If there appears to be insufficient flow, the recirculation valve V3 can be partly closed, increasing the

supply from the pump to the filter column.

At this steady flow the manometers will show a steady fall in level progressing from right (top
connection)to left (bottom connection). This will not be linear , unless the media is absolutely
uniform in size, or is completely mixed to a homogeneous state (unstratified). Tipically the water
levels in the manometers should appear as in figure A1. Any anomalous level should be cheked by
examining for leaks or air bubbles in the tubing connection, or that the manometer taping valve is
properly open.

The sampling taps can be checked. For isokinetic sampling teh velocity through the tapping silt
should equal the local interstitial velocity.

22

Armfield instruction manual

Local interestitial velocity

In all 40 sampling tapping are in use, total sampilng flow rate

Inflow to column is 2000 Ml/min

This is about the maximum acceptable. In practice only a selected number of sampilng tapping
would be in use at critical levels in the filter media.

Upward flow

Upward flow simulates filter back-washing and the degree of fluidisation can be measured by
measuring expended length of the media against the flow rate.

Close valves V6 and V9

Open valves V7 and V8

Increase the flow rate gradually by opening valve V5 (and closing recirculation valve V3 if necessary)

Observe that initially the filter media will not move but the manometers will show an increasing
head loss, but the levels will fall across the bank of manometers in the opposite direction.

As the flow rate increase te media will begin to expand (fluidise, at the upper layers first. The
manometers will indicate an increasing head loss until the whole media column is fully fluidised. The
manometers wl then read a constant set of values.

Particularly the bottom an top manometers should be noted, the difference in level being the total
head loss across the media. A typical set of column lenght and head loss values againts flow rate will
be as shown on the skecth below.

23

Filter run
Before commencing a filter run,it is advisable to carry out a clean water test (as described above ).
To ensure that all parts of the system are functioning correctly and free from air bubbles , clogged
sampling tappings etc.

When the correct flow rate is passing trought the filter column, the pump connecting the valves V1
and V3 to the clean water tank can be closed and the opposite valves V2 and V4 can be opened
from the other tank containing suspension.

Filtration

Filtration of ssupension trought granular filter media such as sand in a deep bed filter is a physical
and physico-chemical process. The object is to clarify the suspension, and the accumulated deposit
in the filter pores causes a loss in permeability. As most filters are operated at constant flow, the
clogging caused by the deposit leads to an increasing head loss through the filter media.

A filter run is terminated either.

i. At a pre-set time, often 24h in practice, but usually 6h in a laboratory test.

ii. At a pre-set head loss limit, determined by the pressure conditions within the filter
media which must not fall below atmospheric, or often by the lenght of manometer
tubes in laboratory apparatus.
iii. At a limit of filtrate quality, which will detoriorate during the later parts of the filter run
(breakthrough)

When the filter run is terminated, the deposits are washed out of the media by reverse flow
fluidisation of the media (back-washing). With the media thus cleaned, after back-washing , a new
filter run is commended.

Clarification of suspension

the clarification of a suspension as it flows through sand or similiar granular media is expressed by
the equation

Where C is the instantaneous local concentration of the suspension,

L is depth from the media inlet surface

Lamda is a proportionality factor, called the filter coefficient

Equation (1) states that the decrease in suspension concentration per unit depth is proportional to
the local concentration. At the filter media surface L= 0 AND C = Co (inlet concentration)

If the filter media is uniform at all depths, equation (1) becomes

Rumus

At the commencement of the filter run (time t = 0) , when lamda = lamda, after this initial time, the
filter is no longer uniform at all depths, and is varying with time due to the accumulation of
deposited suspension. Consequently, the filter coefficient ( lamda) varise with both depth (L) and
time (t).

The accumulation of deposit is expressed by the equation

Rumus

? is the local quantity of deposit per unit filter volum, called the spesific deposit

V is the approach velocity of filtration, being the volumetric flow rate per unit face area of the filter
media.

25

Equation (3) states the quantity of deposit accumulating in the filter pores is equal to the quantity of
suspended material removed from the flowing suspension. It is often referred to as continuity
equation for suspended material.

Further development and explanations of equations (1) and (3) can be found in the scientific basic of
filtration. For the purposes of experimentation, as a first approximation the partial differential
equations (1) and (3) can be expressed as difference equations, for an element of depth (rumus) and
during an interval of filter run time (rmus0

Exmple calculation

Using the deep bed filter column apparatus, the distance typed between the sample tappings,
rumusL = 20 mm, and a suitable time interval is rumusLt = 30 minutes, and a typical approach
velocity is va = 167 mm/min. If observation are commenced when the filter is clean (t = 0) then
rumus (L,t) = 0 (no deposite).

Assumsing the sampling tapping concentrations give

Rumus

From equation (1b)

Rumus

As this was observed at t = o, lamda t = lamda o, so this is the value the initial (clean) filter
coefficient.

Difference in forms of equations (1) and (3)

26

Element of filter depth (rumus) during a small interval of filter run time (rumus)

That is the mass of deposit which has accumulated per unit volume , in the filter layer between the
two sampling tappings, during the first 30 minutes of the filter run.

Clogging and head loss

Flow of clean water trough sand or similiar porous media is expressed by Darcy’s law, or in more
detail by the carman – kozeny equation. So the water levels in manometers connected at intervals
throught the depth of the filter medium would from a straight line if the medium is completely
uniform. As in practice the medium is frequently not uniform, but stratified, the manometer levels
lie on a curve as shown in figure A1. The differences in levels from the top connection (water above
the filter media) are the head losses, often plotted as ahead loss diagram.