first break volume 25, February 2007 regional focus

North Africa / Mediterranean

Digital analysis brings renaissance for petroleum

geology outcrop studies in North Africa
Dr Jonathan Redfern,1 Dr Dave Hodgetts,2 and Ivan Fabuel-Perez of the North Africa Research
Group, University of Manchester, describe how digital outcrop analysis can provide valuable
new geological insights for exploration and production operations in North Africa.

T he recent increase in hydrocarbon exploration activ-

ity across North Africa - in Algeria, Libya, Morocco
and Egypt is leading to a renaissance in outcrop studies
in the area. The main reservoir, source, and seal facies
can all be studied in the field, providing valuable data to better
beacon correction from the closest terrestrial station. Digit-
al outcrop image collection is undertaken with a RIEGL LMS-
Z420 LIDAR (Figure 1). It consists of a high performance long-
range 3D laser scanner, and a calibrated high-resolution digit-
al camera. The range of the scanner is 800 to 1000 m, with a
constrain the subsurface geology, reduce exploration risk, help measurement accuracy of 5 mm and data spacing up to 5 cm.
develop new play concepts, and enhance field productivity in The scanner allows fast collection speed with a measurement
North Africa. rate up to 12,000 points per second. It covers a vertical field of
The North Africa Research Group (NARG) at the Univer- view of 80º and horizontal view of 360º. The whole system is
sity of Manchester, UK, with partners Heriot Watt, Cardiff and operated using a fully portable, rugged and robust toughbook.
Bremen Universities are being supported by 10 leading interna-
tional oil companies to undertake regional scale outcrop stud- Sedimentological field data
ies. These include regional mapping and correlation to the sub- Digital image capture cannot replace field mapping and log-
surface, developing a regional sequence stratigraphic frame- ging, which is required to provide the detailed geological pic-
work, regional basin modelling, Apatite Fission Track dating, ture. Sections have been logged to record different sedimento-
detailed reservoir characterization, and seismic studies across logical data (thicknesses, lithologies, colour, grain size, sort-
North Africa.
The aim is to use the wealth of geological information that
can be extracted from extensive outcrops to provide a regional
database to better constrain subsurface exploration. This rep-
resents a second wave of field based research in North Africa,
with the researchers often returning to areas, such as the south-
ern Murzuk Basin, where the only previous studies were the
pioneering work in the 1960s and 70s undertaken during the
first phase of exploration for oil. Building on this excellent early
work, research can now utilize modern digital data techniques
to enhance our ability to evaluate the sections in a detailed and
timely manner.
One technique being employed is digital outcrop analy-
sis, using LIDAR(Light Detection and Ranging) data. Studies
involving digital data acquisition (Hodgetts et al. 2004), have
demonstrated the value of this methodology. In North Africa,
the fieldwork being undertaken by NARG involves integration
of differential global-positioning (DGPS), digital outcrop imag-
es obtained with LIDAR and traditional sedimentary outcrop
logging. The methodology can be summarised as follows.

Digital outcrop images

Accurate position of every scan location is recorded using a
Trimble Pro XR DGPS with sub metre resolution and real time Figure 1 Equipment used for digital outcrop data collection.

1
jonathan.redfern@manchester.ac.uk, http://narg.web.mcc.ac.uk.
2
david.hodgetts@manchester.ac.uk.

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North Africa / Mediterranean
ing, sedimentary structures, and palaeocurrent information).
This information is then integrated with the digital data
and input into the final reservoir model. The digital data
allow interpretation of areas that are not easily accessed on
foot, steep cliffs, etc.
Data processing
The workflow consists initially of processing the digit-
al data to create an appropriate dataset to allow inter-
pretation that can be exported in XYZ format-ASCII for-
mat into reservoir modelling software (e.g., VRGS, Pet-
rel, RMS).
The scan positions are merged together and georefer-
enced using the DGPS data collected in the field. This proc-
ess is done using the Polyworks software. Using the soft-
ware RiScan Pro, the entire dataset is processed and after a
filtering process, the scans are triangulated to fill the gaps
in the point cloud, then smoothed and decimated. This
process makes the polydata easier to texture. The final step
uses the RGB colour information from the digital photo-
graphs (both panorama and high-resolution pictures) to
texture the triangulated mesh. Images taken with the cali-
brated camera are slightly distorted due to lens effects, so
before the software can texture the mesh, the images have
to be undistorted. Once this process is done, high resolu-
tion coloured scan images are ready to be interpreted.
Interpretation and integration of digital data
and sedimentology
A key element is the ability to extract valuable informa-
tion from the LIDAR data and to integrate the scans with
field data. Traditionally this has been very difficult, often
resulting in the LIDAR data being not fully utilized. To
overcome this, the University of Manchester has devel-
oped specialized software - Virtual Reality Geological Stu-
dio (VRGS). Developed by Dr Dave Hodgetts, VRGS is a
geoscience specific programme for the manipulation, vis-
ualization, and analysis of LIDAR and other outcrop dig-
ital data. This software allows measurement of structur-
al data from the scan, as well as attribute analysis of the
point cloud, integration of traditional field data (e.g. sedi-
mentary logs), structural restoration and synthetic seismic
generation (Figure 2). Real-time integration of direct out-
crop observations with the LIDAR data can be undertaken
via active GPS tracking where a hand held GPS is attached
to the laptop running VRGS.
At the same time, traditional field data can also be dig-
itized using this software in case we do not have this tool
in the field, so traditional logging can be done and later
the logs can be easily digitized to integrate with the digit-
al data.
Examples of measurements that can be extracted from
the scan data include:
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Figure 2 View from VRGS (Virtual Reality Geological Stu-
dio) showing a point cloud and different options available in
the software for geological measurements and interpretation.
Bed attitude
In order to measure the dip and azimuth of a bed, two
apparent dips need to be visible. Three points are marked
onto the LIDAR data demarking the bed and forming a
triangle, the dip and azimuth of the bed is then calculated
from this triangle (Figure 2). Care must be taken to choose
appropriate areas to measure the data, and the closer the
triangle is to an equilateral triangle the better the measure-
ment will be. Derived data have been compared with direct
measurement in the field and has been found to be accu-
rate. This approach allows bed attitude measurement to be
made in cases where it would be difficult in the field, due
to lack of well exposed bedding planes, and as the meas-
urements are made over a relatively large area compared
to a measurement with a traditional compass, clinometers
effects of sedimentary structures on the measurement are
eliminated.
Measurements and thickness
Measurements in VRGS fall into four categories: 2D hori-
zontal measurements as if in map coordinates, 2D vertical
measurements as in a cross section of simple difference in
elevation, 3D measurements which is the distance between
two points in three dimensions, and corrected thickness
measurements (TST) which apply to the vertical measure-
ments only. The TST (True Stratigraphic Thickness) of a
bed or interval is an important measurement to make both
in structural geology and sedimentology in order to under-
stand lateral thickness variations. In VRGS, a bed atti-
tude can be attached to a measurement and the thickness
will be corrected taking the strike and dip of the beds into
account.
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first break volume 25, February 2007
Figure 3 Location of the study area in Morocco showing the numbered location of measured sections included in the project:
(1) Oukaimeden Lake Section (see figure 5).
Fault attitude and geometry
Fault attitude is measured in the same manner as for bed
attitude using three observed points, though care must be
taken to ensure this is done on a planar section of the fault
and areas of ramp float geometry must be treated with
care. Once a fault plane has been defined using the 3 point
approach the fault is defined as a set of 3 fault lines orient-
ed along the fault strike. All fault and bed attitude data are
maintained within VRGS and displayed as a stereonet while
interpretations are being made allowing real time analysis
of the data.
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regional focus
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Integration of outcrop and scan data
There is still a large amount of data which cannot be
derived from the scans such as lithology, grain-size, small
scale sedimentary structure, facies (possible in some circum-
stances), and palaeocurrents. These all need to be integrat-
ed to ensure a valid interpretation. Once the LIDAR data
have been georeferenced correctly, it can be taken back into
the field and, with a laptop connected to a GPS, can be used
as a very high resolution (almost photo-realistic) base map.
Sedimentary data may be attached to the scan via VRGS as
complete outcrop logs or as individual measurements, and
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palaeocurrents may be added as part of the log data. Bed
attitude and fault data measured directly in the field may be
added to the LIDAR dataset either from GPS positioning or
by directly attaching the measurement to the scan.
Attribute analysis
The LIDAR data are not an unstructured cloud of point
data, the data are organized into columns and rows due to
the way the scanner maps the outcrop. This organization
of the point cloud makes creation of new attributes easy. In
the standard dataset, each data point has reflection intensi-
ty from the scanner and red, green, and blue colour chan-
nels from the digital images. Each of these channels may
Figure 4 Oukaimeden Sandstones Formation. The division
into different members is based on field observations.
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be subjected to processing similar to image processing to
increase contrast, enhance edges, etc., which may make
interpretation easier. Another form of processing is based
on comparing consecutive vertical scan lines to look for
correlation from one line to the next (in a similar manner
to continuity or coherence parameter in seismic data). This
highlights variation across the outcrop, e.g., termination of
bedding planes at a fault, and so helps with structural inter-
pretation. A variety of other processing techniques are also
being developed.
Surface gridding
The data (key stratal surface, faults etc) can then be export-
ed to other software packages (such as Petrel or RMS) for
further analysis or gridding into surfaces. Gridding outcrop
data of this nature is often problematic in areas of very high
data density and areas with no data at all. If used without
careful consideration the gridding of these data will result in
incorrect and invalid surfaces. Incorporating measured struc-
tural control at the outcrop into the surface gridding ensures
the surfaces not only honour the x,y,z position at the out-
crop but also honour the structural / sedimentological data
as well, and more accurate surfaces can be generated. Posi-
tions of other surfaces, higher or lower in the stratigraphy,
which may be exposed in areas where the main surface is
not exposed must also be taken into account to ensure sur-
faces do not intersect where they should not and maintain a
valid thickness. Once a satisfactory key stratal surface has
been gridded (which should be the best exposed surface in
the field area), it is then easier to work on other surfaces as
isopachs to investigate thickness variations.
Examples of LIDAR data from a North Africa
outcrop study
An example of an ongoing NARG project utilizing LIDAR
data is a reservoir sedimentology and 3D reservoir model-
ling study of the Oukaimeden Sandstones (F5), an Upper
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Triassic fluvial/aeolian formation located in the High Atlas
Range in Morocco. The F5 is an important analogue to
the TAGI formation (Triassic Argilo-Gréseux Inférieur),
one of the most productive clastic reservoirs in central
Algeria.
Previous work on the Triassic of the High Atlas includes
that of Mattis (1977) and Benaouiss (1996). This project
aims to compare and model different fluvial/aeolian sys-
tems using a combination of digital outcrop images
obtained with LIDAR and sedimentological data such as
sedimentary facies logs and palaeocurrent information.
Figure 5 Oukaimeden Lake sedimentary log (see map for
location).
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regional focus
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These data will be used to evaluate the controls on dep-
ositional system, facies architecture, and basin evolution,
such as the influence of climate cycles, as well as build a
3D reservoir model of the different fluvial/aeolian facies.
The area of study is situated in the Central High Atlas
(Morocco), 60 km southeast of Marrakech (Figure 3).
The Ourika Valley extends some 20 km and rises up to
2600 m above sea level, with outcrops on the valley walls
up to 150 m high. It comprises a succession from Permi-
an to Upper Jurassic and offers exceptional exposure of
Upper Triassic sediments.
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North Africa / Mediterranean

Figure 6A General view of the main outcrop, produced by

merging three different panorama scans (low resolution scans)
collected in three different scan positions (Ouk_01, Ouk_02,
and Ouk_03).
Figure 6C Digital outcrop image showing the Oukaimeden
Sandstones Upper part (note new change in scale). Working at
this scale, new key surfaces are recognisable (e.g., dashed line
showing erosive surfaces between different channel belts).

Figure 6B Recognizable key surfaces include major structural

features (e.g. faults) and tops and bases of main formations.

Initial work has allowed the F5 to be subdivided into

three sub units, Oukaimeden A, B, and C (Figure 4). Oukai-
meden A comprises mudstones and siltstones, and a lower
proportion of sandstones. Oukaimeden B is characterized by
red coloured sandstones, red coloured sandstones and con-
glomerates, and shows a continuous evolution of vertically
stacked channel and bar forms separated by erosive surfac-
es. Oukaimeden C is composed of more isolated sand bodies,
with erosive bases, separated by thick mudstone bodies. Figure 6D Textured fine resolution scan showing a higher
Detailed sedimentary logging allows the definition of scale interpretation. At this level of resolution, tops and bases
the main facies characteristics, a description of bedforms, of the different macroforms can be interpreted (e.g., Channel
facies thickness, grain size distributions, lithology, sedimen- bases, floodplain elements, tops of fining-upwards sequence.
tary structures, and palaeocurrent information (Figure 5).
Five different facies associations have been identified fluvial the vertical face showing the sandstone dominated Oukai-
bars, channels, lateral accretion, crevasse splay, and aeolian meden B. The panorama is a merged low resolution scan
dunes associations, and finally an overbank association. from three different scan positions (Ouk_01, Ouk_02 and
The LIDAR data allow correlation of the facies across Ouk_03). The data can be interpreted at a variety of scales,
the near vertical outcrops, providing reservoir scale sec- down to a resolution of approximately 10 cm. Major struc-
tions, and also the identification of key surfaces at a varie- tural features (e.g., major regional faults) and tops and
ty of scales. Figure 6A shows a processed LIDAR image of bases of main formations (e.g., Oukaimeden Sandstones

86 © 2007 EAGE
first break volume 25, February 2007
Middle Part) can be recognized and interpreted (Figure 6B).
At higher resolution, smaller sedimentary packages can be
mapped out (Figure 6C), down to a resolution where the
top and base of the different macroforms can be interpret-
ed, such as channel scour bases, floodplain elements, and
tops of fining-upwards sequences (Figure 6D).
These data are then readily exported to a reservoir mod-
elling package, such as Petrel or RMS, to allow the develop-
ment of high resolution models.
Summary
Despite ongoing oil and gas exploration in North Africa
since the 1960s, many basins are still under-explored, with
significant potential to develop new plays, extend drilling
to deeper targets, or improve production with better reser-
voir models. Key to unlocking these reserves is often a better
understanding of the geological setting, stratigraphy, and res-
ervoir sedimentology. North Africa contains extensive out-
crops of all the main reservoir, source, and seal units, and
field studies offer a huge potential database waiting to be
accessed. Integrated regional/reservoir scale studies, incorpo-
rating both traditional field work and digital outcrop cap-
ture, and the availability of new software to improve the
interpretation of the LIDAR data, offers a way to improve
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regional focus
North Africa / Mediterranean
the understanding of both regional geology and detailed sub-
surface reservoir models, to aid both exploration and devel-
opment projects in North Africa.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
the North Africa Research Group and its sponsors Anad-
arko, Hess, BG Group, Repsol, Petro-Canada, Wintershall,
Mearsk, Conoco, Occidental and Woodside, the support of
ONHYM in Morocco, and the academic use of software
provided by Schlumberger and RMS.
References
Benaouiss, N., Courel, L., et al. [1996] Rift-controlled fluvial/ tidal
transitional series in the Oukaimeden Sandstones, High Atlas of
Marrakech (Morocco). Sedimentary Geology, 107, 1-2, 21-36.
Mattis, A.F. [1977] Nonmarine Triassic sedimentation, central
High Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 47, 1, 107-119.
Hodgetts D., Drinkwater, N.J., et al. [2004] Three-dimension-
al geological models from outcrop data using digital data col-
lection techniques: An example from the Tanqua Karoo dep-
ocentre, South Africa. Geological Society Special Publication,
239, 57-75
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