language spoken by a group of people.
Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes dominant. This is
usually due to the fact that it is the dialect spoken by the people with the economic power or
greatest influence in that society. This dialect becomes accepted as the standard variety of that
language. Since that language variety is associated with influence and ‘correctness’, it becomes
the one that is aspired to, often to the exclusion of other varieties.
In the English-speaking Caribbean, Standard English is used, but linguistics refers to this
variety as Caribbean Standard English (CSE). A group of people speaking the same dialect is
known as a speech community. An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation.
DIALECTAL VARIATION

This refers to the variation that exists in spoken and written use of a language within the
speech community; in our case, English. This can be viewed as a continuum and in the
Caribbean it is called the Creole Continuum.
The spectrum of this continuum ranges from the more standard end to the creole end; the
acrolect (form of language used for formal occasions, and by the educated. E.g. I picked the four
mangoes) being the standard variety, the mesolect (mixture of standard and non-standard used in
relaxed situations by mostly educated and urban people. E.g. I pick the four mangoes), and the
basilect (form of language used for intimate occasions and by mostly people of rural areas;
entirely Creole. E.g. I di pick di four mango and dem) that is the Creole variety. These are placed
on a continuum because speakers tend to switch from one to another, continuously in
conversation, depending on the audience and the situation.

FACTORS AFFECTING DIALECTAL VARIATION

1. Social Factors: Interaction with peers, media, interaction with different age groups, and
cultural plurality.
2. Environmental Factors: Occasion determines register, interaction in the home, religious
institutions (ceremonial language), and school language.
3. Historical Factors: Slavery and Plantation life, cross migration, the need to communicate and
sovereignty.
4. Educational Factors: Level of Educational background, availability of educational materials,
the teacher, in-class interaction, accessibility of and exposure to training, and level of literacy.
5. Economic Factors: Availability of language learning materials, exposure to modes of
communication and travel.
6. Geographic location: rural vs urban (urbanization as well).

These factors give rise to the issues which perpetuate the prevailing attitudes, both negative and
positive, to language in the Caribbean.
NB Code switching: changing the language used (STD vs Creole) or the register used (formal vs
informal), according to various factors. These include: audience, purpose, message and context
of communication. In the Caribbean, speakers switch often between the acrolect and the
mesolect/ acrolect and basilect/ mesolect and basilect.

5. Register

Register refers to the kind of language appropriate to a particular purpose or situation.

Choice is determined by the audience, the subject matter, the medium itself, and the writer’s
attitude. It is, basically, the degree of formality of speech and consists of:
1. Frozen: for use in print, where a direct response is not required. E.g. Visitors are required to
utilize the underground parking facility of this compound. The acrolect is used.
2. Formal: for formal/professional settings such as ceremonies etc. The acrolect is used.
3. Consultative: for meetings and consultations with professionals, such as a doctor’s
appointment. The acrolect is used, with jargon.
4. Informal/Casual: for use among acquaintances, or in semi-relaxed settings. The mesolect is
used.
5. Intimate: used by persons in close relationship to each other. The basilect is used, with group
specific lexicon.