Experiment 2: Period of a Simple Pendulum Source of error 4: The centre of the pendulum bob is dificult to determine, resulting in inconsistent alignment of the rulet when measuring the length of the pendulum. The measurement of /is inaccurate, Improvement: ‘Aline can be marked out with a marker at the centre of the pendulum bob so that the length / can be accurately measured by aligning the ruler with the bottom of the cork and the marker line. Source of error 2: ‘The initial displacement of the bob from its vertical position might be larger than 10 cm (or 10°), therefore the amplitude of the oscillation is not small, resulting in inaccurate time measurement. Improvement: A half metre rule can be clamped horizontally near the base of the retort stand (or a protractor can be clamped near the optical pin), so that the initial displacement can be measured to be always within 10 cm (or 10") Source of error 3: ‘The stopwatch may be started or stopped too early due to the difficulty in estimation of the exact start or €end of oscillation, resulting in inaccurate time measurement. Improvement: A pointer can be placed on the base of the retort stand and the stopwatch can be started or stopped only ‘as the pendulum crosses the pointer, when its movement has stabilised after a few oscillations Experiment 4: Density of Regular and Irregular Solids Source of error 4: The hook connected to the pendulum bob results in the bob not being perfectly spherical. The diameter ‘measured using the micrometer is accurate, but the calculation of its volume, assuming it is spherical, is not. Improvement: Use a pendulum bob that is a regular spherical shape so that the volume can be calculated accurately. ‘Source of error 2: ‘There may be splashing of water onto the sides of the cylinder, resulting in inaccurate measurements of volume of water displaced, Improvement: Use a cylinder of a larger diameter to minimise splashes onto the sides. Source of error 3: ‘The volume of thread that was lowered into the cylinder resulted in additional water displaced, which caused inaccurate measurements of volume of water displaced, Improvement: Use very thin threads or strings instead so that any additional water displaced is negligible. Practical — Endothermic ReactionSource of error 1: Solid P sticks to the side of the stoppered test-tube (or plastic zip-lock bag) and does not fully empty into the water. The mass of P that dissolved in water will not correspond to the mass of solid P initially prepared. Improvement Hold solid P intially on a non-adhesive filter paper instead, so that more of the solid powder can be poured into the water. Source of error 2: Evaporation of the water leads to a cooling effect of the water. This affects the accuracy of the temperature readings. Improvement: Use a covered cup with a hole in the lid for the thermometer to be inserted, s0 as to minimise the rate of evaporation and cooling effect. Source of error 3: Stirring with the thermometer results in inconvenience in reading the temperature reading, and the time when it is read will not correspond to the desired time for which it is supposed to be read. This affects the accuracy of the t readings. Improvement: Insert a glass rod through the lid to gently stir the water to ensure uniform temperature without compromise on the timely reading of the thermometer. Experiment 5: Verification of the Principle of Moments Source of error 4: Presence of wind makes it difficult to balance the ruler. This affects the accuracy of the d2 readings Improvement: ‘Switch off the fans and close the windows to reduce air movement. Source of error 2: Friction between optical pin and metre rule makes it difficult for the metre rule to move freely, and the balance point may be inaccurate. This affects the accuracy of d2. Improvement: Replace the pivot point with a triangular fulcrum that the metre rule can move freely about Source of error 3: “The exect positioning to determine the correct balance point is dificult to obtain, therefore affecting the accuracy of 42. . Improvement: Take 3 readings of d2 for each d1 to obtain average values of 42 which are more accurate. ‘Source of error 4: ‘The thickness of the string used to suspend the masses makes the exact location of the masses inaccurate, therefore affecting the accuracy of the d1 and d2 readings. Improvement: Use strings of smaller thicknesses to suspend the masses.Practical - Centre of Mass of Lamina Precaution 1 Ensure that the plumbline hangs close to the lamina, without rubbing against it, before the marks are made. This minimised the movement of the plumbline and lamina that might affect the accurate drawing of the straight lines and measurement of p, Precaution 2: Ensure that the lamina is freely hanging and not sticking onto the pivot, and make sure marks only when the lamina comes to a rest. This leads to a more accurate drawing of the straight lines and measurement ofp. Source of error 1: Its difficult to mark the positions of the plumbiine against the lamina without disturbing their positions. This makes the line drawn inaccurate, and therefore affects the accuracy of the p measurement. Improvement: ‘Once the plumbiine and lamina come to a complete halt, secure them gently with @ piece of tape, before ‘making pencil marks on the lamina for drawing a line. Source of error 2: The surface between the pivot and the lamina is not entirely frictionless, which may restrict the movement Of the lamina. The lamina might not rest exactly with the centre of mass below the pivot, thus affecting the accuracy of the p measurement. Improvement: Use a pivot and a lamina that are smoother so that the lamina can rotate more freely about the pivot with less friction Practical — Stability of Wooden Block Source of error 1: ‘There will be friction between the wooden block and the protractor, affected the falling of the wooden block, thus causing the @ reading to be inaccurate. Improvement: Place the wooden block about 1 mm away from the protractor so as to minimise friction between the wooden block and the protractor. Source of error 2: ‘Some of the corners of the wooden block are slightly chipped and not sharp, resulting in the block being stable over a small range of @ before topping over. This causes the 9 readings to be inaccurate. Improvement: Use new wooden blocks with sharp comers, so that the @ value beyond which the block topples over is well-defined.Experiment 6: Specific Heat Capacity of a Metal Source of error 1: ‘The hot metal sample also heats up the polystyrene cup, thus affecting the accuracy of the final temperature of the water Ta Improvement: Include the mass and specific heat capacity of the glass beaker in the calculation Source of error 2: Energy is lost to the surroundings as the hot metal sample cools down, thus affecting the accuracy of the final temperature of the water T. Improvement: Insulate the sides of the beaker (if beaker was used) with a poor conductor like styrofoam, to minimise energy loss from the beaker to the surrounding by conduction. Improvement: Shield the apparatus with a shiny metal shield, to minimise energy loss from the hot metal sample and hot water to the surrounding by radiation Source of error 3: Energy is lost through evaporation of the water (if no lid was used), thus affecting the accuracy of the final temperature of the water Ts. Improvement: Cover the beaker with an insulating lid, to prevent evaporation of water into the surrounding, Experiment 9: Reflection by a Plane Mirror Source of error 1 ‘The pin holes made by the pins Ps and Ps are rather big, Hence the line joining the centres of the holes may not be accurate. This affects the accuracy of the emergent ray and the value of angle r Improvemer Use thinner pins like sewing needles to make smaller holes in the paper. Source of error 2: The plane mirror may be easily shifted while doing the experiment, e.g putting pins on trace, slight movement on tracing paper and softboard, ete. This will again affect the accuracy of the y-readings, Improvement: Use blu-tac to secure the mirror throughout the experiment, to minimise movement, Experiment 10: Refractive Index of Glass Source of error 1: The pin holes made by the pins Ps and Ps are rather big. Hence the line joining the centres of the holes ‘may not be accurate, This affects the accuracy of the emergent ray and the value of angle r. Improvement: Use thinner pins like sewing needles to make smaller holes in the paper.