Coursenote

ACFM Crack Microgauge Operators Course
(Level 1)
ACFM1
Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Rev 2 November 2011
Contents
Copyright  TWI Ltd 2011
ACFM Crack Microgauge Operators Course

(Level 1)
Contents
Section Subject
1 Overview of NDT Techniques for Surface Crack Detection and

Sizing
1.1 Electromagnetic techniques, a brief history
1.2 General overview
1.3 Visual inspection
1.4 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
1.5 Dye penetrants
1.6 Electromagnetic techniques for weld inspection
1.7 Ultrasonic testing
1.8 Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD)
1.9 Alternating current potential difference (ACPD)
2 Basic Electricity and Magnetism
2.1 Basic units used in the measurement of electricity
2.2 Direct current circuits
2.3 Ohms law
2.4 Resistance (Ω)
2.5 Magnetic effect of electric current
2.6 Magnetic theory
3 Basic Principles of Eddy Current Testing
3.1 Electrical conductivity ()
3.2 Magnetic permeability (µ)
3.3 Frequency of the test (f)
3.4 Depth of penetration
3.5 Electromagnetic effects
3.6 Eddy current generation and detection
3.7 Factors affecting eddy currents
4 Basic Principles of ACPD
4.1 ACPD
5 Alternating Current Field Measurement (AFCM)
5.1 Basis of the technique
5.2 Current flow – Bx and Bz relationship
5.3 Limitations of electromagnetic techniques for weld inspection
5.4 Comparison between ACFM and eddy current for weld inspection
6 TSM ACFM Equipment Hardware and Software
6.1 Hardware
6.2 Software
6.3 ACFM probe types
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Contents
7 Operation of Computer Basic Commands

7.1 Computer operations related to ACFM operations
7.2 Drives and directories
7.3 Windows
8 ASSIST Family Software
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Software installation
8.3 Probe file installation
8.4 ASSISTant software for Amigo U19
8.5 ASSIST Lite software for Amigo U19
8.6 Hot keys
9 Display Format Bx and Bz Relationships
9.1 Crack Signals
9.2 Line contacts and multiple cracks
9.3 Geometry
9.4 Materials
9.5 Seam welds
9.6 Edges and corners
10 Probe Operator Briefing Requirements
10.1 Preparation of inspection area
10.2 Probes
10.3 Probe operator briefing sheet
11 Function Check
11.1 Function test block
12 General Scanning Procedure
12.1 Setting scan speed, comms rate or sample rate
13 Defect Sizing
13.1 Sizing for length
14 Reporting and Printing
14.1 Report sheets
14.2 Printing data
14.3 Example of print format
15 Troubleshooting
15.1 No communications with the instrument
15.2 Very noisy data
16 Care and Maintenance of Equipment
16.1 Subsea unit
16.2 Probes
16.3 Storage conditions
16.4 Connectors
16.5 Instrument and cables
17 Course Exercises
Appendix A Essential and Recommended Reading
Appendix B ACFM Technical Literature
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Section 1
Overview of NDT Techniques for

Surface Crack Detection and Sizing
Rev 2 November 2011
Overview NDT Techniques for Surface Crack Detection & Sizing
1 Overview of NDT Techniques for Surface Crack

Detection and Sizing
1.1 Electromagnetic techniques, a brief history
Electromagnetic non-destructive testing (EMD) was first applied in its usual
sense by Dr Förster in the 1940s, to assess tubes in production with
encircling coils. In the early 1950s a high frequency eddy current system
was developed to detect cracks in aircraft, first used on the Comet airliner.
The first modern test sets using impedance plane display instruments were
introduced in the early 1970s by Automation Industries, following
development of the storage oscilloscope. Digital screen displays started
appearing in the early 1980s.
The first evidence of weld inspection being carried out by EMD may have
been on ship hulls using the AMLEC instrument in the mid 1960s.
Developed by the Admiralty Materials Laboratory and later marketed by
Hocking Electronics (now Hocking NDT). Thorburn Technics produced an
eddy current instrument for weld inspection in the early 1980s followed by
the AVIO instrument from Hocking.
The theory of ACFM was developed at University College London, funded

by the Wolfson Institute; as a non-contact development of ACPD. Eventually
Technical Software Consultants (TSC) marketed the system and the first
commercial system was released in 1991. In 1995 TSC marketed the first of
their Array probe systems.
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) is a technique which can be

used to find and size surface-breaking defects and can be used through
non-conductive coatings.
1.2 General overview

In excess of 50 NDT techniques are available for use at present, but not all
can sensibly be applied to the detection of surface cracks especially
underwater. Each technique has advantages, disadvantages and
applications; some are used solely as crack detection methods others for
sizing and a few can address some detection and sizing requirements.
Common methods of NDT were developed by the aerospace industries and
adapted for automotive and ship building industries, but not all these
methods can be applied in an underwater environment.
The following is a list of the most common techniques that can be used for
crack detection:
 Visual.
 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI).
 Dye penetrant.
 Ultrasonic.
 Electromagnetic techniques.
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The areas of application of some of the commonly used methods

successfully applied to surface fatigue crack detection and sizing are
described below:
1.3 Visual inspection

Locates visible defects and discontinuities and surface-breaking defects
which can be quite small in the case of close visual inspection of welds, etc.
The main disadvantage is no permanent record is produced, thus it is open
to interpretation of the individual.
Visual inspection gives an overall appreciation of the general condition of

the structure and normally falls into two categories.
1.3.1 General visual inspection (GVI)

Topside in air, GVI is used to produce a report of the general condition of
the weld prior to inspection by other methods. Underwater, this type of
inspection is generally used to assess marine growth, major physical
defects, debris, scour, CP surveys. GVI can be aided and recorded by the
use of CCTV still photography.
1.3.2 Close visual inspection (CVI)

Particularly important where weld defects may affect in-service inspection
results. Underwater, CVI is normally carried out in the vicinity of a weld and
requires removal of marine growth and occasionally paint coatings to attain
a more detailed assessment of damage and weld condition. Datum
reference points will normally be established at the onset of inspection so
that a defect can be monitored continuously and CCTV and/or still
photography normally record CVI. For in-depth assessment of a feature
photogrammetry can be used to produce a 3D image.
The detection capability of CVI underwater has never been measured in

metals but it is reasonable to assume that only substantial cracks can be
reliably detected; cracks of not less than 200mm length. Topside the main
requirements are adequate cleaning and lighting.
ACFM CVI will normally be carried out prior to the ACFM inspection to find
areas that could show up as non-relevant signals on the system.
The major limitations of visual inspection are:
 Can only be used to assess surface-breaking defects.

 Cannot find very fine defects.
 Cannot assess the depth of defects.
 Open to the interpretation of the inspector.
 High level of cleaning required.
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1.4 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

Can be used to find very fine surface-breaking or slightly sub-surface
defects (DC only) but only in ferromagnetic materials (those which can be
strongly magnetised) and can be used for length sizing but not depth sizing.
MPI is perhaps the most commonly used surface crack detection method.
The surface under inspection must be cleaned to SA 21/2 (dull matt metal
grit blasted surface) or an equivalent standard. There is no permanent
record of results using MPI, although photography and replication methods
have been used to record it and CCTV can also record MPI in certain
circumstances. The magnetic field could be applied by either a yoke
(electromagnet), or permanent magnet and underwater magnetism is by
coils wrapped round the sample under test. The magnetic field for MPI
should either cross the crack at 900 or be perpendicular to it.
MPI causes flux leakage at the crack site, not visible to the naked eye, but
made visible by magnetic ink, which then will either be visible itself, or may
be illuminated under UV light.
MPI is usually good at detection of defects and using a UV system it is able

to detect cracks of 5mm long and less in welds. Typical depth sensitivities
start at around 0.5mm but MPI cannot be used for depth sizing. Contrast
paint systems appear much more variable in performance and very large
cracks have been missed in trials.
Advantages
 Easier than ACFM for assessment of craze cracking.

 Better for shallow cracks.
 Easier for cracks running transverse.
 May be easier for tight geometry.
 May be easier for use while grinding (gives visual indication).
 Less complex equipment.
Disadvantages
 Requires high level of cleaning.

 Relatively slow compared with ACFM.
 Does not produce a permanent record.
 Hand written reports only (generally).
 Cannot be used on non-magnetic materials.
 Operator must recognise and interpret defects.
1.5 Dye penetrants

Used to assess surface-breaking defects; it works by a liquid being drawn
into the defect by capillary action, a developer is then applied and the liquid
drawn back out of the defect leaving a visual indication of the position and
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length of the defect. Dye penetrants are used extensively for crack detection
in many industries but usually not if MPI can be applied. This may be for
non-ferritic materials or for different metal types in weld and parent metal.
Penetrants may be difficult to apply on welds because of the rough surface.
Advantages
 Can be used on metals and non-metals.

 Good for detection of craze cracking.
 Good on shallow defects.
 Gives a visual indication (although this may spread if left too long).
 Very sensitive on good surfaces.
 Gives surface length.
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used underwater.

 Difficult to assess on rough surfaces like welds.
 No depth sizing.
 Must have very clean surface.
1.6 Electromagnetic techniques for weld inspection

Eddy current inspection is based on inducing electrical currents in the
material being inspected and observing the interaction between those
currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by coils in the test
probe and monitored simultaneously by measuring the coils electrical
impedance. As it is an electromagnetic induction process, direct electrical
contact with the sample is not required; however, the material must be an
electrical conductor.
Advantages
 Sensitive to surface defects.

 Can detect through several layers.
 Can detect through surface coatings.
 Accurate conductivity measurements.
 Can be automated.
 Little pre-cleaning required.
 Portability.
Disadvantages
 Very susceptible to permeability changes.

 Only on conductive materials.
 Will not detect defects parallel to surface.
 Not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometries.
 Signal interpretation required.
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 No permanent record (unless automated).

 Electromagnetic arrays for large area inspection have been introduced
with the advantage of not requiring a length measurement or exact
placement of the probe and have therefore been applied to automatic or
robotic deployment.
1.7 Ultrasonic testing

Measures the time for high frequency (0.5-50MHz) pulses of ultrasound to
travel through the inspection material. If a discontinuity is present, the
ultrasound reflects back to the probe in a time other than that appropriate to
good material.
Advantages
 Sensitive to cracks at various orientations.

 Portability.
 Safety.
 Able to penetrate thick sections.
 Measures depth and through wall extent.
Disadvantages
 No permanent record (unless automated).

 Not easily applied to complex geometries and rough surfaces.
 Unsuited to coarse grained materials.
 Reliant upon defect orientation.
1.8 Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD)

The time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) ultrasonic technique is being
increasingly used for crack sizing on simple geometries although requiring
more complex equipment. It is most frequently used on simple geometries
for detection and sizing of cracks on the scanned surface, but they need to
be greater than about 3-4mm deep (on welds) and through thickness
dimension of the crack is measured.
 Can be used to assess the depth of a surface-breaking defect.

 Cannot be used on awkward geometry.
 Through thickness dimension is measured.
 Requires good surface.
 Works through coatings if they are in good condition.
 Cannot be used on defects less than 3mm deep.
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Sound is diffracted at
the tip of the crack
Figure 1.1 Time-of-flight diffraction.
1.9 Ultrasonic creeping wave

Ultrasonic creeping wave techniques are also used for surface crack
detection principally at weld toes. It can detect cracks as small as 1mm
deep but requires a favourable orientation of the crack for it to give a
reflection of the sound. Cracks up to 20mm deep at an angle to the beam
can be missed completely.
Probe
Angle of crack
important for detection
Figure 1.2 Ultrasonic creeping wave.
Probe
Angle does not

reflect signal back to
the probe
Figure 1.3 Ultrasonic creeping wave, signal loss due to incorrect orientation of
defect.
1.10 Alternating current potential difference (ACPD)

ACPD is used for depth sizing on a surface-breaking defect, which has
normally been found using another technique such as MPI. A high standard
of cleaning is required; and the depth sizing obtained is usually reliable
except when severe closure occurs.
Both ACPD and ACFM techniques give a measurement of the depth along
the crack, not the through wall thickness dimensions. ACPD is generally not
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used for length sizing as the time scale would be impracticable. The
principle of the ACPD technique is covered later in the notes as ACPD
relates to ACFM quite closely.
Advantages
 Good for sectioning the defect.

 Operator skill required is low.
 Good for monitoring crack growth.
Disadvantages
 High cleaning standard.

 ACPD is used for crack depth sizing of defects, which have been located
using another method (not for detection).
 High standard of cleaning is required.
 Will not measure through thickness, but rather along the crack.
 Not good for short deep defects. Length must be at least twice the depth
(2:1).
TOFD assessment ACFM or ACPD

of crack depth, assessment of crack depth,
through thickness along the face of the crack.
Figure 1.4 Comparison of measurements carried out by TOFD and ACFM or

ACPD.
Table 1.1 Comparison of NDT techniques as discussed

Typical
detection
capability
minimum Use on
Cleaning defect depth, complex Equipment
Technique Material Coatings requirement mm geometries complexity
MPI Magnetic None High 0.5-3 Good Low
Dye All None High - Good Low
Penetrant
Electro- Conducting Insulating Low 1-2 Medium High
magnetic
Ultrasonic All Adherent High 1+ Medium Medium
CW
Ultrasonic All Adherent High 3-4 Difficult High
(TOFD)
ACPD Conducting None High 1 Medium Medium
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Section 2
Basic Electricity and Magnetism

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2 Basic Electricity and Magnetism

2.1 Basic units used in the measurement of electricity
Volt Measure of electrical potential (the ability to carry out work)
Ampere Measure of the electrical current flowing in a circuit
Ohms Measure of the resistance of a circuit
Henrys Measure of the inductance in a coil
Watts Measure of the output of a circuit (power)
2.2 Direct current circuits

Potential, current and resistance
Direct current (DC) originates from a chemical source, normally a battery, or

a supply produced from mains power, the output supply is measured in
volts. DC flows when a circuit of conducting materials joins the two output
terminals of the supply. The amount of electricity flowing per unit time is
called the current (I) measured in amps. Resistance (R), measured in ohms
is the opposition put up by the circuit to the flow of electricity through that
circuit. The current that flows is proportional to the voltage and the total
resistance in the circuit. They are related by the equation:
2.3 Ohms law

Voltage in V
Resistance in R or Ω =
Current in I
V V V
V=I x R;I= , R=
R I
I R
V V
V=I x R;I= , R=
R I
V = Volts
I = Current
R = Resistance
2.4 Resistance ()

The opposition to electrical flow in a material, it is proportional to the length
of the conductor and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area. All
conductive materials except superconductors have a different value and this
is called resistivity:
Resistivity rho () is measured in ohms-metres
Resistivity x length
Total resistance of a conductor =
Area
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The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity sigma () and is measured in

mhos/metre.
Conductivity x area
Conductance =
Length
Conductivity is the most frequently used parameter of a material measured

by eddy current. Conductivity values are frequently expressed as a
percentage of the conductivity of copper (IACS = international annealed
copper standard). Some typical values of materials are:
Copper = 100%
Aluminium = 40-60% (dependent on alloy)
Steels = 2-4%
Silver = 110%
2.5 Magnetic effect of electric current

When an electric current flows in conducting material it causes a magnetic
field to flow around the conductor, the direction this field flows is shown by
Flemings right hand rule. The field has many of the properties of a
permanent magnetic field (see below), and the advantage that it can be
turned on and off. It is circular round the wire; and wrapping the wires in a
coil can increase the field strength.
2.6 Magnetic theory

Field strength (H)
Strength of the external magnetising force applied to a material, this field will
be tending to set up a magnetic field in the material and the units are the
Ampere Turns / metre and the symbol is H.
Magnetic flux density in magnetic materials (B)

Number of magnetic lines of force, which would emerge from a testpiece per
unit area. It is given the symbol B and the units are Tesla (T).
Permeability ()
Ease with which a material can be magnetised or conduct a magnetic field.
If various materials are placed within a magnetic field it can be seen that
materials that experience a force (magnetic materials) always bend the
magnetic field towards themselves, causing an increase of the number of
lines passing through the material compared with the number of lines of
force at the same location in the field if the material were not present. The
ratio of the number of lines through the material compared with air is called
permeability and is given the symbol r. A typical value of  for mild steel is
1000.
B
Permeability µ =
H
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Magnetic hysteresis
Comparison between an external magnetising force applied to a material
and the flux density, which is built up in that material. When a ferromagnetic
material is placed in an alternating magnetic field (H) the variation in the
density of the flux lines (B) gives rise to magnetic hysteresis, (from the
Greek for delayed) which describes one thing lagging behind another, flux
density always lags behind what is done with the field strength.
Flux density (B) in Tesla

S N
3 2
7
4 1 Field strength
(H) in Ampere
turns/metre
6
5
N S
Figure 2.1 The hysteresis loop.
1 Material in the unmagnetised state.

An external field is then applied and the flux density starts to build.
2 Maximum flux density achieved in one direction (saturated).

No matter how much more external field is applied the material can hold
no more flux lines so can be termed saturated.
3 Retentivity point (shows residual flux density).

The amount of flux left in the material once the external field has been
removed.
4 Coercive point (shows the force needed to reduce flux density in the
material to zero).
A magnetising force applied in the opposite direction to the original field
will tend to reduce the flux density in the material to zero.
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5 Saturation point (the poles in the material would now be reversed ie what
was the north pole will now be the south pole).
6 The second point of retentivity.
7 The second point of coercive force.
 Virgin curve (cannot be repeated once the material has been

magnetised).
 Residual magnetism (measure of the flux density left in the material after
the external field has been removed).
 Coercive force (measure of the amount of external magnetising force of

opposite polarity to that used for the initial magnetisation of the material
needed to reduce the flux density in the material to zero).
The hysteresis shows that however much H increases B always reaches a

saturation value. This means that r = 1 at this point and the material
behaves non-magnetically. If the applied field (H) is reduced to zero there
will still be a value of B, this is called residual magnetism and can be
relatively permanent, as in permanent magnets or small and decay quickly
as in iron.
B B
H
H
Wide loop Narrow loop

Low permeability High permeability
Difficult to magnetise Easy to magnetise
Figure 2.2 Variations in permeability.
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Electromagnetism
Whenever an electric current flows along a conductor, a magnetic field is set
up around the conductor at right angles to the current flow. Fleming’s right
hand rule gives the direction of the flow of magnetism; if the thumb of the
right hand is extended in the direction of the current, then the fingers give
the direction of the magnetic field.
I Current flow
Figure 2.3 Flux flow to current flow comparison.
Coils
If a current carrying wire is looped into several turns the magnetic fields
around each turn link together, giving rise to a strong magnetic field through
the coil. The intensity of the magnetic field through the coil is a product of
the coil current and the number of turns.
Flux flow
I I
Figure 2.4 Conductor wound into a coil.
Inductance
The inductance of a coil is a measure of its ability to store magnetic energy.
Increasing the number of turns and the coil diameter increases the
inductance (the current has no effect). Inductance is increased by the
addition of magnetic materials close to the coil, and decreased by the
addition of non-magnetic materials.
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Section 3
Basic Principles of Eddy Current Testing

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3 Basic Principles of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current inspection is widely used in industry for the inspection of
metals and the methods are sensitive to the following properties of metals:
 Electrical conductivity.
 Magnetic permeability.
 Geometry. (Specimen Dimensions)
The capability of the technique in individual applications depends on the

following:
 Frequency of AC used.
 Sensor design.
 Distance of sensor from surface (lift off).
They allow assessment of surfaces without contact (through coatings).
3.1 Electrical conductivity ()

Measure of the ease with which the electrons flow in a material and so
determines the eddy current density; changes in conductivity affect the eddy
currents produced in the material. Increased conductivity reduces the depth
of penetration of eddy currents into the material and vice versa.
3.2 Magnetic permeability ()

Permeability has probably the greatest effect on eddy current testing as the
eddy current signals created by permeability changes in ferrous welds can
make eddy current techniques difficult to apply, although ACFM technology
has largely overcome these problems. Some eddy current sets can provide
useful information about materials by assessment of permeability (eg metal
type or condition). Increased permeability reduces the depth of penetration
of eddy currents into the material and vice versa.
3.3 Frequency of the test (f)

One of the most important test variables is frequency. Eddy current testing
is carried out at frequencies from a few cycles per second (Hertz [Hz]) to
several million cycles per second (Megahertz [MHz]). The most important
effect of frequency is on the depth of penetration of the eddy current field in
the test metal. Increased frequency reduces the depth of penetration of
eddy currents into the material and vice versa.
3.4 Depth of penetration

All methods using alternating current (AC) are limited by the depth of
penetration of such currents into a conducting surface. The theoretical depth
(where the current is reduced to 1/3 of its surface value) is dependent on
conductivity, magnetic permeability and the frequency of operation.
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Four examples are:
1 Ferritic steel has high permeability and low conductivity. Permeability is

the dominant effect and gives the smallest penetration depth.
2 Aluminium has high conductivity and low permeability giving a middle

penetration depth.
3 Copper has higher conductivity therefore less penetration than

aluminium.
4 Stainless steel has low conductivity and low permeability giving the
deepest penetration depth.
Copper appears between mild steel and aluminium.
100
10
Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
Stainless Steel
Aluminium
Copper
1
Steel
0.1
0.01
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3.1 Frequency and depth of penetration
Applications for which electromagnetic systems can be used include:
 Surface crack (defect) detection in conductors.

 Sub-surface defect detection in non-magnetic conductors.
 Tube and bar inspection (production).
 Tube inspection on site (eg heat exchangers and condensers).
 Metal sorting.
 Layer thickness measurement such as:
- Insulator on conductor.
- Non-magnetic conductor on conductor.
- Conductor on insulator.
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3.5 Electromagnetic effects

In the first half of the nineteenth century it was discovered there are three
electromagnetic effects. If a loop of wire connected to a current measuring
device is moved through a static magnetic field the device measures a
current flow which shows that electricity can be generated by magnetism
and is the principle of the dynamo or generator. A wire carrying an electric
current experiences a force when placed near a magnet and if the electric
current reverses, the force changes direction; the principle of the electric
motor. The changing of a current in a wire will cause another current to flow
in an adjacent but not touching wire, as shown below:
Switch Meter
Circuit A Circuit B
Battery
Figure 3.2 Changing current in circuit A produces current in adjacent circuit B.
Closing the switch in circuit A causes a current flow in circuit B (a steady

state current would have no effect) and it is this phenomenon that leads to
transformers, radio and TV transmission and eddy current testing. If an AC
current flows in circuit A, because it is always changing, then one also flows
in circuit B. If circuit B is replaced by solid metal then a current flows in that
metal (the eddy current). The link between the two circuits is a magnetic
field. The full sequence of events is described below.
3.6 Eddy current generation and detection

Coils
A coil increases the intensity of the magnetic field produced from an electric
current. The field from adjacent wires in a coil provide a new total magnetic
field is dependent on the current and number of turns in the coil. Coils are
necessary in to produce sufficient magnetic field from limited current or
magnetic field. The shape of the magnetic field from a coil is similar to that
from a permanent magnet and can be represented as a series of lines or for
simplicity a single arrow. For DC current the arrowhead is at the North Pole;
for AC this only occurs at a certain time but is related to the direction of
currents flowing at the same point in time. The magnetic field varies at the
same frequency as the current in the coil and the coil windings are also
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sometimes shown collectively. In practice eddy current probes a ferrite

material is often used to further concentrate and control the magnetic field,
ferrite is usually in the centre of the coil and in some applications (shielded
probes) may also surround the coil.
Figure 3.3 Magnetic field produced in a coil.
Eddy current generation

If a coil is brought in close proximity with a conductive material the
alternating magnetic field (primary field) passes through the material. As
discussed eddy currents will be induced into the material. The eddy currents
generated normally have circular paths at right angles to the primary field.
The flow of the eddy currents in terms of magnitude, phase and distribution
depend on several factors.
Primary
coil
AC current
Primary
magnetic
field Metering
system
Alternating electrical
currents produced in the
plate (eddy currents)
Figure 3.4 Eddy currents flowing in a material.
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These electrical eddy currents induce a secondary magnetic field to flow in

opposition to the original primary field:
AC current
Primary coil
Primary
Metering
magnetic field
system
Secondary
magnetic field
Alternating
electrical currents
in the plate (eddy
currents)
Figure 3.5 Secondary field produced by the primary magnetic flow.
Eddy current detection

This situation can be balanced so the display can be set to read zero in the
normal set of circumstances (no crack) but if there is a change in the eddy
current flowing in the material this will alter the secondary field, which will
affect the characteristics of the primary coil. It is this change that will be
monitored and displayed, normally, on either a meter or a cathode ray tube
monitor.
3.7 Factors affecting eddy currents

Several factors affect the eddy currents which have been produced:
1 If a surface-breaking crack is encountered, the eddy current is forced to

flow under or around it, this will change the characteristics of the primary
coil and thus the metering system can indicate its presence.
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AC current
Primary coil
Primary
magnetic field Metering
system
Secondary
magnetic field
Alternating
electrical currents
in the plate (eddy
currents)
Figure 3.6 Eddy current behaviour around a defect.
2 If the lift OFF distance of the probe from the material surface varies then
the results can be affected, unless the probe has been specifically
designed to limit the effects of lift off.
3 Varying permeability of the test material can affect the resulting flux flow
in the test. The magnetic permeability of a metal affects the ease with
which magnetic lines flow through it. In a material with high permeability
a higher density of these lines will be created from a given source and
the lines will tend to concentrate in the material (particularly the surface).
This has two effects: firstly a greater amount of magnetic energy can be
stored in the coil, therefore increasing its inductance, and secondly
plenty of eddy currents are generated which increases the lift off effects.
High permeability materials will have created a small depth of
penetration of the eddy currents.
4 Edge effects, if the eddy currents come up against an edge they will be
compressed and this will affect the results.
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Eddy
currents
deformed by
proximity of
plate1 edge
Figure 3.7 Edge effect or geometry.
Geometry
The geometry of a component under test can cause difficulties in eddy
current tests. A curved piece of metal will have a different lift off response to
a flat one, and the edge effect can distort the eddy current field and produce
a large signal. Geometrical effects can be reduced by designing a probe
which fits the surface or by use of shielded probes.
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Section 4
Basic Principles of ACPD

Rev 2 November 2011
4 Basic Principles of ACPD

Introduction
Alternating current potential drop (ACPD), alternating current field
measurement (ACFM), and eddy current methods are closely related but
there are distinct differences, which must be appreciated. Individual pieces
of equipment using the same basic principles with slight variations produce
results which on the instrument screen appear very different.
Depth of penetration
All methods using alternating currents are limited by the depth of penetration
into a conducting surface. Increasing conductivity reduces depth of
penetration so a material such as copper or aluminium has a low depth of
penetration. Increasing permeability also reduces depth of penetration so
steel has a very low depth of penetration.
4.1 ACPD
ACPD works by a relatively simple process based on electrical current flow.
The most important point is that measurement is made of an electrical
potential difference and a simple calculation carried out using these
measurements so not relying on calibration against reference defects. It
gives a measurement of the crack depth for an infinitely long crack at the
plane of the measurements.
ACPD can be used to assess the depth of a surface-breaking defect. The

surfaces must be very clean to provide good contact for the field
connections and sensing probe.
Reference Crack depth

reading reading
Measuring
contacts
AC path
through the
metal
Surface-breaking
defect
Figure 4.1 Alternating current potential drop assessment method.
For a crack where the length is greater than approximately 10 or more times
the depth then the depth is given closely by the formula:
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Crack depth =0.5
Where:
D = distance between electrodes

Vc = potential difference measured across the crack
Vr = potential difference measured in the reference field adjacent to the
crack
When the crack is shorter than 10 times the depth a significant part of the
electric current flows around the ends, so the measured crack depth will be
less than the true depth. For a single semi elliptical crack correction factors
have been calculated which allow the true depth to be calculated from the
measured depth and length.
Figure 4.2 Current flow around crack ends.
Figure 4.3 Correction factor (M) for semi-elliptical short cracks
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ACPD requires an electrical contact directly on to the surface so there is no

problem of compensating for lift off. This means that the method can only
be used where all surface coatings have been removed.
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Section 5
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)

Rev 2 November 2011
5 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)

5.1 Basis of the technique
ACFM, a direct derivative of the ACPD technique measures absolute
quantities of surface magnetic fields produced from an induced uniform
magnetic field parallel to the plate surface. ACFM relies on the production of
a uniform magnetic field above the surface of the plate produced by the
probe which will induce a uniform current field in the plate itself.
If the current flow in the plate is uniform this produces a uniform flux flow
parallel to the plate surface and perpendicular to the current flow, termed
Bx. When the current is curved, this gives rise to a magnetic flux density
perpendicular to the plate surface and perpendicular to the current flow in a
similar way to the secondary eddy currents described previously.
5.2 Current flow – Bx and Bz relationship
Bz - magnetism perpendicular to the plate surface and

perpendicular to the electrical current flow.
Current flow
Bx - magnetism parallel to the plate surface and

perpendicular to the electrical current flow.
Figure 5.1 Current flow, Bx and Bz relationship.
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Bx chart recorder trace Bx chart recorder trace

low on the graph higher on the graph
Low current density (solid lines) High current density (solid lines)
results in low Bx flux density results in high Bx flux density
(dashed lines). (dashed lines).
Figure 5.2 Uniform fields and currents on a surface.
Bz – magnetism perpendicular to the plate

surface and perpendicular to the current flow
caused by curvature of the current.
Figure 5.3 Fields around circular electrical current flow (perturbation).
The following are the important principles relating current to flux flow. If a
current is flowing in a surface (called the x-y plane) then:
The following are the important principles relating current to flux flow. If a
current is flowing in a surface (called the x-y plane) then:
1 Magnetic flux density in the x direction is proportional to current in the y

direction.
2 Magnetic flux density in the y direction is proportional to current in the x

direction.
Rev 2 November 2011
3 Magnetic flux density in the z direction (out of the x-y plane) is

proportional to the curvature of current in the x-y plane.
The electrical currents behave in a certain way when near a crack. These
currents give rise to magnetic flux density as shown below both on the
surface (in the x-plane) and also perpendicular to the surface (in the z-
plane).
Figure 5.4 Uniform current flow in the surface of a plate being affected by a
surface-breaking crack.
Because of the increase in flux density just outside the crack Bx will
increase slightly in this area, when actually over the centre of the crack the
current density is reduced and this will produce the following effects on the
Bx and Bz traces:
Bx
Current density
Figure 5.5 Probe scanned along parallel to a crack showing the relationship of Bx
to current density.
Because the current is pushed around the ends of the crack, it results in
circular current flow (perturbation) around the crack ends; producing Bz just
inside the ends of the crack. With Bz being just inside the ends of the crack
will be that when the crack is initially sized on the specimen by the probe
operator, this size will be shorter than given by the ACFM program, which
compensates for this problem by mathematical algorithms.
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Figure 5.6 Electrical currents in the y axis.
Current density
Bz
Figure 5.7 Current density in Y direction.
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Figure 5.8 Magnetic flux density in the z plane.
Rev 2 November 2011
The result of the above will be that the specific relationship between Bx, Bz
and cracks will normally be produced as shown below:
Bx
Current density
Bz
Figure 5.9 Combination of the two Bx and Bz, which come together to indicate the
presence of a crack.
Probe design
Each probe has a magnetic yoke to generate the initial magnetic field; this
will creates the currents of electricity in the plate surface. Coils or Hall effect
sensors can be used to detect the magnetic fields.
Bx
Bz
Figure 5.10 Sensing coils arranged to detect Bx and Bz above the surface of a
plate.
Rev 2 November 2011
Figure 5.11 Main induction coil.
Crack sizing
The main feature of ACFM that distinguishes it from eddy current techniques
is that crack depth sizing is by reference to theoretical models, using
measurement of the magnetic field at a chosen phase.
Reduction of lift off effect
The use of a uniform field parallel to the surface will in theory give a zero lift
off signal (although in practice the field produced by a typical ACFM probe
will produce some lift off signals but they should be small).
The display produced is a direct representation of the magnetic fields and

there are two separate displays normally shown, Bx and Bz plotted on a
timebase or combined.
5.3 Limitations of electromagnetic techniques for weld

inspection
Scanned area
ACFM is sensitive to the proximity of component edges, these produce very
large influences on the probe signal and that can obscure crack signals in
the vicinity of the edge. Special care must be taken when inspecting close to
plate edges. Special probes can be used to reduce this effect but they may
have performance reduced in some other area. The probe will need to be
brought to within a few millimetres of the surface and there must be room for
the probe to scan the whole area to be inspected smoothly. The presence of
metal objects or magnets in the inspection area may produce unwanted
signals.
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Crack geometry
The crack geometry has an effect on the accuracy of crack depth sizing. As
with ACPD, if a crack is short and deep a correction is needed and if the
crack is not open along its whole length there may be some difficulties
encountered during sizing, a crack which has contact points or line contacts
across the crack will have a reduced apparent crack depth, although there is
usually evidence for the presence of such a feature. All electromagnetic
methods give a depth measurement measured along the face of the crack
and none of these systems will give a through thickness measurement.
Crack sizing
The ACPD and ACFM techniques depend on theoretical models for their
accuracy and it must be assumed that theoretical conditions may not be met
operationally so corrections may need to be applied, if available. If not
possible then some inaccuracy must be accepted. ACFM relies on two basic
criteria - it is assumed there will be a linear uniform field in the material and
that the fatigue crack will be semi-elliptical in shape. Every effort must be
made to ensure the correct probe is used for the position in which the test is
being carried out, to ensure a uniform field as far as possible. The
assumption of the crack being semi-elliptical is normally close to the truth,
although it may be proved wrong when the crack is opened and examined.
The eddy current method compares signals from cracks to machined slots,
this limits its accuracy because the signals obtained from calibration slots
can be very different from those obtained from real cracks, also quite often
no account is made for crack length, so measurement of short deep cracks
will be suspect if calibration is carried out on long slots (and vice versa). To
size cracks accurately, the slots used to calibrate the equipment must give a
very similar signal to that given by the cracks to be measured.
Component geometry
Component geometry affects the ACFM signals, particularly near tight or
awkward geometries, corners and attachments. The signals from these
features need to be taken into account when sizing, as the crack signals will
be superimposed on the geometric signals, making detection difficult and
care will be needed when sizing. Special probes are available to reduce the
edge and geometric effects.
Surface condition
Non-conductive coatings
In good condition will not present problems for ACFM provided it is not more
than 5mm thickness, but there will be a need to modify the sizing
parameters. Coatings in poor condition might result in a poor scan or
produce lift off signals and reduce the accuracy of sizing.
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Corrosion
If corrosion layers are light, this should not affect any electro-magnetic
technique, the main problem could be if the scan becomes irregular or if
there
is heavy pitting which may introduce additional noise signals, which will then
reduce the sensitivity to small cracks and sizing accuracy. Standard weld
probes are less sensitive to pitting than other types.
Material changes
Metal differences and material changes can occur at weld repairs and where
different metals have been joined can produce strong signals, which may be
difficult to separate from crack signals and could obscure cracks. Other
capabilities and limitations will be described later.
Comparison between ACFM and eddy current for weld inspection

The table shows some of the capabilities and properties of ACFM compared
with the most popular eddy current systems. Some generalisations have
been made and there could be times when some of the limitations may not
apply.
5.4 Comparison between ACFM and eddy current for weld

inspection
The table shows some of the capabilities and properties of ACFM compared
with the most popular eddy current systems. Some generalisations have
been made and there could be times when some of the limitations may not
apply.
Rev 2 November 2011
Table 5.1 Variations between eddy current testing techniques and ACFM for
weld inspection
Eddy current
Hocking Lizard ACFM
Probe field Not quantified Not quantified Produces uniform field
values used in
calculations
Lift off Lift off signal Normally large lift off Theoretically small lift
compensation suppressed by signal suppressed by off signal passes
differential probe electronic means unaltered through the
(arranged at setting electronics
up)
Calibration for Slot signals used Slots used with Theoretical models
sizing with compensation multiplication factor used. Crack depth
for geometry calculation by
measurement of fields
and the use of
algorithms
Accuracy of Limited by accuracy Limited by accuracy Limited by accuracy of
sizing of relationship of relationship theoretical models
between slot and between slot and and validity of
crack signals. crack signals. theoretical
Gives greater Gives greater assumptions
variation of signal at variation of signal at
lower crack sizes lower crack sizes
Optimum Portability/tight Varied display types Crack sizing, arrays,
application angles and edges electronic recording
capability
Main restriction No electronic Signal display Complex geometries
recording and complexity
complex scanning
Section 6
TSC ACFM Equipment Hardware and Software

Rev 2 November 2011
6 TSC ACFM Equipment Hardware and Software

6.1 Hardware
Types of equipment and software
Model U9b
Battery and mains operated instrument with a single channel that is capable
of being used for both ACPD and ACFM. With ACFM a PC is needed. The
battery life is 2-4hrs, depending on current settings. Recharge time is 8hrs.
When using a battery the PC battery must also be kept charged.
For use with QFM v2.0 software and can support up to four frequencies.
Note: This equipment is no longer supported by the manufacturers.
Amigo (U19)
The Amigo is the newest portable topside unit and is much smaller and
lighter than the U9. It requires a PC to run it with QFM v3.0 or ASSIST
software. It is purely for ACFM and does not support ACPD but it can
support arrays. This is because the probes are different from previous
versions as they have electronics in the probe head, allowing them to work
at greater distances from the unit. Also the connecting cables to the unit are
much more flexible than previously. The unit operates at 5kHz and/or
50kHz
Figure 6.1 Amigo U19 system.
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Model U31 D
The U31 D is the latest underwater version and represents a significant

advance in ACFM subsea inspection technology. The U31 D is 80% smaller
in size and weight compared with the earlier U21. Its compact size makes it
easier to deploy by divers. It is able to fit in the framework of small ROVs
and can support faster scanning speeds than the U21.
Figure 6.2 U31.
Model U21
The U21 is the underwater version of the ACFM / ACPD equipment. It

consists of an underwater and a topside unit which can be separated by up
to 1.5km. The U21 unit is for use with WAMI v4.0 software only and can be
used for arrays as well as single probes. It has faster scanning speeds and
integral probe and data files and normally requires an 110V supply.
Figure 6.3 U21.
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Array equipment
Arrays require special hardware and software to drive the array and display
the data produced by arrays.
See Level 2 course notes.
6.2 Software
QFM v2.0
QFM v2.0 software is suitable for the U9b and has faster scanning speeds
than QFM v1.0 which it supersedes and uses integral probe and data files
and can set up current values from the computer.
This software is no longer supported by the manufacturers.
QFM v3.0
QFM v3.0 software is suitable for the U19 Amigo, is much faster than
previous versions and incorporates several innovations to improve ease of
use, including probe recognition software.
This software is no longer issued by the manufacturer.
ASSIST
The latest software for the current generation of ACFM instrumentation is

the ASSIST family (ACFM software suite for the inspection of structures).
The family consists of the following:
ASSISTant Supports only standard manual probes (1 Bx and 1 Bz)

superseding QFM3.
ASSIST Lite Supports standard probes and small arrays of up to 3

rows with or without encoders.
ASSIST Supports standard probes and all arrays.
ASSISTU Underwater version for use with U31.
WAMI v4.0 (Windows automated microgauge inspection)
WAMI v4.0 software is for use with the U21 underwater unit, it equates to
the QFM v2.0 topside software.
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6.3 ACFM probe types

All manually scanned ACFM probes have:
 Serial number of the probe.

 A or C direction markings.
 Centre or index line.
 Connections.
Until the Amigo system was introduced all probes were very similar so were
interchangeable to some extent (Amigo probes have some additional
electronics in the probe head and so are not interchangeable with other
units). For optimum performance the best probe for the application should
be chosen.
Standard weld probe

Used for weld inspection whenever possible as it has the coils positioned
ideally for crack sizing and a fairly large edge effect of approximately 50mm.
Figure 6.4 Standard weld probe.
Tight access probe

Designed specifically for when the area under inspection is not accessible
by the standard weld probe, in particular angled tubulars, it works
reasonably well in other situations but is not suitable for sizing in open
geometries such as butt welds and may miss some defects.
Mini probe
Designed for tight access areas such as rat holes and cruciforms with a
reduced edge effect and available in pencil or right angle geometries. They
may be limited to shallow cracks and are more sensitive to lift off.
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Figure 6.5 Mini straight probe.
Micro probe
Designed for high sensitivity crack detection in tight access areas such as
rat holes and cruciforms with a reduced edge effect and available in pencil
or right angle geometries. They may be limited to shallow cracks and are
more sensitive to lift off.
Figure 6.6 Micro right angled probe.
Thread probe(s)
ACFM is particularly suited to detection and sizing of cracks in large threads
(for example drill collars). Probes with geometries to exactly fit the thread
can be manufactured or a shoe can be attached to a standard probe.
Figure 6.7 Manual threaded connector probe.
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Encoder weld probe

 Position encoder.
 Twin fields.
 Control buttons.
 Low wear.
 Up to 8 channel sensor array.
Figure 6.8 Encoder weld probe type 325.
The probe features a position encoder to provide a continuous position

reference and the opportunity for rapid defect location, multiple sensor
options for greater coverage and option of multiple field directions. Other
new features significantly improve the usability of the probe while at the
same time probe wear has been significantly reduced.
Array probes
A number of array probes have been made, mainly for ROV deployment
with the advantage of not normally requiring scanning and quickly covering
a large area.
Figure 6.9 Array probe configured for inspection of tubes.
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Probe connections
Connections to all units are unique and are therefore unlikely to be
confused. As with all computer driven equipment all connections should be
made prior to switching units on. The ACFM instruments should be switched
on first or the computer may try to address a dead instrument and produce
an error message.
Figure 6.10 Lemo connectors.
Function test block

ACFM does not require calibration, however the operator needs to ensure
that the equipment is functioning correctly, using a standard function test
block. Each block is numbered (and this number must be recorded); each
block has a slot 50mm long x 5mm deep this slot must be at least 100mm in
from the edge.
Plate reference number: Pl0001
50mm x 5mm slot

standard/minis
20mm x 2mm
For checking micro probes
Figure 6.11 Function check block.
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Figure 6.12 Lightweight function check block.
Ancillary equipment needed when carrying out ACFM inspection:
 Magnetic marking arrows.

 Paintstick.
 Tape measures/ruler.
 Computer discs for backup and log sheets.
Computer {PC} (Min 1Gb, 256Mb RAM) Microsoft Windows 2000/XP
U19 AMIGO
crack microgauge
Comms lead
(max 30m)
Umbilical and possible
extension cable 50m max
ACFM single probe
Weld to be scanned
Figure 6.13 Block diagram for the topside ACFM system.
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Computer {PC}
U21 or U31 ACFM crack

microgauge topside unit
Comms lead
(max 30m)
Sea level
Umbilical (up to 350m)
Underwater
connector for probe ACFM single probe
Subsea pot
Weld to be
scanned
Figure 6.14 Block diagram for the subsea ACFM system.
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Section 7
Operation of Computer Basic Commands

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7 Operation of Computer Basic Commands

7.1 Computer operations related to ACFM operations
Keyboard
In the most part ACFM software can be accessed using a mouse. However
the operation will usually be much faster if the computer keyboard is used.
Keyboard use enables ACFM trainees to learn more quickly the practical
aspects of equipment operation. In addition to the letter and number keys
operators need to be familiar with the following keys:
<ALT> key Normally positioned on the keyboard at bottom left or

right
<SPACE> Large unmarked key at bottom
<ENTER> Positioned on right hand side, usually marked 
sometimes called RETURN
<TAB> Normally positioned upper left side, marked
<SHIFT> Lower both sides marked 

<CTRL> Lower left and or right side marked as / Ctrl
<CURSOR> Marked    
7.2 Drives and directories

Drives
A:\ = Floppy disk or diskette. This can be removed from the computer
for transport of files. New diskettes for data storage may need to
be formatted before use.
Note: Most modern computers are now supplied without the ‘A’ drive
B:\ = This could be another floppy disk drive

C:\ = This disk is not removable from the computer (commonly termed
the hard drive), it is the main storage area for data and programs
within the computer
D:\ = Normally this will be reserved for a CD ROM/DVD drive, on
which will be program information (read only) or re-writeable
CD/DVD
E:\ = Normally another removable disk used for data storage and
export, it may be one of several types such as:
 Compact flashcard.
 Memory stick.
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7.3 Windows
Windows is a software system marketed by Microsoft for display and
simultaneous use of a number of programmes. There are a number of
Windows software versions available. Windows makes use of icons which,
when selected, cause specific programs to run. More than one program can
run simultaneously, so it is possible to toggle between them by keeping the
Tab key pressed and then pressing the ALT key, when the key is released
the program highlighted will run.
Windows Explorer
The Windows Explorer is one of the most useful of Windows programs. It
can be used for moving, copying, re-naming as well as deleting files and
creating and deleting directories.
Installation and access to ACFM Software
ACFM software is supplied by TSC on a diskette or CD ROM. It is normal

practise for a purchaser installs a copy on his own hard drive. Detailed
instructions can be found in the relevant manufacturer’s manual and
ReadMe file on the CD\ROM.
Note: Chapter 8 deals with ASSISTant software installation
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Section 8
ASSIST Family Software

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8 ASSIST Family Software

8.1 Introduction
The latest software for use with the current generation of ACFM
instrumentation is the ASSIST family (ACFM software suite for the
inspection of structures), consisting of the following:
 ASSISTant supports only standard manual probes (1Bx and 1Bz)

supersedes QFM3.
 ASSIST Lite supports standard probes and small arrays of up to 3
rows with or without encoders.
 ASSIST supports standard probes and all arrays.
The software has been developed to run on laptops or desktop PCs running
Windows 9x/NT/2000/XP. Some devices now feature touch-screens so
function buttons have been used, in addition to menus, which can be
selected more easily with a finger or stylus.
8.2 Software installation

The software packages are usually supplied on a CD-ROM.
Insert the CD-ROM into the drive on the PC.
Using Explorer or My Computer, select the CD-ROM drive.
Double click on the ReadMe file.
Follow the on-screen instructions to install the software.
8.3 Probe file installation

Before you can use a probe with the software it is necessary to install the
probe’s configuration file.
Insert the floppy disk (or other media) supplied with the probe.
Copy the probe file (<serial number>.QPC file).
Paste it into the <program directory>\Mainstore\Probes folder.
8.4 ASSISTant software for Amigo U19

Features available in ASSISTant are:
 Automated file naming (with date/time stamp). Data files are stored by
job code and component description, making searching old data easier.
 Profiles (use any data page as a background to compare against
other pages). Useful when data is affected by geometric features.
 Free entry notes on each data page.
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 Ability to store sizing data from multiple defects on a page. Automatic

location and measurement of Bx minimum and Bz peak-trough values
during sizing.
 Defects marked in coloured bands on display after sizing.
 User-controlled marking of anomalous features (such as seam welds,
undercut) in coloured bands.
 Automatic fitting of data to screen width.
 Easier switching between views, as well as new combination views
(time-base and contour plot). Single key centring of display and zooming
into marked region.
 Improved print-outs for reports.
 User-friendly ICON buttons.
 Easier transition to full ASSIST for array probes.
Software description
Overview
The program can be started using a program icon on the desktop or from
the Start menu.
If an instrument is attached, it recommended that you turn it on before

starting the software, when the program starts it tries automatically to
communicate with any attached instrument.
The first program screen is the task selection screen from which a job code
and method of inspection can be chosen. This links to the main inspection
screen giving you access to the inspection functions of the program. The
program uses a combination of buttons and drop-down menus to give
access to its functionality.
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Task screen
The Task screen is the first screen that you see when starting the program.
The left area enables the Job code to be entered or selected and has two
buttons that select the two different inspection modes Function Check and
General Inspection. Below these are buttons for Help and program Exit.
Function Check
This inspection method should be used to carry out functional checks of the
instrument and probes. The following panel is displayed:
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If a probe is plugged into the instrument socket, and the instrument

communications are enabled, then the probe's serial number will
automatically be displayed in the Probe Serial No. box. If it is not then select
the required number from the drop-down list.
Select the configuration required for the inspection. The option will normally
be ferritic steel for most structural inspections.
Enter the serial number for the ACFM instrument in the Instrument box.
Note that if it has been entered previously it will be available in the drop-
down list.
Press Inspect to move on to the ACFM data screen.
Press Cancel if you want to return to the previous screen
Press Clear if you want to clear all the entries in the boxes.
Press Browse to look for a particular file already stored on the machine.
Browse opens a panel that displays all the Function Check files that match
any entries in the Function Check panel. For example, if you entered a
particular probe serial number but left the other boxes blank, then the panel
would display all the files taken with that particular probe, very useful for
finding a particular file.
Select one of the listed files and press OK. You will notice that this file's
details will appear in the Function Check panel. Simply press Inspect to
review the data.
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General
This inspection method should be used for all inspections. The following
panel is displayed:
If a probe is plugged into the instrument socket, and the instrument

communications are enabled, then the probe's serial number will
automatically be displayed in the Probe Serial No. box. If it is not then select
the required number from the drop-down list.
Select the configuration required for the inspection, this will normally be
ferritic steel for most structural inspections.
Enter a component description in the Component box, or select a previous

item from the drop-down list.
Press Inspect to move on to the ACFM data screen.
Press Cancel if you want to return to the previous screen.
Press Clear if you want to clear all the entries in the boxes.
Press Browse to look for a particular file already stored on the machine.
Browse opens a panel that displays all the General files that match any
entries in the General Inspection panel, eg if you selected a particular
component but left the other boxes blank, then the panel would display all
the files that were taken for that particular component, very useful for finding
a particular file.
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Select one of the listed files and press OK. You will notice that this file's
details appear in the General Inspection panel. Simply press Inspect to
review the data.
Probe Config
Note: This inspection method should only be used for creating new probe
configurations which should only be undertaken by a Level 2 user who is
completely familiar with the implication of probe file configurations. See
Level 2 course notes.
ACFM data screen

The ACFM data screen is where the ACFM data is displayed and analysed,
as such it is the layout seen most often by the operator. It consists of a
control, file information and defect details/page notes areas at the top and a
data display area underneath with a scroll bar at the very bottom. The
control area comprises two rows of buttons and a central information bar.
The top row is used to select the type of view that the data is displayed with,
such as butterfly plot or line traces, and the lower buttons select groups of
actions or information.
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ACFM data screen

Menu Items Button Bars Select Notes/Defects
Notes/Defe
File
window
information
window
Bx window Row
select
panel
Bz window
Next
Previous page
page button
button
Scroll bar when zoomed Status bar
Figure 8.1 ASSIST data screen.
defects
seam weld
Figure 8.2 Example display showing two defects and anomaly (seam weld).
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Combined Plot
Shows the line traces and butterfly plot at the same time; the same view
displayed when collecting data. You can use all of the functionality
associated with the individually displayed plot types.
Probe Configuration (Level 2 function)
Contour Plot
Displays the ACFM data as a 2D map coloured according to the reading

value. Two separate panes contain Bx and Bz data.
Note: This plot is usually only useful when looking at array data.
Replay
Allows you to replay a scan and watch the data appear in a similar way to
live collection, particularly useful for observing the direction of the butterfly
loop for example. The speed of replay can also be adjusted.
Below is a screen shot of the replay functionality at work.
When running a replay additional buttons are enabled to control the replay
functions:
Repeatedly replays data in a style similar to when the data was

collected.
Replays the data once in the normal view style.
Hot key: < - Slower replay.
Hot key: > - Faster replay.
Hot key: E - End current replay.
While replay is enabled all other program functionality is disabled.
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Field Display
OR
Not supported in ASSISTant.
Note: Y filed data is only applicable to array probes.
Selects which field's data to display. When the X field logo is showing, the
data corresponding to the X field excitation coil is shown, ie the conventional
field direction when using manual probes. This field is sensitive to defects
lying in the same line as the scan direction. Alternately when the Y field logo
is showing, the data represents that collected in the Y field, at right angles to
the X. This field is sensitive to transverse defects that run across the line of
the scan.
Battery level
Pressing this button sends a query to the instrument and displays the
reported instrument battery level.
The following icons indicate a particular battery state:
Battery full.
Battery 2/3 full.
Battery 1/3 full.
Battery voltage getting low - recharge soon or connect power.
Battery too low for the instrument to operate. Change for full
battery pack, switch off and recharge or connect power.
Battery status could not be determined. Try pressing the button
again. If this remains then check that the instrument is switched
on and that the communications lead is connected.
Information bar
This area separates the two rows of buttons and displays various pieces of
information about the data.
When switching between pages it shows the page number against the total
number of pages.
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When a data view type button is pressed it shows the Bx and Bz ranges
along with the scan length (for encoder probes).
When sizing a defect it shows the Bx and Bz values selected.
Scan Direction
Sets the direction for the next scan:
Hot key: C - Scan will be performed in the C direction.
Hot key: A - Scan will be performed in the A direction.
Hot key: T - Scan will be performed in a transverse (sideways)

direction ie normal to the standard A-C direction.
Manual probe direction undefined.
Hot key: F - Array scan will be performed in the Forward (C)

direction.
Hot key: B - Array scan will be performed in the Backwards (A)

direction.
Array probe direction undefined.
If the run button is pressed when the direction is undefined a warning

message is given and the scan cannot begin until a valid direction is
entered.
Run
Hot key: R
As its name suggests, this button sends an instruction to the instrument to

begin collecting ACFM data. While a
Pause
Pressing the Stop button (Hot key: S) will stop the scan.
Pressing the Pos. button places a numbered position marker in the data.
The numbers can be set up using the Setup Markers panel.
Pressing the Mark button places a general marker in the data.
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Note that markers can also be placed in the data using the instrument mark
button. The type of marker that this button generates is controlled in the
Setup Markers panel.
Pressing the Pause button will pause the scan. Pressing this button again
will resume the scan.
Analyse
Analyse accesses certain functions required in analysing data. The following

panel is displayed:
Press one of the following buttons or the Cancel button to leave this screen.
Note that if the screen scalings are altered using the zoom or fit options the
Analyse button changes to alert you to the fact that you are not seeing the
traces at the correct level of magnification.
Default
Hot key: D
Pressing this sets the screen scalings to the standard probe default size.
Centre
Hot key: V
Pressing this centres the traces in the windows. The hot key: V can be used
at any time.
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Zoom
Allows you to change the data display scalings and effectively zoom in or
out on any particular feature. The following panel is displayed to allow you to
set the required display ranges:
Fit
Pressing this will cause the screen scalings to change so that the data fills
the screen. The Bx and Bz are scaled in the same proportions as the default
probe scalings so that butterfly loops appear with the correct ratio.
As a side effect the Analyse button changes to alert you to the fact that you
are not seeing the traces at the correct level of magnification.
Size Defect
Used to size a defect manually using data points you have previously
marked on the line traces.
Add Region
Enables you to mark a specified region onto the data, to represent a seam
weld for example.
To add a region: mark the area required by sweeping in the Bz trace.
Choose Analyse and press the Add Region button.
Drop down the types box and select the required region type. Note the
colour produced on the trace will depend on the option chosen. The options
are:
 Defect – red.
 Unclassified – blue.
 Anomalous – blue.
 Undercut – green.
 Seam weld – green.
 Clear – green.
 Press OK.
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The new region will be added to the list of regions and the area will be
displayed in the corresponding colour in the Bx trace.
Standardise
This option is only available in Probe Configuration mode. See Level 2

course notes
Info
Info accesses inspection information. The following panel is displayed:
Press one of the following buttons or press the Cancel button to leave this
screen.
Notes
Hot key: Ctrl + N
Opens a panel where you can type in any information relating to the current
data page. This could be the meaning of marker locations or any other notes
that would be helpful when reviewing the file. The date and time that the
page of data was collected on is shown at the bottom of the panel.
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The contents of the notes page can be found to the top right of the data
screen and can be changed to show the defects list by pressing the
adjacent button.
Defect Info.
Hot key: Ctrl + D
Produces a panel that shows details of the defects identified on the page.
Any defects that have been sized are displayed in the main list box which
shows their ID number, location, length and depth in mm and row number
which the defect was sized on. When in probe configuration mode another
column shows the coil factor used when sizing the defect.
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Region Info.
Hot key: Ctrl + R
Various parts or regions of the traces can be highlighted and assigned a

particular classification eg seam welds, anomalous, etc. Viewing and editing
this information is performed by pressing the Region Info button. Note: if you
delete a previously marked defect, the red defect region remains highlighted
until it is removed using this panel.
Settings
Displays a panel that shows the instrument settings in operation when the
data page was collected. These settings are therefore fixed and cannot be
edited.
Print
It allows you to print out any page of data from a data file.
Note: See chapter 14
Setup
Setup allows certain software or instrument properties to be altered. The

following panel is displayed:
Press one of the following buttons or press the Cancel button to leave this
screen.
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Scan Rate
Allows you to adjust the rate at which data is collected and, hence, the
speed at which the traces appear on the screen. Scan rate zero is the
fastest, scan rate 1000 is the slowest. The default setting is usually 3.
Markers
Displays a panel that allows you to alter the marker parameters.
Software
Displays a panel allowing you to alter the software settings specific to

inspecting. These functions are somewhat advanced and it is unlikely that a
Level 1 operator would need to access this screen.
Instrument
Note: Changing values in this panel may seriously affect the inspection
configurations so it should not be used by a Level 1 operator. See Level 2
course notes.
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Coating
Displays a panel that allows you to alter the coating thickness or lift off that
the probe is operating through.
More
Displays the following panel.
Press one of the following buttons to make a selection or press Cancel to

close the panel.
Previous
Hot key: P
Displays the previous page of data in the current file.
Next
Hot key: N
Displays the next page of data in the current file.
Delete
Note: Deleted pages cannot be restored
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Task Screen
Returns you to the task screen with the Inspection information panel still
showing for the current file.
8.5 ASSIST Lite software for Amigo U19

Features available in ASSIST Lite are the same as the ASSISTANT
software but has many added features that enables the user to operate the
new encoder array weld probe.
ACFM weld encoder probe

The new probe features a position encoder to provide a continuous position
reference and the opportunity for rapid defect location, multiple sensor
options for greater coverage, option of multiple field directions. Other new
features significantly improve usability while probe wear has been
significantly reduced.
Indicator lights
MARK button
STOP/START
button
Figure 8.3 ACFM weld encoder array probe type 325.
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Belt to protect first sensor
Wheels
Optional second and third sensors
Figure 8.4 Underside of weld encoder array probe type 325.
Select contour plot display
Area for notes or

defect information
on each page
Inspection details
Defects marked
Figure 8.5 ASSIST Lite task screen.
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8.6 Hot keys

Can reduce the number of operations necessary in order to make a function
occur, a list of the hot keys available in ASSIST. The keystrokes shown to
the right of the command in a menu are called the shortcut keys.
Key Function
A Set Anticlockwise scan direction
B Set Backwards scan direction (array)
C Set Clockwise scan direction
D Set Default display ranges
E End Current Replay
F Set Forwards scan direction (array)
K Clears an area, swept in the Bz, of defect calls
L Goes to the last page in the file
M Mimics the action of pressing the Mark button on the instrument
N Selects the Next data page in a file
P Selects the Previous data page in a file
R Runs a scan
S Stops a scan
V Centres the data in the windows
X Decreases zoom level on a currently page width zoomed section
Z Zooms the page width to fit a region selected in the Bz window
ENTER Places general marker in scan data
SPACE Places numbered position marker in scan data
> Faster Replay
< Slower Replay
Key Function
1 Turn On/Off Row 1 (for array probes only)
↑ Move Bx Trace Up
↓ Move Bx Trace Down
← Move Bz Trace Up
→ Move Bz Trace Down
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In addition to these single hot keys, others are pressed while holding down
the Control (Ctrl) key to access frequently used dialogue boxes.
Key Function
Ctrl + D Opens the Info – Defects dialog
Ctrl + N Opens the Info – Notes dialog
Ctrl + R Opens the Info – Regions dialog
Ctrl + C Opens the setup - Markers
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Section 9
Display Format Bx and Bz Relationships

Rev 2 November 2011
9 Display Format Bx and Bz Relationships

The theoretical background for the Bx and Bz signals was described
previously. In the TSC ACFM instrument the Bx and Bz signals are
presented in two ways, as traces on a timebase which shows levels of flux
density parallel (Bx) and perpendicular (Bz) to the plate and as butterfly plot
against each other, called the butterfly plot because of the shape of the
signal produced from a crack. It is important to understand the relationship
between the scans and this is shown below. There are homework exercises
to familiarise you with the display.
The butterfly plot may be confusing; it is made up of two traces, Bx and Bz,
plotted against each other at a specific time and because of the specific
nature of the magnetic fields around a crack this results in a particular shape
to be displayed when a crack is detected, is called butterfly plot. The plot is
built up as follows:
Bx increasing
Bz increasing Start point
Figure 9.1 Bx and Bz in the butterfly plot.
General detection and examination procedure

All indications (ie deviations from a flat background signal) on a scan must
be inspected, these might later be interpreted as non-crack signals but they
should always be examined. The following notes show how signals can be
more positively identified.
9.1 Crack signals

Semi elliptical crack along scan
The butterfly shape of a semi elliptical crack in a scan is shown in Figure

9.2. The butterfly plot can be distorted in a number of ways as described
below but it is this signal which ACFM operators should be looking for at all
times.
Butterfly plots may be drawn either clockwise or anti-clockwise, depending

on the direction the probe approaches the crack, described by the direction
of movement of the probe (A or C respectively). It is important that the
ACFM operator has this information as it can help distinguish between
cracks and non-relevant signals.
Rev 2 November 2011
Figure 9.2 Crack-like indication showing relationship between Bx and Bz.
The above shows Bx, Bz and butterfly plots for a semi-elliptical fatigue crack
(standard, tight access, pencil and miniprobes). For the micro and thread
probes the sensing coils are slightly displaced from each other, resulting in a
distorted butterfly plot as shown below.
C - Direction scan
Figure 9.3 Appearance of ACFM crack signals for micro and thread probes.
Crack at angle to scan

If the crack is at an angle to the scan it is likely to produce a signal as shown
below. The Bz is reduced because the sensor probe only passes through
the edge of the Bz peak. This type of signal can appear when a crack turns
a corner at the end of an attachment or rat hole.
Rev 2 November 2011
Scan passes over Scan passes this end of the

this end of the crack crack at a distance
Weld
Figure 9.4 Crack at angle to scan.
Crack at angle to surface on opposite weld toe

The effect of a crack at a non-vertical angle to the probe as shown below is
generally a reduction in the Bz signal. The Bx signal should not change
provided the uniform field can be maintained.
Crack
Crack
Rev 2 November 2011
Figure 9.5 Example of crack signal from opposite toe of weld.
9.2 Line contacts and multiple cracks

When contacts occur across or within a crack then loops of the butterfly plot
occur within the main loop of the crack. If more than one crack occurs in the
scan there will be a number of loops but the Bx will return to the background
between loops.
Line contact
i di ti
Figure 9.6 Example of scan showing line contact.
Rev 2 November 2011
Other signal sources

Other signal sources can distort crack signals and make positive
identification more difficult. Any of the other signal sources can combine with
a crack signal simply by addition of the magnetic fields from each source. It
will be very important for an ACFM operator to be able to mentally remove
the effect of non-relevant signals such as geometric effects, as crack signals
tend to be superimposed on these signals. Correct visual inspection which
may need to be carried out by the probe operator can be very important as
an aid to identification of signal sources.
Lift off
Small amounts of lift off may not affect the ACFM probe however substantial
movement will produce large signals. These can usually be identified
because Bx and Bz move together rather than at different times as they do
for most defects. Lift off due to deep grind repairs can produce a crack-like
signal, the probe operator should inform the ACFM operator that there is a
grind in this area and this should be scanned with the pencil probe.
Operators should be aware of a gradual change in the noise level when

scanning the weld toe, which could be due to the scan moving on or off the
weld cap or because as the scan progresses the joint geometry is changing.
9.3 Geometry
When a probe scans into a tightening joint geometry the Bx signal tends to
gradually increase, with only very slight change in Bz. This will occur on all
tubular joints to some extent as the geometry is continually changing.
Figure 9.7 Scan into tightening geometry.
If a crack indication is found when scanning into a tightening geometry, then

the crack indication will be superimposed on the geometry effect, see Figure
9.8.
Rev 2 November 2011
Figure 9.8 Effects of scanning into tightening geometry on crack indication.
9.4 Materials
The use of ACFM to scan materials other than steel is not considered in this
course. The presence of different materials in and around the weld area in
steel can cause unwanted signals, which may or may not be like crack
signals. Material changes such as different materials in a weld repair can
also produce signals but suitable scanning procedures can sometimes help
distinguish the signals.
9.5 Seam welds

Signals from seam welds can be very similar to crack-like indications. Seam
welds normally produce upward but occasionally downward forming butterfly
plots can be produced from. It is important that when scanning seam welds
that the signals are verified, achieved by simply marking the beginning and
the end points as the probe transverses the weld. If the signals correlate
with the markers then there is a good probability that the signals are
produced by the weld and not a fatigue defect.
A C 1
25mm
A C 2
Figure 9.9 Verifying crack-like indications.
Rev 2 November 2011
A C 1
25mm
A C 2
Seam Weld
Figure 9.10 Verifying indications from seam welds.
If a crack-like signal is encountered, but there is some doubt and it is

thought that may be the signal is due to an inclusion then the following
procedure could clear up any doubt:
Initially the screen shows a crack-like signal when scanned in the normal way:
Figure 9.11 This crack-like signal will be repeated if another scan is carried out
parallel to the first but 5mm away from the toe.
Figure 9.12 The same crack-like signal will be evident until the scan line takes the
probe past the inclusion and thus there is no effect from it.
Rev 2 November 2011
Figure 9.13 Turn the probe through 90° and scan across the inclusion a crack-like
indication is produced.
Figure 9.14 Scanning 5mm from an actual crack, the indication produced would
have become smaller and there certainly would not have been a crack-like
indication produced when scanning across it as in scan 4 above.
Magnetism
Residual magnetism can affect the magnetic properties of the material and
therefore the ACFM traces. For most structural steels residual magnetism
falls away within a few hours but where MPI or other magnetic devices have
been recently used the area should be demagnetised.
Rev 2 November 2011
9.6 Edges and corners

An edge produces a signal as shown below for a standard probe. The
corner is in the opposite direction (the Bz peaks may also be smaller).
Figure 9.15 Edge effect shown by the oval window.
START
Yes Signal dies quickly
Downward Butterfly ? 25mm away
No Yes
Other feature CRACK

No
No Yes
Crack Unlikely
Any Significant Possible Crack
Loops ?
Any Dips in Bx
No Below the Trend ?
Yes
No
NO CRACK Any Associated peaks If it is possible that the probe was not
and troughs on Bz? following the weld, rescan.
Otherwise, NO CRACK
Yes
Probably a long CRACK.

Scan a large section and look for crack-like
trends, especially on Bx, to confirm.
Figure 9.16 Signal interpretation organogram.
Section 10
Probe Operator Briefing Requirements

Rev 2 November 2011
10 Probe Operator Briefing Requirements

As indicated previously, the probe operator is a very important part of the
procedure, for this reason it is especially important new probe operators be
given a reasonable understanding of the technique; informed as to their role
in the operation and in particular made aware of the possible problems due
to geometry, attachments, weld profile changes and seam welds, etc. Divers
should be instructed on ACFM probe operation before diving operations
start rather than receiving these notes in saturation.
Introduction
The probe operator should know that the ACFM probe contains a main
induction coil producing electrical currents in the material inspected. Two
sensor coils located near the edge of the probe detect the magnetic flux
density in the x and z planes. It is important the operator knows the location
of these and the index line associated with them.
Probes are connected to either the subsea unit or topside instrument by a

single connector. Probes can be changed underwater without switching off
the subsea unit simply by switching the Probe Off button in the software.
However the main umbilical to the surface must never be disconnected
underwater.
Probes do not require pressure to be applied against the surface as they are
non-contact devices and the scan will not be as smooth if the operator
presses too hard.
10.1 Preparation of inspection area

The inspection area will need to be cleaned of marine growth if underwater;
however paint removal is not necessary but it needs to be cleaned of loose
flaking paint or corrosion be sufficient to allow smooth probe travel.
Once clean, the area must be marked up using clock or marker positions,
applied with a paint stick.
Visual inspection should identify any visual irregularity likely to affect probe
movement or the ACFM signal produced; these should all be reported prior
to the ACFM inspection commencing. The following is a list of some of the
reportable items: seam welds, excessive grinding, spatter, etc, also any
probe or diver access problems.
Rev 2 November 2011
10.2 Probes
The probe operator should be informed about the following points regarding
the probe.
 Serial number and type is marked on the probe.

 The probe has two leading edges, marked A and C and the direction of
scanning must be quoted prior to the scan being attempted, it will be
quoted as moving in either an A or a C direction.
 With the majority of probes the front has a wear plate with a line scribed
along its centre, known as the index line, the reference point for clock
and marker positions as well as being used during sizing procedures.
 The standard weld probe has two feet at the back; other probes do not
have this feature so the probe operator must know how to manipulate the
probes.
 The probe operator should know about the various types of probe
available and the reasons for their use such as access and special
situations like areas of remedial grinding (pencil) and near plate edges or
ends of stiffener plates, etc (edge effect).
Probe use
The probe operator should know how to hold each type of probe and the
method of scanning ie to scan a weld toe looking for indications parallel to
the toe, they are scanned along and parallel to the toe.
Standard weld
probe
Figure 10.1 Standard weld probe held against the toe of a weld.
When scanning, the probe operator should avoid any rocking, yawing, or
lifting off of the probe. Similarly any deviations from the weld toe, either
away from the toe or riding up onto the weldcap, should be reported.
For the weldcap scan, the probe operator should be aware that the probe is
held in a similar way to that mentioned except that the front of the probe will
be moved along the centre of the weldcap and not the toe of the weld, but
the movement is still parallel to the toe. If using the standard probe, the back
of the probe will probably still be sitting on the parent metal. The weldcap
can be scanned from either side (brace or chord) but normally the probe sits
better on one rather than the other.
Rev 2 November 2011
The pencil, mini or micro probe is held with the longer face parallel to the
weld toe in a similar way to other probes, and scanned parallel to the toe.
When scanning along the centre of the weldcap the probe is held
perpendicular to the weldcap. For the other toes adjust the angle so that the
angle roughly bisects the angle between the parent metal and the angle
used for the weldcap, see below. It is easier for the topside operator if the
probe is scanned in a consistent direction.
Pencil probe scanning horizontal toe
Pencil probe scanning weld cap
Pencil probe scanning vertical toe
Figure 10.2 Deployment of pencil, mini or micro probe.
When holding the probe light pressure only should be applied, heavy
handed probing results in unnecessary probe wear (initially the front brass
plate and then the probe body and sensors). It also results in a jerky scan,
scanning speed should ideally be smooth and at an even constant speed
(up to about 50mm per second).
Rev 2 November 2011
10.3 Probe operator briefing sheet

1 General introduction (names/overview of the system).
2 Safety awareness.
3 Qualification (minimum 3.1U or MPI Level 1 or visual level 1).
4 Shown probe selection and reasons for use.
5 Shown probe connections.
6 Shown probe identification markings (serial number, index line A/C
direction).
7 Instructed in method of operation leading edge A/C direction, etc.
8 Shown how to hold the probes.
9 Probe fit for access.
10 Cleaning requirements.
11 Visual examination: Made aware of any visual defects that might influence
the scan:
a) Edges and attachments nearby to the scan.
b) Weld features (restarts, seam welds, grinds).
Attachments and complex geometries.
1 Marking up of components and datum position.
2 Scanning techniques:
a) Dialogue between the probe and the topside operators.
b) Scan start procedure.
c) Position on the weld.
d) Operations check.
e) Scan speed (50mm/sec or adjust to suit).
f) Overlapping scans.
3 Instructed on how to size for length:
a) Sizing scans needed.
b) Marking up defects.
c) Final scans and measurements.
d) Reporting.
4 Encourage questions at the end to ensure he understands what is
required of him.
Section 11
Function Check
Rev 2 November 2011
Function Check
11 Function Check
11.1 Function test block
The test block supplied by TSC should include a 50mm long by 5mm deep
slot on one side of a weld; at least 100mm from the edge of the block.
Plastic test block

Should only be used for checking the functionality of the equipment and not
used for sizing assessment.
Standard probe settings

All TSC probe files are set up on the 50mm long x 5mm deep slot. The
20mm long x 2mm deep slot is for micro probes only. The gain is chosen to
give a suitable size signal and the final adjustment is made with the display
scalings, adjusted to give a butterfly plot signal, which extends for 50% of
the screen in the Bx scale (vertical) and 175% of the screen in the Bz scale
(horizontal). Also check that the background Bx falls between 700-1500
range. This appears on the screen as below:
Figure 11.1 Display from standard probe scanned over the function test block
Section 12
General Scanning Procedure

Rev 2 November 2011
12 General Scanning Procedure

1 Equipment function check should be carried out on the slotted function
test block over the 50 x 5mm slot.
2 All probes to be used should be tested at the beginning of each shift and
saved in a dedicated file for that day.
3 The signal from a 50 x 5mm slot should be 50% Bx (screen height) and
175% Bz (screen width) – 20 x 2 mm slot for micro probe.
4 Carry out the probe operator briefing.
5 Deploy the equipment to the site ensuring:

a) Watertight integrity (for subsea use).
b) All ancillary equipment is provided.
c) All probes secured.
d) Rigging is sufficient to ensure the unit gets safely to the site.
6 Identify the component.
7 Set up directories and filenames as appropriate, (QFM 3 software only).

a) Job code/operators’ name.
b) Component naming convention.
8 Ensure the correct level of cleaning has been carried out as follows:
a) All marine growth removed (subsea only).
b) Loose scale removed.
c) Loose paint etc removed.
9 Ensure sufficient access for the probe.
10 Ensure all ground areas have been located.
11 Are there any attachments close to the scan?
12 Will the scan encounter any ends of plates or components?
13 What is the geometry of the component?
14 Demagnetise if required.
15 The probe operator visually inspects the weld looking for variations in
weld profile and undercut, etc.
16 The probe operator marks up the component as appropriate (tubulars

may be marked using clock positions or 100mm marks, small plates
<400mm long should be marked in 50mm increments but longer plates
would be marked in 100mm increments). Probe operator confirms serial
number of probe.
Rev 2 November 2011
17 Set up datasheet and title page (Ctrl+U) as required.
18 Carry out Operations check (Ops check).

a) Probe 50mm from toe of the weld.
c) Probe held at the same angle relative to the weld as will be needed
during the toe scan.
d) When ready the probe operator moves the probe slowly into the weld
toe.
The operations check allows centring of the plot and checks 360° cracking.
Rev 2 November 2011
The operations check
Figure 12.1 Operations check to allow centring of plots.
Rev 2 November 2011
1 Scanning for detection.

a) Set clock positions (Setup Menu - Markers) Figure 12.2 shows the
clock position dialogue box. Set the total number of position markers,
then tab to the Start point box and enter the first position that the
probe operator has told you he will pass, then tab to the End point
and enter the last position he is likely to get to (it is a good idea to set
the end point some distance further than the probe operator says he
can reach just in case). Note physical direction of scan (information
comes from the probe operator regarding direction and distance to be
covered) and tab to Incrementing box and tick incrementing (this will
depend on whether the probe operator is going to pass the positions
counting upwards or downwards, box ticked count upwards, 1 2 3 4…
box un-ticked count downwards 5 4 3 2 ….) press Enter to finish.
Figure 12.2 Clock positions setting dialogue box.
b) Ensure probe operator is ready, positioned 50mm before the first

position to be covered, probe operator confirms probe direction A or
C.
c) Press R.
d) Tell probe operator to start scanning when traces appear on the
screen, probe operator calls out positions marked on the testpiece as
they pass the index line of the probe, each time the ACFM operator
presses the space bar once to place the lines onto the display.
e) When at the end of the probe operator’s scan the ACFM operator
presses S to end of the scan, or if the traces reach the end of the
screen the ACFM operator will stop the scan. The ACFM operator
tells the probe operator to relax, the probe operator should not pull
the probe away until he is told to relax, reducing the chances of lift off
at the end of the scan.
f) Assess the traces looking for downward butterfly.
g) Fill in notes accordingly.
h) Always ensure sufficient overlap (at least one position or 50mm must
be overlapped each time) to avoid missing any part of the weld or
scanning area.
Rev 2 November 2011
2 Continue around the weld until all of the area is covered. The above
procedure would be repeated for the other toe and as many weld cap
scans as required to achieve complete coverage. (Note Operations
checks are not carried out prior to weld cap scans.)
3 Scan sizing the length of defects located:

a) Position probe operator one clock position before the defect and scan
through to one position beyond the defect indication, this confirms the
presence of the indication.
b) Reposition probe operator as above.
c) Scan slowly into the defect.
d) The probe operator moves the probe to and fro until the Bz peak on
the screen is at its maximum or minimum.
e) Tell the probe operator to mark alongside the index line of the probe
using the magnetic arrow.
f) Repeat the above operation at the other end of the defect indication
g) The probe operator measures the distance between the magnetic
arrows.
h) Carry out a final scan through the defect from one clock position
before with the probe operator calling the clock positions (when a
clock position is passed, press space bar and this will put the position
onto the display) and the marking arrows (press enter, puts purple
lines onto the display), ensure purple indicator lines produced are in
the correct position (cutting the Bz peaks at their highest or lowest
point. If not repeat the positioning scans).
i) When satisfied have the probe operator check the measured distance
between the arrows and note this on the report form.
j) Carry out sizing procedure through the software (detailed in the
chapter Sizing of Defects).
4 Once the whole of the weld is complete, exit software. All data files will
be automatically saved. Copy data files to media disc via Windows
Explorer if required.
5 Recover equipment and carry out the following:
a) Wash with freshwater (subsea inspection only).
b) Carry out any maintenance.
c) Store safely.
d) Recharge batteries (4hrs approx for lithium ion battery pack).
12.1 Setting scan speed, comms rate or sample rate

Sometimes the traces may be moving across the screen too fast or too
slowly, this can be altered by changing the Scan Rate by clicking on the
Setup button
Scan Rate
Rev 2 November 2011
Allows you to adjust the rate at which data is collected and, hence the speed
at which the traces appear on the screen. The following panel is shown.
Figure 12.3 Scan speed dialogue box.
What the scan rate number actually represents is the amount of time (in 1/100
of a second) between successive data points.
Move the slider towards the top to increase the scan rate or move it towards
the bottom to decrease. The actual scan rate is shown in the box. Zero is
the fastest and 1000 the slowest scan rate.
Note that the scan rate does not affect the collection of data when a probe
with an encoder is used and the Setup software panel is in the distance
based mode. The encoder controls the resolution of data collected.
ASSIST software sets the scan speed at a default setting of 0.03sec. The
scan interval is the time between consecutive reads of the probe data and
effectively controls the rate at which the readings are passed from the
instrument to the PC. This changes the speed at which the traces cross the
display screen during scanning. A scan interval of 0 will produce the fastest
data collection rate and a scan speed of 10secs will produce the lowest.
Figure 12.4 Scan rate set to 1, every possible sample is taken. The lines look
identical.
Rev 2 November 2011
Figure 12.5 Effect of changing the comms or sample rate to 10; this means that the
machine only takes one sample in every 10 possible.
The samples (shown by the arrows) being less frequent will make the trace
more jagged, but the other effect is that the display screen can carry the same
number of samples and as these are further apart in terms of time the rate at
which the traces travel across the screen will reduce, making the information
bunch up, so the trace above may actually appear as in Figure 12.6:
Figure 12.6 Scan rate set to 1 sample in every 10.
Section 13
Defect Sizing
Rev 2 November 2011
Defect Sizing
13 Defect Sizing
There will be a need for specific scans during sizing of defects and the
following is the detailed procedure to be carried out when sizing indications
for both length and depth.
When sizing defects using ACFM, the sizing program assumes the crack to
be semi-elliptical. Line contacts should be treated as a single crack for the
purposes of sizing. Probe/crack angle may affect signals but the angle of the
crack to scanned surface has no effect, the crack is sized along its face so
the depth quoted will not be the through thickness measurement.
13.1 Sizing for length

1 Find the crack by normal methods as detailed above.
2 Have the probe operator position the probe one clock position prior to the
defect indication.
3 Press R when traces appear tell probe operator to start scanning into
and through the defect to confirm its presence.
4 Have the probe operator position 50mm prior to the defect and scan
slowly into the defect from one end and watch the butterfly.
5 When the butterfly reaches its maximum sideways deflection tell probe
operator to mark the index line with the magnetic marker. This may
involve some back and forth movement by the probe operator.
Crack end
Figure 13.1 Finding crack end (min Bz).
Rev 2 November 2011
Defect Sizing
Crack end
Figure 13.2 Bz Maximum (crack end).
6 Position the probe operator so the probe is 50mm before the clock
position prior to the defect.
7 Press R and when traces appear inform probe operator to start scanning
slowly through the defect calling out clock positions and arrows as they
pass the index line of the probe.
8 As the probe operator calls a clock position, hit the space bar (to put the
clock positions on the display). When he calls an arrow hit the enter key
(this will place a purple line on the screen).
9 Once the probe is past the defect and one extra clock position stop the
scan and assess the screen to ensure the peaks of the Bz are exactly on
the purple lines.
Figure 13.3 Final scan through defect showing ends correctly marked.
Rev 2 November 2011
Defect Sizing
10 If not then repeat the procedure until they are.

11 When satisfied have the probe operator measure the distance between
the arrows and record this measurement for input into the sizing program.
Size a defect
Three measurements are required from the data for the ACFM software to
manually size a defect:
 Distance between the Bz peak and trough.

 Minimum point of the corresponding Bx trough.
 Background Bx level.
To size a defect using the software algorithms:
Use the centre functions to place the indication clearly on the screen.
Identify the Bz peak and trough region on the screen then, by left clicking
and dragging the mouse, mark on the Bz plot the area in which the peak
and trough lie. Two vertical lines are drawn which mark the area boundaries.
It is usually recommended that the lines lie just either side of the peak and
trough, see below. This can be repeated if you accidentally mark the wrong
area.
Correct Bz selection
Repeat in the Bx trace box to mark the bottom of the Bx trough and the
background level. Note that while the line can be marked beneath the
bottom of the trough the background line must be positioned accurately.
During the sizing operation the program will search inwards for the
maximum and minimum Bz points within the selected region and upwards to
find the minimum Bx point above the lower line you selected in the Bx plot
window. The background is taken as indicated on the plot.
Correct Bx selection
The selections required can be made using the right click method but note
that the software will take these points precisely and will not search for
maximum and minimum values. This method is very useful when sizing off
axis or smaller defects close to larger defects (when the software may pick
the unintended larger peak and troughs).
Press the Analyse button and choose Size Defect. If an encoder was used
to collect the data, the distance between the Bz peak and trough is
calculated automatically and a message is displayed showing the calculated
defect length and depth. In ASSISTant, or with a probe without an encoder,
this distance must be entered manually. You have the option to keep the
sizing by pressing the Yes button, which will store the defect in the page's
defect list.
Examine the Bz trace again. You will notice that a grey band is drawn
between the peak and trough positions indicating the defect location. If the
Rev 2 November 2011
Defect Sizing
band does not coincide with the required peak and trough, repeat the sizing.
If it fails repeatedly, try removing the intelligent peak searching by selecting
Manual Pick from the Setup – software panel. The program will then take
exactly the points that you select.
Figure 13.4 Correct Bx and Bz selection for depth sizing.
Section 14
Reporting and Printing

Rev 2 November 2011
14 Reporting and Printing

14.1 Report sheets
Report sheets may be the responsibility of the employer or client, come in
many shapes and sizes. Always ensure that the report sheets are completely
filled in.
In ASSIST software the report sheets are generated automatically so it is

important that all the dialogue boxes are completed and that the notes have
been entered up correctly before printing the report.
14.2 Printing data

There are various ways of obtaining hard copy print out of the scans.
Print Screen command (normally shown as PrtSc), loads the available

screen into the clipboard, from there it may be transferred to Word or other
Windows documents or to a drawing program. Note this method requires
large memory availability.
Info
Press Info button to access print icon.
Figure 14.1 Information panel.
Print
Allows you to print out any page of data from a data file.
Rev 2 November 2011
You can view different pages in the file by pressing the left/right arrow
buttons or change the size of the page on the screen using the magnifier
button.
Press page setup to configure your printer or paper type then print the report
using the Print button.
14.3 Example of print format
Figure 14.2 Example of print format.
Section 15
Troubleshooting
Rev 2 November 2011
Troubleshooting
15 Troubleshooting
15.1 No communications with the instrument
If there are communication problems between the instrument and the PC a
warning message will be produced when the PC tries to send messages to
the instrument.
 Check that the comms lead between the instrument and PC is correctly
attached.
 Check that the instrument is switched on.
 Close the Inspection software then start the software again.
 On start up you will be asked if you wish to enable comms. Select Yes.
If the problem is still present:
 Switch off both PC and instrument.

 Switch on instrument. Wait 10 seconds.
 Switch on PC and start the ACFM software.
 On start up you will be asked if you wish to enable comms. Select Yes.
If the problem is still present:
 Recharge the instrument battery.

 Turn on everything but instead of running the ACFM program, run the
Windows terminal or Hyperterminal program.
 Check that the communications settings are as follows:
Baud rate 19200

Data bits 8
Stop bits 1
Parity None
Flow control Hardware
Connector Com1
 Type T<ENTER> which should give a status report from the instrument.
 If communications are still not operational, contact TSC for advice.
Erratic communications with the instrument

Check that the FIFO buffering settings are correctly set on the PC. To do
this, make sure that all programs including QFM are closed down, then:
PC running WINDOWS 95, 98, ME

 From the Windows Start menu select Settings then Control Panel.
 Double click on the System icon and select the Device Manager tab from
System properties.
 Ensure View devices by type is selected and double click Ports to
expand the branch.
 Select Communications Port (COM1) and click the Properties button.
Rev 2 November 2011
Troubleshooting
 Choose the Port Settings tab and click the Advanced button.
 Ensure the box labelled Use FIFO buffers is ticked and set the Receive
Buffer to High (14) and the Transmit Buffer to Low (1).
 Press OK repeatedly on the panels until you get back to the Control
Panel window. Close the window.
PC Running Windows 2000

 From the Windows Start menu select Settings then Control Panel.
 Double click on the System icon.
 Click on the Device Manager button.
 Expand the Ports branch and double click on Communication Port
(COM1).
 Select Communications Port (COM1) and click the Properties button.
 Choose the Port Settings tab and click the Advanced button.
 Ensure the box labelled Use FIFO buffers is ticked and set the Receive
Buffer to High (14) and the Transmit Buffer to Low (1).
 Press OK repeatedly on the panels until you get back to the Control
Panel window. Close the window.
Rev 2 November 2011
Troubleshooting
15.2 Very noisy data

Mobile phones can interfere with the ACFM signals when they are close to a
probe and the resultant data is extremely noisy, usually with bursts of high
amplitude spikes. It is recommended that mobile phones are turned off in
close proximity to the ACFM equipment.
Probe not recognised

If you get a message stating that there is not a probe file for a particular
probe, the most likely cause is that a new probe file has not been correctly
installed.
Ensure that the probe file has been installed on the PC. Using Explorer
open the folder C:\Program Files\Assist ACFM\Mainstore\Probes and check
that a file <Probe serial No.>.qpc is present. If it is not then copy the file
from the floppy disk that came with the probe into this directory, or contact
TSC for a new copy.
If the problem persists contact TSC.
Section 16
Care and Maintenance of Equipment

Rev 2 November 2011
Care and maintenance of Equipment
16 Care and Maintenance of Equipment

16.1 Subsea unit
1 Apply a small amount of silicone grease to the umbilical plug and socket
before connecting. After connecting it is a good idea to put electrical tape
around it; this may stop a diver from disconnecting it by mistake, when
changing probes.
2 Secure umbilical to subsea unit with tieback line or Chinese finger.
3 When tightening or loosening subsea connectors hold both parts of
connectors, do not just hold top to tighten or loosen.
4 For each probe used secure the cable to subsea unit, at some distance
back from subsea connectors, with a tie wrap, allowing enough of an end
for the diver to change the connectors underwater for another probe, this
may avoid losing a probe when changing probes.
5 After recovery of the subsea unit wash it, the umbilical and the
probes down with fresh water, especially the subsea connectors.
Spray connectors with silicon spray. It should not be necessary to do
anything with umbilical connector.
6 At the end of the job give the subsea unit and probes a good wash down
with freshwater. Dry and check connectors for dirt, corrosion, etc. clean
and spray with silicon spray. Wrap up connectors to protect them.
16.2 Probes
1 Check probes, in particular checking the wear plate, specifically the
probe body by the sensors should not be being abraded and thus worn
down. A layer of electrical tape can be used to protect the bottom of the
probe. This is particularly important with the pencil probe, which has no
wear plate.
2 TSC can supply spare replacement wear plates.
3 Consider extending the scribed index line along onto the top of the
probe, this may help a diver when sizing, where he can more easily see
it (note some probes do not have a scribed line, so it will be important to
discuss the points to be used during sizing and may be put a line on to
the probe). Marking the C and A on the probe sides maybe paint one end
of the pencil probe so that the probe is always scanned in the C
direction.
4 Check cables around joints.
16.3 Storage conditions

 Store equipment in special transit cases supplied by TSC if available.
 Ensure instrument, especially connectors are clean and dry before
storing.
 Stored equipment should be kept between 0 and 35°C and at a humidity
level of less than 50%.
 Recharge battery pack before long term storage.
Rev 2 November 2011
Care and maintenance of Equipment
16.4 Connectors
 Always keep connectors on probes covered when not in use to avoid
contamination.
 Before each use, visually check the connectors, particularly with regard
to contamination or mechanical damage.
 After use, ensure connectors are clean and dry and then fit blanking
plugs where possible.
16.5 Instrument and cables

1 The instrument and probes are water resistant to IP54 as long as they
are either connected together or have caps fitted, so the system can be
used in wet conditions. Care must be taken not to get water into the
connectors or sockets when changing probes or connecting to the
supporting computer. Note that the computer itself may not be water-
resistant. The battery charger is not water-resistant, so it is recommend
that the battery packs are only re-charged in a protected environment.
2 The battery charger used to supply 24V DC to the battery has an auto-
sensing input and may be used with either 110/130 or 220/240V,
50/60Hz supply voltage. The charger can cope with a wide range of input
voltages, but if it is being run from a generator, check that the supply
voltage remains in the range 90-260V. The battery pack supplies ±9V
DC to the instrument. Supplying DC power to the battery pack or
instrument from any other source will invalidate the warranty and may
damage the unit. Please note that it is advised to cycle the battery rather
than leave the unit on charge for long periods of time.
3 Avoid bending the connectors where they are attached to the instrument.
4 It is recommended that any faults or anomalies however minor should be
recorded in a technical log kept with the unit.
Section 17
Course Exercises
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
17 Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d001
Sample information: Tubular joint, 100mm increments
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Circ = 1130mm
Scan details
Page Probe dir Clocks Notes

1 Check
2 A 1-5
3 A 4-8
4 A 7-12
Questions
1 Have all scans been correctly carried out? Comment.
2 Indicate cracks detected.
3 Indicate signals other than cracks.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d002
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Circ = 1130mm
Scan details
Page Probe dir Clocks Notes

1 A 1-5
2 A 4-8
3 A 7-1
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d003
D = 750mm
d = 450mm
Circ = 1545mm
Scan details
Page Probe dir Position Notes

1 A Datum 5
2 A 4-9
3 A 8-13
4 A 12-15-1
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d004
D = 500mm
d = 450mm
Circ = 1630mm
Scan details

1 A Datum-9
2 A 9-datum
Questions
2 2 Indicate cracks detected.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d005
D = 750mm
d = 450mm
Circ = 1600mm
Scan details

1 A 1-4
2 A 4-8
3 A 8-14
4 A 13-2
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d006
Sample information: Section of tubular joint, 50mm increments
Scan details

1 A 1-11 bottom toe
2 A 9-12 bottom toe
3 C 1-10 top toe
4 C 9-12 top toe
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d007
Sample information: Flat plate 2mm coating, 50mm increments
Scan details

1 A 1-7
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d008
Sample information: Flat plate, 50mm increments
1 = 300mm
Scan details

1 A 1-6
2 A 1-6
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d009
Sample information: Flat plate, 50mm increments
1 = 300mm
Scan details

1 C 1-6 side A
2 A 1-6 side B
3 C 1-6 side C
(underside)
4 A 1-6 side D
(underside)
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d010
Sample information: T butt, 50mm increments
Scan details

1 C 1-5
2 C 1-5
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d011
Sample information: Flat plate, 50mm increments, 20mm width toe
1 = 300mm
Scan details

1 A 1-5 toe A
2 A 1-5 toe B
3 A 1-5 cap
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d012
Sample information: Flat plate 50mm increments, weld cap ground off
Scan details

1 A 1-5
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Detection
File: I1d013
Sample information: Flat plate, weld cap ground off
Scan details

1 A
4 A
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s001
Sample information: Tubular joint
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details
Page Probe dir Position Comments Length, mm

1 Check
7 A 2-3
8 A 2-3 40
9 A 8-9 35
Questions
1 Have all scans been correctly carried out and cracks correctly marked?
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s002
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

1 A Datum-5 Detection scan
5 A 3-5 40
Questions
Comment
2 Give crack sizes
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s003
Sample information: Section of tubular joint
Scan details

1 A 1-11 bottom toe Detection scan
2 A 9-12 bottom toe Detection scan
3 C 1-10 top toe Detection scan
4 C 9-12 top toe Detection scan
7 C 4-9 top toe
8 C 4-9 top toe 130
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s004
Sample information: Flat plate
Scan details

1 A 1-7 Detection scan
2 A 1-3 35
3 A 4-6 Both markers out 16
same amount
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s005
Scan details

1 C 1-6 Detection scan
4 C 3-5 16
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s006
D = 500mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

11 A 1-4 105
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s007
D = 500mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

12 C 1-4 120
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s008
Scan details

13 A 2-4 33
14 A 3-5 28
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.

P13 background taken as 1243 Error Message on length so increase to
13mm.
Depth = 7.5mm, length = 14mm.
P14 background = (1244+1196)/2 = 1224 crack depth = 4.2mm
length=32mm.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s009
Scan details

1 C 1-10 toe A Detection scan
4 A 1-9 toe B Detection scan
6 A 1-3 53
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 1 Sizing
File: I1s010
Scan details

8 C 7-9 toe A 77
Questions
Comment.
2 Give crack sizes.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d001
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Circ = 1130mm
Scan details

1 A 1-6
2 A 5-9
3 A 8-1
4 A 2-4
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d002
Sample information: Tubular joint, 100mm intervals
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

1 A 1-5
2 A 4-8
3 A 7-1
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d003
D = 500mm
d = 450mm
Scan details

1 A Datum-5
3 A 3-7
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d004
Sample information: Section of large tubular joint, 50mm increments
Scan details

1 A 1-12
2 C 10-12 bottom toe
3 C 1-12 top toe
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d005
D = 400mm
d = 275mm
Scan details

1 A Datum-4 chord side
2 A 3-9 chord side
3 A 8-1
5 A 7-8, 1cm from weld on chord
6 A 7-8, 2cm from weld on chord
7 C 1-4 brace side
8 C 1-8 brace side
9 C 7-1 brace side
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d006
Sample information: Diagonal tubular joint, 100mm increments
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

1 C Datum-5
2 C 4-9
3 C 8-14
4 C 13-datum
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d007
Side A Side B
1 = 300mm
Scan details

1 C 1-6 side A toe
2 C 1-6 side B toe
3 C 6-1 side B toe
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d008
Sample information: T butt, 600mm long, 100mm increments
Scan details

1 A 1-5 plate toe A
2 C 1-5 plate toe B
3 C 2-edge toe A
4 C 3-edge toe A
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d009
Sample information: Plate, 50mm increments
Scan details

1 C 1-6 toe A
2 A 1-7 toe B
3 C 1-7 cap
4 C 1-7 toe A
5 C 0-1 toe A
6 C 1-7 toe A
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d010
Scan details

1 C 1-7
2 C 1-6
3 C 1-6
4 1-6
Questions
2 2 Indicate cracks detected.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d011
Scan details

1 1-8
2 7-10
3 6-11
4 1-8
5 7-12
6 1-9
7 5-12
8 1-9
9 8-12
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d012
Sample information: T butt
Scan details

1 A Check
2 A Toe scan L-R
4 C Toe scan R-L
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d013
Scan details

1 C Check
4 C
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d014
Sample information: Plate weld
Scan details

1
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d015
Sample information: Flat plate butt weld, 50mm increments
1 = 300mm
Scan details

1 A 1-5 toe A
2 A 1-5 toe B
3 A 1-5 cap
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d016
Sample information: Flat plate 1 metre, 100mm increments
Toe A Toe B
1 = 1 metre
Scan details

1 A 1-10 toe A
4 C 1-9 toe B
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File: I2d018
Sample information: Flat plate ground weld
Scan details

1 A
10 A
21 A
Questions
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Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File
Sample information
Scan details
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Detection
File
Sample information
Scan details
Questions
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s001
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details
Page Probe dir Position Comments Length,mm

4 A 2-4 Ignore
5 A 8-9 38
6 A 8-9 50
Questions
Comment.
2 Calculate crack sizes.
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Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s002
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

13 A 10-1 40,13,25
Questions
Comment.
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Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s003
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

4 A 6-7 15
8 A 1-2 40
10 A Datum(1st blue)-1 13
12 A 10-datum(3rd blue) 25
Questions
Comment.
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Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s004
Sample information: Section of tubular joint
Scan details

4 A 4-5 toe B 20
5 A 6-7 toe B 20
Questions
Comment.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s005
Sample information: Angled tubular joint
D = 650mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

1 C Datum-5 Detection scan
6 C 15-datum-1 60
Questions
Comment.
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Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s006
Sample information: Pin
Scan details

1 C
Questions
Comment.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s007
D = 500mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

10 A 1-4 105
Questions
Comment.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s008
D = 500mm
d = 324mm
Scan details

1 C 1-6
7 C 1-4 160
Questions
Comment.
Rev 2 November 2011
Course Exercises
Level 2 Sizing
File: I2s009
1 = 1000mm
Scan details

1 A 1-9 toe A Detection scan
7 C 4-6 toe B 45
Questions
Comment.
Appendix A
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Appendix A
Appendix A
Essential and Recommended Reading
Recommended reading
Materials and Processes for NDT Technology, ASNT.
An Introduction to ACFM, M Lugg
Use of AC Field Measurements for Non-Destructive Testing, R Collins and M C Lugg
An Alternative Method for Offshore Inspection, A Raine, CSNDT Annual Conference

1995 (Insight Vol 36 No 9 September 1994)
Inspection of Duplex and Super Duplex Steels using the ACFM Technique, A Raine,
M Lugg (Insight Vol 37 No 6 June 1995)
A Beginners Guide to Eddy Current Testing, J Rudlin, The British Institute of NDT
Journal Vol 31 No 6 June 1989
The ACFM Technique and its Application to the Inspection of Oil and Gas
Installations, D Topp, 32nd Annual British Institute of NDT Conference (Insight Vol
36 No 6 June 1994)
Operational Experience with the ACFM Inspection Technique for Sub-Sea Weld
Inspection, D Topp, B Jones, British Gas Environmental Engineering March 1994
The Use of Manual and Automated ACFM Inspection Techniques for Sub-Sea and
Topside Crack Detection and Sizing, D Topp, Offshore S E Asia December 1994
OSEA 94.137
ROV Inspection of Welds - A Reality, A Raine, The British Institute of NDT

Conference 1995
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Appendix B
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Appendix B
Appendix B
ACFM Technical Literature
A Beginner's Guide to Eddy Current Testing
Dr J R Rudlin
This is the 4th article in an occasional series which takes a look at the
basics of topics frequently encountered in NDT, their applications and future
prospects.
Introduction
Eddy current testing is approached by many traditional NDT people with a
certain amount of circumspection. There are good reasons for this. eddy
current testing has been even more of a black art than ultrasonics because
it is so difficult to understand what is going on in the test. The probe does
not need to touch the test piece and the display! How can anyone
understand the quivering meter or the wildly dancing spot on the screen?
Explanations offered by practitioners often stop at "this happens when I lift
the probe and this happens when I pass it over the crack". Perhaps
sufficient but not very illuminating!
But is it that difficult? Well in eddy current tests a lot of things happen at the
same time which do make it difficult to understand (and explain!), This
article attempts to present what happens in an eddy current test and
eventually show how some common eddy current tests are carried out.
First of all however it might be encouraging if we have a vision of the crock

of gold before we go in search of it. If you understand eddy current tests you
can use them to carry out:
 Surface crack detection in conductors
 Sub-surface defect detection in non magnetic conductors
 Tube and bar inspection (production)
 Tube inspection on site( non magnetic conductors}
 Metal sorting
 Layer thickness measurement:

- Insulator on conductor
- Non magnetic conductor on
- Conductor
- Conductor on insulator
Eddy currents are used for these tests because they carry them out quickly,
with no contamination of the surface and with a useful sizing capability for
the imperfections detected.
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Appendix B
Note that the applications listed above all involve electrically conducting
materials and that a distinction is made between magnetic - and non
magnetic conductors. Obviously then magnetism and electricity both have a
large pan to play in eddy current tests. and a basic understanding of
magnetic fields electric currents and the relationship between them is
necessary. Once these have been mastered then it is possible to see how
factors affecting eddy currents produce signals in the sensor and then in the
display.
Basics of magnetism and electricity
Magnetic fields
A permanent magnet is surrounded by an area of influence which causes
other magnetic materials to experience a force (for instance iron filings are
attracted or a compass reading changes).
John Rudlin obtained his BSc and PhD at Nottingham Universally Electronic
Engineering Department. He carried out research in many NDT techniques
while at RolIs-Rovce and Associates. UKAEA Risley and John Laing R&D.
His wide experience of eddy current applications was built up at Hocking
NDT and in 1988 he joined University College Underwater NDE Centre to
work on probability of crack detection and sizing in welds. He is a Member
of the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing.
Figure I Magnetic field from permanent magnet.
The area of influence is called the magnetic field. The shape of the magnetic
field is usually shown by a series of lines which leave the magnet near one
end and return to the other end (Figure 1). Note that the field exists in air.
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Appendix B
This is one of the links in the chain for an eddy current test: the probe is
coupled to the material under test by means of a magnetic field.
Electricity
Types of electric current

The flow of electricity called an electric current occurs when a circuit of
electrical conductors is completed and a battery or generator drives the
electricity round the circuit. When a battery is used the current flows only in
one direction and is called direct current or DC A generator produces
current which flows alternately in each direction this is called alternating
current or AC The force driving the current is called the potential difference
or voltage.
Frequency
Alternating current can change direction at different speeds (for example 50
times/second. 10.000 times/second or 1,000,000 times/second). The
number of times/second is called the frequency. This is measured in Hertz
(Hz). In the above example the frequencies are 50Hz. 10kHz (K = Kilo =
1000 times) and 1IMHz (M = Mega = 1,000,000 times).
Waveshape
An alternating current also has a particular waveshape. The simplest one
(and that most often used in eddy current tests) is called a sine wave. It is
possible to see the shape of a sine wave by considering Figure 2. Imagine
the circle is the wheel of a bicycle, and there is a movable attachment which
always stays horizontal between the wheel rim and a line vertically through
the centre. Initially the place where the attachment joins the rim is level with
the centre but as the wheel moves along this will move upwards to the top
downwards to the bottom and back to its original position. If we now make a
note of the movement of the point where the attachment meets the centre
vertical this will also rise and fall as the wheel rotates. The motion of this
point is a sine wave. It is obviously closely related to a circle.
Figure 2 Formation of sine wave.
Phase
If there are two cyclists and one starts in front of the other then the paths as
followed by the points on each bicycle as described above will both be sine
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Appendix B
waves but they will occur at different times. The difference can be measured
in degrees of rotation of the wheels where 360 degrees is one complete
rotation. In Figure 3 an example of two wheels differing in angle by 45
degrees is shown. Exactly the same terminology is used for AC the angle
difference between the two sine waves is called the phase angle Another
possible representation of the two sine waves is two lines: the length of
each line represents the amplitude of the sine waves the angle between
them represents the phase angle. This representation is very similar to the
display seen on impedance plane eddy current instruments. Phase
differences in electric currents are caused by pans of circuits which store
electrical energy in some form and then release it later. The two storage
components of importance in eddy current testing are inductance. There the
energy is stored in a magnetic field and capacitance where an electric
charge is stored. Inductance is the most important since this is the major
electrical component of an eddy current coil.
Figure 3 Vector representation of two sine waves (one delayed by 45 degrees).
Electromagnetic effects
In the first half of the nineteenth century many experimentalists were
working in the emerging field of electromagnetism. They discovered three
effects:
 If a loop of wire connected to a current measuring device is moved

through a static magnetic field then the device measures a current flow.
This shows that electricity can be generated by magnetism and is the
principle of the dynamo or generator.
 A wire carrying an electric current experiences a force when placed near

a magnet. Also if the electric current reverses the force changes
direction. This is the principle of the electric motor.
 The changing of a current in a wire will cause another current to flow in

an adjacent but not touching wire. This is illustrated In Figure 4. closing
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Appendix B
the switch in circuit A causes a current flow In circuit B (note that it is the.
action closing the switch which causes the current to flow at a steady
state current would have no effect). From this discovery eventually comes
transformers, radio and television transmission and eddy current testing.
Figure 4 Changing current in a circuit produces another current in adjacent circuit.
If an AC current flows in circuit A because it is always changing then one

also flows in circuit B. If circuit B is replaced by solid metal then a current
flows in that metal (this is the eddy current). The effects described above
suggest that the link between the two circuits is a magnetic field. The full
sequence of events is described below.
Eddy current generation and detection

Coils
A coil is a means of increasing the intensity of the magnetic field produced
from an electric current. The field from adjacent wires in a coil add to
provide a new total magnetic field dependent on the current and the number
of turns in the coil. Coils are necessary in eddy current testing to produce a
sufficient magnetic field from limited current or a sufficient current from a
limited magnetic field. The shape of the magnetic field from a coil is similar
to that from a permanent magnet. This can be represented as a series of
lines or for simplicity a single arrow. For DC current the arrowhead is at the
North pole; for AC this only occurs at a certain point in time but is related to
the directions of currents flowing at the same point in time. The magnetic
field varies at the same frequency as the current in the coil. The coil
windings are also sometimes shown collectively as in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Representation of coils and magnetic fields.
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Appendix B
In practical eddy current probes a ferrite material is often used to further

concentrate and control the magnetic field. The ferrite is usually in the
centre of the coil and in some applications (shielded probes) may also
surround the coil.
Eddy current generation

When the coil is brought in close proximity with a conductive material the
alternating magnetic field (primary field) will pass through the material. The
coil could be brought end on to the material or could encircle it or be inside a
tube of it or sideways on to it (Figure 6).As discussed in section 2 above
eddy currents will be induced in to the material. It can be shown that they
normally have circular paths at right angles to the primary field. The flow of
the eddy currents in terms of magnitude, phase and distribution depend on
factors which will be discussed in the next section.
Figure 6 Eddy current flow with different coil arrangements.
Eddy current detection

The eddy currents are now flowing in the conducting material. so how are
changes in them detected? Well it is possible to see that the circular paths
taken by the eddy currents are similar to the circular path of wire in a coil.
The eddy currents therefore generate their own magnetic field (the
secondary field) which in fact opposes and modifies the primary field. This in
turn modifies the primary current usually in both phase and amplitude.
If the current flowing through the primary field is shown on a display then
variations in it can be seen. If the display is made to be zero when only the
primary field is present then it will increase when the influence of the
secondary field is felt. Alternatively the zero may be set for a known
secondary field (e.g. defect free material) and the change in primary current
for defective material observed. Figure 7 shows the fields and eddy currents
with the coil adjacent to the material and the display set to zero.
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Appendix B
Figure 7 Initial balance conditions or currents and fields.
Coil arrangements
The arrangement where the same coil is used for both generating the
primary field and detecting the secondary is called an absolute coil Figure
8(a). Often it is useful to have: two coils in proximity which art electrically
arranged to be in opposition: this reduces effects which affect both coils for
example lift off (distance between coil(s) and metal), material variations and
temperature signals which affect each coil differently for example a crack
sensed by one coil at a time are enhanced, This arrangement is called
differential.
Figure 8 Coil variations.
An alternative arrangement of coils is to use a separate sensing coil to that

generating the primary field. This is called driver pickup or reflection. The
sensing coils as shown in Figures 8(c) and 8(d) can be either absolute or
differential. These types of coil are mostly used for low frequency
applications.
The circuits shown so far with for example suitable meter to measure the
current can carry out some very simple eddy current tests however for a
wider range of tests the display is most likely to be produced by an eddy
current instrument. How the eddy current instrument produces the display
and what the display is likely to show are subjects of the next sections.
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Appendix B
Eddy current instruments
Purpose
The basic purpose of an eddy current instrument is to convert the AC
signals from the coils to a less rapidly varying DC signal which can be
interpreted by an operator. Remember that the coil output may vary in both
amplitude and phase and the relative variation of these quantities may be
important for evaluation of the material under test.
There are of course many variations in the design of eddy current

instruments however most can be described by the four basic parts shown
in Figure 9: the input circuit, the oscillator, the signal processor and the
display. The function and operation of these is now discussed.
Figure 9 Basic eddy current test system.
The lnput circuit

The basic function of the input circuit is to provide an output to the signal
processor which is or can be set to be close to zero for any given situation
of the test coil(s) and which provides a maximum change as soon as the
conditions change. Having an initial signal close to zero means that a high
gain can be applied without saturation of the amplifiers. The input circuit
varies of course with the coil arrangement used. Absolute coils can be used
with resonant or bridge circuits, differential coils normally use a bridge circuit
and reflection coils normally use transformer type circuits.
Resonant circuit
A resonant circuit is setup using two of the circuit components mentioned in
section 2 which store energy (inductance and capacitance). When
connected in the same circuit they tend to exchange energy between each
other at a speed depending on their values. When this speed corresponds
to the frequency of the instrument oscillator a resonant condition is set up. In
this condition the circuit has either a zero current or zero voltage. Figure
10(a) shows a circuit with a zero voltage at the resonant frequency. When
the inductance (the coil) changes slightly resonant condition is disturbed and
this produces a large change in the impedance and the output voltage.
The resonant circuit is mostly used with meter type crack detectors.
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Appendix B
Figure 10 Types of input circuit.
Bridge circuit
There are many variations of AC bridge circuit. The most common form is
the four component Wheatstone type bridge shown in Figure 10(b). Two of
the arms of the bridge (the balancing impedances) are made of similar
impedance to the probe and load coils. At this time the output to the signal
processor is close to zero and is said to be balanced. When the coil
impedance changes the bridge balance is disturbed and these are large
changes at the output.
When the load coil is replaced by another sensing coil it will have an effect
in opposition to that of the original probe coil and this is the most common
differential coil circuit.
Transformer circuit
The transformer type circuit used with reflection type probes is shown in
Figure 10(c). The output of the transformer is a function of the link between
the two coils and the number of turns in each. The required zero output is
often produced by having two secondary coils one with its windings
reversed.
The oscillator
The oscillator produces the sine wave output which is fed to the probe and a
reference output which is fed to the signal processor to enable a comparison
of phase with the probe voltage to be made.
Depending on the instrument type the oscillator may have a single fixed
frequency or it may be variable over a wide range (frequency ranges from
tens of Hz to several MHz are standard) There may even be .multiple
oscillators tor multi-frequency equipment.
Freedom from frequency, phase drift and amplitude changes are necessary
features of the oscillator.
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Appendix B
Signal processor
Within the signal processor the AC from the input circuit is changed to the
DC signals which are fed to the display. The DC signals contain information
about the, amplitude and phase (relative to the oscillator) of the input. The
signal processor also has to balance out the remainder of the signal not
balanced by the input circuit and considerable amplification to make the AC
signals large enough to be processed and the DC signals large enough to
drive the display.
In certain instruments usually those using meter display certain aspects of

the DC signals are suppressed for instance those from lift off so that the
meter only contains defect information.
After the DC signal has been produced it may be modified in a number of

ways before or during the display. One common modification is to place a
filter in the circuit so that faster moving indications are preferentially
amplified. This feature is often used on production lines or with rotating
systems to enhance a crack signal above the signal from lift off and material
variations. This is known as a high pass filter, Low and band pass filters are
also used, mainly to reduce interfering noise.
Also acting on the DC signal are alarm circuits which operate when the
signal exceeds a threshold. The threshold may be set according to phase
angle or amplitude. Alarm signals are used for unattended production lines
or in manual inspection to help the operator concentrate on the probe
position during scanning.
Display
There a three output devices in common use a meter or digital bar type a
non storage oscilloscope, a storage oscilloscope, which may be of
conventional design or with a liquid crystal display.
Meter type displays can only show one variable at once, this is usually
designed to be a crack indication, but eddy current meter instruments are
also available which measure conductivity (sometimes with a digital display),
or lift off (coating thickness meters, which may also have digital display) and
there arc some low frequency instruments used to measure thickness of
non-magnetic metals. These are usually used for corrosion detection.
A non storage oscilloscope is most often used for continuous tests. For
example production testing of tube and bar with encircling coils or rotating
probe bolt hole inspection. Metal sorting bridges operating at low
frequencies also use this type of display. At low frequencies the signal
processor does not carry out a conversion of the signal from AC to DC and
the reference and signal voltages are fed directly to the horizontal and
vertical axes of the oscilloscope. This produces elliptical signals whose
shape can be used to identify metal types.
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Appendix B
Most instruments with storage displays now use digital memory for storing
the signal. In this case there are two DC outputs which arc fed to the
horizontal and vertical axes. These are arranged by the signal processor to
give a response very similar to the changes in the coil. This is the most
important type of eddy current display and the basis of it is shown in Figure
11. Suppose the resistance to the flow of electricity is plotted in the
horizontal axis and the inductance is plotted in the vertical axis, initially,
when the coil is in air it has a fixed inductance and resistance. When it
approaches a metal, the apparent resistance increases (due to losses in the
metal) and the inductance decreases due to the reduction in the primary
field. The coil impedance therefore moves along the lift off line to the
impedance it registers when on the metal. The movement of the impedance
around this diagram as the probe conditions vary forms the impedance
plane.
In instruments it is generally possible to rotate the impedance plane, and to

centre the display with the probe on the metal, that by amplification small
changes in the metal condition (such as cracks) can be observed. A
standard display technique is to set lift off in the horizontal axis so that
defects are seen in the vertical. The horizontal axis may also be replaced by
a time base so that a change in the vertical signal in time can be seen. This
is used mainly for rotating probes so that the angular position of any crack
can be observed.
In the next section the diagrams show the impedance plane display change
which can be expected duo to the various factors which affect eddy
currents.
Figure 11 Basis or impedance plane display.
Factors affecting eddy currents
Introduction
So now we have an eddy current system consisting of coils and instrument
which we now wish to put to some use. The various features in a test which
affect the eddy currents and the type of display they produce are now
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Appendix B
discussed. One of the most important parameters is the frequency of

operation. This is of course set by the operator and must be chosen
correctly for a successful test: Given a suitable probe the response of the
instrument is due to the test material properties of conductivity and magnetic
permeability together with the lift off signal caused by variations in the probe
specimen distance. The test piece geometry is also likely to produce large
signals. Cracks usually produce relatively small signals so obviously careful
control of the larger effects necessary for crack signals to be distinguished.
In the sections below the response of an absolute coil to each of the above
effects is described.
Effect of frequency
The importance of the frequency is that its value determines the depth of
penetration of eddy currents in the surface. In fact the density of eddy
currents decreases gradually from the surface, but the rate of decrease
depends on the frequency of the AC and the conductivity and permeability
of the test materials (Figure 12). The standard depth of penetration is
defined as the value at which the eddy currents have fallen by 37% of their
value at the surface. Changes in eddy currents can be detected much
deeper than this however. The choice of frequency also affects the phase
relationships between the signals from different effects.
As a rough guide to choice of frequency a depth of penetration of about

0.1mm is suitable in order to detect surface cracks deeper than 0.2mm deep
and the standard depth of penetration frequency is the best starting point for
sub-surface .defects and tubing inspection. Both these values can be
determined from a graph such as Figure 13. However experimentation to
obtain the optimum signal to noise ratio or phase angle, may be necessary
and also the practical aspects of probe design may affect the eventual
choice.
Figure 12 Effect or frequency and material properties on depth or penetration
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Appendix B
Figure 13 Frequency and depth of penetration.
Effect of lift off

In section 2 you will remember that the initial condition of a probe in air
causes a certain current and that moving it towards a metal causes
generation of eddy currents a secondary field and a change in the display
reflecting the type of change observed in coil. For standardisation suppose a
change in inductance of the coil is set to cause the display spot to move
vertically. When the coil approaches a metal it may then deflect downwards
and to the right as shown in Figure 14 (in this figure the initial conditions are
assumed to be coil in air). The distance it moves is dependent on the
distance between the probe and the metal and can be used for example to
measure coating thickness. The angle of the deflection is proportional to the
properties of the metal as we shall see.
Figure 14 Effect on coil in air of approaching metal.
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Appendix B
Effect of conductivity
When the conductivity changes. for example if it is less than the example
shown in Figure 14 then the secondary field is weaker and the spot moves
less on approaching the metal and at a different angle as in Figure 15.
In general conductivity of a metal is affected by:
 Chemical composition (ie which alloy is it)

 Heat treatment
 Age hardening
 Temperature
Eddy currents can be used to detect changes in anyone of these properties

in isolation. Obviously, the most important use is in metal sorting.
Conductivity is measured most conveniently by referring to the International
Annealed Copper Standard (lACS) which sets the conductivity of copper at
100% and other metals as a percentage.
Figure 15 Effect on coil in air of approaching low conductivity metal.
Figure 16 Effect on coil in air of approaching magnetic metal.
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Appendix B
Effect of magnetic permeability

The magnetic permeability of a metal affects the ease with which magnetic
lines will flow through it. In a material with high permeability a larger density
of these lines will be created from a given source and the lines will tend to
concentrate in the material, see Figure 16. This has two effects, firstly a
greater amount of magnetic energy can be stored in the coil increasing its
inductance and secondly plenty of eddy currents are generated which
increases the lift off effect. The tendency of the lines of force to concentrate
in the material also means that very little penetration is obtained. When
attempting to sort metals with different permeability’s a very low frequency
(a few Hz) is often used. As well as the permeability changes the rate of
magnetisation also affects signals at these frequencies and a greater
degree of sorting is possible.
Geometry
The geometry of a component under test causes many difficulties in eddy
current tests. A curved piece of metal will obviously have a different lift off
response to a flat one and the edge effect (Figure 17) can distort the eddy
current field and produce a large signal. Note that in Figure 17 the lift off is
assumed to be constant, has been set to be horizontal on the display
causing a deflection to the left as lift off increases and the initial conditions
are with the probe on the metal. This set up is normal for crack testing.
Geometrical effects can be reduced by probe design which fits the surface
(eg probes for fan blades or bolt holes) or by the use of shielded probes.
Another feature of the geometry is the actual thickness of the material under
test. Obviously if the eddy currents penetrate the full thickness there will be
some effect when the thickness changes. This usually looks something like
a conductivity change on the display (Figure 18). but the phase angle
relative to lift off can vary considerably as the limits of thickness sensitivity
for a particular frequency are reached. Signals from thickness changes are
used to detect loss of metal due to corrosion in multi layer structures and
tubes.
Figure 17 Effect on initial conditions of coil approaching an edge.
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Appendix B
Figure 18 Effect on initial conditions of coil approaching a thinner section.
Cracks
Fortunately most materials have constant properties and lift off and
geometrical effects can be reduced to such an extent that surface cracks
can be detected. They force the eddy currents to flow round and under them
giving a signal as shown in Figure 19. The phase angle produced between
the signal for the crack and that of lift off depends on the frequency the
material and the probe design. It can be estimated empirically from an
impedance plane diagram but a study of this is beyond the scope of this
article
Figure 19 Effect on initial conditions of crack in metal surface.
Practical testing
It would be impossible to give complete details here of a great many
practical tests, however, it is possible to generalise on the basic steps to
take when designing a test. These are as follows:
1 Classify the test. This should not be difficult. It is simply deciding if the
application is crack detection, metal sorting tube inspection or thickness
measurement (or all of them).
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Appendix B
2 Choose the frequency: To do this it is necessary to know the conductivity

and magnetic permeability of the material under test. It is also necessary
to know the material thickness. So that a high enough frequency is used
to detect surface cracks or avoid thickness signals when metal sorting; or
a low enough frequency is used to penetrate for sub-surface tests. A
more comprehensive version of Figure 13 with lines drawn on for the
particular materials under test is necessary. Remember that Figure 13
only shows the standard depth of penetration. Most instruments can
detect metal loss at greater depths.
3 Choose the probe: There are thousands of probe designs. Eddy current
probes are much more application dependent than for example,
ultrasonic probes. The design of the probe is largely decided by
specifying the application and the frequency. The next details are the
actual dimensions of the part and the access. For example a probe
maker would need to know the tube diameter for lD probes, hole
diameter and length for bolt hole probes and would need to know if the
component is tested through a small access hole or round a corner.
Then the optimum choice of absolute differential or reflection probes
must be made (although the application often decides this). The
environment (for example, temperature, corrosion, rough surfaces. and
ruggedness) should also be specified as these help to determine the
materials used for probe construction.
4 Choose the instrument: Having determined your application and

frequency your instrument choice can be made by asking the following
questions:
 Does it cover the frequency range and the type of test required (now
and the future). This would determine whether dedicated or versatile
equipment is required?
 Will suit the environment?
 Is a simple display required or one with some interpretation
capability?
 Does it have the right filters/alarms?
 Does it produce the right outputs for any recording required?
5 Make a representative calibration sample. This will be necessary to set

up the gain and phase of the equipment to give optimum response for
the test being carried out.
Conclusion
Well if you have managed to follow me through this article you will now have
a reasonable idea how eddy current tests are carried out and how the
signals are produced and displayed together with some hints on how to get
started of course this is only the beginning. I have not attempted to cover in
detail, for example design of probes for particular applications, use of multi
frequencies and detailed interpretation of the impedance plane display. A
considerable amount of effort has also gone into a theoretical understanding
of the eddy current process (that is trying to attach equations and numbers
www.twitraining.com
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
to the circles and arrows I have conveniently drawn without too much
explanation). There is still a great deal to be done in this area and a greater
understanding will lead to better equipment and a wider range of
applications.
www.twitraining.com
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
AN INTRODUCTION TO ACFM
M.C. Lugg
Technical Software Consultants Ltd.

6 Mill Square, Featherstone Road,
Wolverton Mill, Milton Keynes, MK12 SRB
UNITED KINGDOM
20 www.twitraining.com
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
An Introduction to ACFM
The ACFM Technique

The ac field measurement (ACFM) technique was developed from the AC
potential drop (ACPD) technique to combine the ability of ACPD to size
without calibration with the ability of eddy current techniques to work without
electrical contact. This is achieved by maintaining the uniform input field
(induced rather than injected) but measuring the magnetic fields above the
specimen surface instead of the surface voltages.
The main aim of both ACPD and ACFM is to avoid calibration on artificial
defects whenever possible because such calibration is known to be prone to
error for a number of reasons:
 There is increased scope for operator error
 The calibration piece is not representative:
 A slot does not behave electrically like a crack

- The slot is unlikely to be in a material representative of the crack
location (ie parent plate, HAZ. weld).
- The slot is not generally in a geometry representative of the crack
location.
- Calibration can only be valid for the defect length used because crack
length influences the depth signal.
As with the ACPD technique, an alternating current passing through a

conductor is forced to flow in a thin layer on the outer surface. The thickness
of the current-carrying layer, the so-called skin depth, δ is given by:
δ = (πσμrμof)-1/2
where σ is the electrical conductivity of the material μr is its relative magnetic

permeability μo is the permeability of free space, and f is the frequency of
the applied alternating current.
Materials of high permeability or conductivity thus have relatively small skin

depths. At a frequency of about 5kHz, for example, ferromagnetic mild steel
has a skin depth of order 0.1mm high conductivity materials such as
aluminium, tungsten and zinc have skin depths of 1-2mm and low
conductivity metals such as titanium, stainless steel and Inconel have skin
depths of 5-8mm. The techniques are thus restricted mainly to surface or
near-surface defects.
As with ACPD, the sizing capability ideally uses theoretical modelling of the
expected probe measurements. This has so far only been carried out for
materials with a thin skin for ACFM and the solution is then dependent on
the relative permeability, μ
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
The ACFM technique is easier to deploy than ACPD but the signals are
harder to interpret. A summary of the differences between the two
techniques is given in Table 1.
Table 1 Summary of differences between ACPD and ACFM
Property ACPD ACFM

Theoretical crack depth interpretation Yes Yes
Calibration required No No
Crack depth measurement Yes Yes
Maximum depth No limit About 30mm
Crack length measurement Sometimes difficult Yes
Crack detection and location No Yes
Works through coatings and scale No Yes
Requires cleaning to bright metal Yes No
Requires computer (as well as instrument) No Yes
Operator skill required Low-medium Medium-high
Storage of data Yes Yes
(on instrument) (on computer)
In ACPD only one component of the surface electric field is measured since
the voltage probe is always placed parallel to the input current flow. In
ACFM, on the other hand, use can be made of all three components of the
magnetic field, although usually only two components are needed. The three
components are defined in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Components of magnetic field for ACFM
The Y component, By, is parallel to the input current, the X component, Bx,
is perpendicular to the current and parallel to the metal surface, and the Z
component, Bz, is perpendicular to the metal surface. For deployment on
fatigue cracked weld toes for example where a crack is parallel to the weld,
the x-direction will be parallel to the crack edge.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
In general terms, the theoretical modelling shows that the magnetic field
components are related to the rates of change of the surface potential
differences. With no defect present and a uniform current flowing in the y-
direction, the magnetic field is uniform in the x-direction perpendicular to the
current flow, while the other two components. By and Bz, are zero. The
presence of a defect diverts current away from the deepest pan and
concentrates it near the ends of a crack (or on either side of a pit). The
effect of this is to produce strong peaks and troughs in By and Bz (above
the ends of a crack or spaced in a square around a pit), while Bx shows a
broad dip along the whole defect. An example of the Bx and Bz signals
above a crack is shown in the chart recorder plot on the left in Figure 2,
while a qualitative explanation of the signals is shown in Figure 3.
ACFM probes generally measure Bx and Bz, the former being using to
estimate crack depth and the latter giving an estimate of crack length - the
measurement of By is used to discriminate between a crack and a pit.
Advantages of ACFM over conventional eddy currents

The main rival to ACFM as far as detecting and sizing surface-breaking
defects is concerned is the eddy current (EC) technique. A summary of the
differences between ACFM and conventional EC is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Summary of differences between ACFM and eddy currents
Property ACFM Eddy current

Theoretical crack depth interpretation Yes No
Calibration required No Yes
Crack depth measurement Yes Yes
Maximum depth About 30mm About 5mm
Crack length measurement Yes Yes
Crack detection and location Yes Yes
Operator skill required Medium-high High
Easy deployment in transition region (eg weld) Yes No
The main drawbacks of EC arise from the use of a compact circular

excitation current. This results in a very sensitive detection capability, but
also makes the technique prone to strong lift off signals and signals due to
material property changes. The non-uniform nature of the current also limits
its sensitivity to deep defects because the current does not flow to the
bottom. The most important consequence however is the inability to model
the current flow in a general way making it necessary to use calibration
techniques for sizing.
Practical deployment
The standard ACFM probes contain both the field induction unit and the
magnetic field sensors in one integral probe head. No electrical connection
is required to the structure being inspected, so a minimum of cleaning is
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
required in particular, rust or protective coatings such as paint need not be

removed before inspection. Indeed the technique has been used
successfully through up to 5mm of non-conductive cladding.
Probe deployment
The cables carrying the input current and the output voltages run together in
a single probe umbilical so that no special precaution is needed to keep
them apart as with ACPD. Care should be taken to prevent the umbilical
trailing along the structure close to the probe head, however, because this
can alter the induced field strength.
A number of different ACFM probe types exist, each one purpose designed
for a particular application and it is important to use the right probe for a
particular job. The standard weld probe should be used for most inspections
since it has an optimised physical stability to reduce spurious signals. In
contrast, pencil probes should only be used when no other probe can gain
access because their small contact area makes them prone to rocking and
twisting.
The probes are designed primarily to run along the line expected to be
followed by a crack such as a weld toe. A standard weld inspection will
therefore involve two probe passes, one along each weld toe. A standard
ACFM probe can inspect an area about 10mm either side of the probe
centre so that complete welds up to 20mm wide can be inspected in this
way. For wider welds additional scans along the weld cap are required. For
inspection of an area where no preferred crack orientation exists, two scans
are made with orthogonal probe orientations. Alternatively array probes can
be used which contain 100 or so separate sensors to cover large areas
more quickly.
Taking measurements
Full details of the inspection operation are described in the appropriate
instrument manuals and inspection procedures. Briefly an inspection
consists of a series of initial probe scans for detection, covering the whole
area in overlapping lengths. Defect detection is possible by watching for
coincident deviations in the time base plots of Bx and Bz However a
composite plot called a butterfly plot has been developed to ease detection.
A butterfly plot consists of a plot of Bx reading versus Bz. Figure 2 shows an
example of time base and butterfly plots obtained from a simple defect. The
butterfly plot shows a loop which starts from the top and returns to the same
region of the screen when a defect is present. The butterfly plot has the time
base removed and so is independent of the speed of probe movement. Any
scans producing significant loops in the butterfly plot would be rescanned for
confirmation.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Figure 2 Example of chart recorder and butterfly plots from a defect.
Figure 3 Qualitative explanation of the nature of Bx and Bz above a notch.
Crack sizing
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Having found a defect indication, a crack size estimate is made as follows.

The length is found by moving the probe along the weld until the Bz peak
associated with one end of the defect is maximised. The probe position is
then marked on the specimen, using a magnetic arrow for example. The Bz
trough associated with the other end is similarly marked and the distance
between them is measured with a flexible tape. This length is close to the
true defect length and is used as an input to the sizing routine. Two
measurements are taken from the Bx plot. These are the background level
either side of the defect, and the minimum value in the middle of the defect
trace. These two signal levels and the initial crack length estimate are then
entered into a software routine which searches through theoretically based
look-up tables to produce final estimates of the length and depth of the
defect.
Application Areas
The ACFM technique has been used in a wide variety of situations since its
initial development in 1986. Since 1991 it has been used routinely for the
inspection of underwater structures in the North Sea, Irish Sea and off the
US coast and is also being used in the nuclear, steel and railway industries
as well as research establishments.
A standard range of instruments is produced for laboratory (multichannel),

on-site, and underwater inspection. Since the early days of the technique,
however, specialist applications have been recognised and catered for.
These have included the following purpose built probes/inspection systems:
 Automated thread inspection system for drill pipe and collar connections
with fully automated interpretation.
 Ruggedised drop-proof instruments for pressure vessel inspection.
 Probes for high temperature (500°C) monitoring/inspection system on

process plant.
 Probes for crack growth monitoring under neutron irradiation.
 Array systems for rapid manual or automated inspection.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Experiences in the Use of ACFM for Offshore Platform Inspection in

Brazil
Francisco Carlos R Marques PETROBRAS - Brazil

Marcus. Vinicius M Martins PETROBRAS - Brazil
David A Topp TSC Inspection Systems·- England
Keywords: NDT, ACFM, MPI, Subsea, Inspection, Offshore platforms
Abstract
The alternating current field measurement (ACFM ) technique is now widely
used in the Oil and Gas Industry for in service inspection. The technique is
routinely used both sub-sea and topside for structural weld inspection and is
capable of both detecting and sizing surface-breaking cracks.
PETROBRAS, the Brazilian State Oil Company has recently introduced
ACFM inspection as part of .their routine structural inspection programmes
for their offshore platforms. This has produced excellent results during both
laboratory tests and experimental field services carried out during the past 2
years in Brazil. The main field application of the technique has been
underwater inspection of structural welds on both fixed and floating offshore
platforms. Compared to conventional inspection methods, employing·
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI), the use of ACFM has resulted in
substantial cost savings allied with improvements in inspection reliability.
When introducing a new inspection technique, it is necessary to consider

many aspects and to evaluate the capabilities of the technique in the
laboratory prior to implementation offshore. It is also necessary to properly
consider the development and evaluation of appropriate inspection
procedures and the training of personnel. This paper describes the ACFM
method and how it has been applied to subsea structural weld inspection in
Brazil. It also considers the requirements for introducing new inspection
technology into a major Oil Company and the need for cross comparison
with existing inspection methods. The requirements for the development of
operator training and certification schemes are also considered and the
approach adopted by PETROBRAS to these challenges explained. Finally
the results from inspections of a number of fixed and floating offshore
platforms are presented which show cost savings of approximately
$1,500,000 over a two year period compared to conventional MPI.
Introduction
PETROBRAS are planning an increase in Brazilian oil production and much
of this is focussed on their offshore oil reserves. The Brazilian coastline is in
excess of 8000 kilometres and PETROBRAS now operate more than 100
offshore platforms, 25% of which are mobile (floating) structures.
Offshore platforms operate in a harsh environment and are subjected to a

variety of cyclic loads due to wind and waves. This can in some cases lead
to degradation due to fatigue. In order to ensure the reliability of the offshore
operations it is necessary to monitor the condition of the structures to
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
ensure that structural integrity is being maintained. To achieve this, and in

the case of mobile platforms, to comply with Classification Society Rules
and Regulations, routine structural inspections are carried out. Conventional
inspection methods such as Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) can account
for more than 50% of the total inspection costs. When applied underwater,
the cost of MPI can increase significantly due to high levels of cleaning
required and due to constraints on conducting the inspecting due to the sea
state, currents and visibility.
TSC Inspection Systems, a UK Company has developed an inspection

method called ACFM (Alternating Current Field Measurement) which can be
used as an alternative to MPI. ACFM equipment has been developed
specifically for subsea inspection and is widely used around the world for
the inspection of offshore platforms.
PETROBRAS were first made aware of the ACFM technique at an NDT

Congress in1994 and recognised the potential advantages both in terms of
the technique itself and the potential cost savings. PETROBRAS then
embarked on a process of research and evaluation to first assess the
capabilities of the ACFM technique and to explore the way in which it could
be incorporated into their offshore inspection activities.
These studies were conducted by its research centre and with the
Exploration and Production Department and assessed the: capabilities of
the ACFM technique for offshore structure inspection (topside and subsea)
and also for industrial pressure vessel inspection.
The ACFM Technique

The ACFM method is an electromagnetic inspection technique which can be
used to detect and size surface-breaking (or in some cases near surface)
defects in both magnetic and non-magnetic materials. ACFM is a current
perturbation technique and is fundamentally different to conventional eddy
current techniques.
When a alternating current flows in a conductor it flows in a skin following

the surface. If a surface-breaking crack is present, this otherwise uniform
sheet of current is disturbed;, There is a magnetic field associated with this
electrical field and the magnetic field disturbances (associated with the
electrical current disturbances) can be measured using magnetic field
sensors. Although the resulting magnetic field is complex components can
be chosen which allow disturbances due to cracks to be identified and
quantified.
Figure 1 shows how the electrical field is disturbed on the surface by the
presence of a crack. In practice, two components of the magnetic field are
measured, Bx along the length of the defect, which responds to changes in
surface current density and gives an indication of crack depth and Bz which
gives a negative and positive response at either end of the defect caused by
current generated poles, and thus gives an indication of length.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
In standard applications two field sensors are used and these are
incorporated into a probe head which also introduces the uniform current
into the component using a field inducer. The probe does not require any
special scanning patterns. In order to inspect for weld toe cracks the probe
is simply moved along the weld toe.
Since the signals produced in the sensors were extremely small, TSC have
developed an instrument generally referred to as the Crack Microgauge,
which controls the inducing field and amplifies and digitises the sensor
readings. All functions are under the control of an onboard microprocessor,
which sends data to a standard laptop PC.
Specialist Windows software is used to control the inspection and display

and store the results. Figure2 shows a typical ACFM data display produced
when the probe is scanned over a defect. In the left-hand side of the screen
the Bx and Bz readings are plotted. A defect is indicated by a trough in the
Bx plot the deepest point coinciding with the deepest part of the crack,
associated with a peak and trough in the Bz plot, which indicates the
location of the crack ends. To aid in interpretation the Bx and Bz readings
are plotted against each other on the right hand side of the screen where a
characteristic loop is formed in the presence of a defect. This display called
the butterfly plot is unique to ACFM and because it is insensitive to probe
speed, greatly enhances interpretation.
Once a defect is identified the depth can be determined by entering the

length of the defect found by marking the locations of the Bz peak and
trough on the sample and choosing two points from the Bx trace. The
software algorithms instantly return a value for crack length and depth which
is displayed above the defect indication on the screen.
Equipment used in the studies

The equipment used in the studies has been specifically developed for
subsea operation and is capable of operating in water depths up to 300m
the underwater system is shown schematically in Figure 3 and comprises:
 A laptop PC which acts as system controller. This controls all of the

functions of the system and provides the data display. All data is also
stored in the PC.
 The topside unit provides the interface between the subsea unit and the
PC. The subsea unit is powered by 110V from the surface and the
topside unit also provides safety cut out to protect the diver.
 The subsea unit is a pressure housing containing the system electronics

and is connected to the topside unit via a special umbilical.
 350m umbilical which carries power and communications between the

topside and subsea units.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
 Inspection probes which are connected to the subsea unit using

underwater malleable connectors.
Collecting data
Inspections are carried out by scanning the chosen probe along the weld
toes. Long welds are inspected using a series of overlapping scans (to
ensure full coverage). Scanning speeds of approximately 10mm/second are
used. The data is displayed and stored on the PC controller and can if
required be replayed.
Data analysis
The probe operator (diver) Figure4 has no data display and is not an
inspection specialist. The inspector generally watches the real time display
as the probe is scanned and looks for the characteristic defect signals. Data
can be replayed at any time and this allows data to be reviewed/audited
even at a different site by copying the data onto a diskette or transferring via
Email.
Training and certification

As with any inspection technique it is important that inspectors are properly
trained and certified. Training and certification for ACFM operators is
available under Lloyds, CSWIP and PCN schemes. PETROBRAS initially
sent four engineers to the UK for training and these have achieved
certification to CSWIP Level 2.
PETROBRAS are now implementing a Brazilian Certification Scheme for

ACFM operators, which provides for Level 1. 2 and 3 certification. TSC and
TWI are assisting in the process and it is expected that PETROBRAS will
issue the first Level 3 certificates for ACFM operators during 2000.
Advantages and limitations

As discussed above, the ACFM technique is a detection and sizing·
technique for surface-breaking cracks. The technology offers several
advantages over conventional MPI inspection for both topside and subsea
inspection. There are of course some limitations as well, some of the
advantages and limitations compared to MPI are listed below:
 ACFM requires less surface preparation. It can be used on coated or

rusted surfaces without coating removal or cleaning to bright metal. In
most cases light brushing is sufficient. ACFM can be used on non-
conducting coatings, in good condition, up to 5mm thick.
 ACFM can be deployed in most sea conditions and, unlike MPI, is not
limited by currents, swell or poor visibility.
 ACFM can be used in any light level and can therefore be used in 24
hour operations.
 ACFM provides information on defect length and depth.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
 ACFM is faster to deploy.
 ACFM provides electronic records of all inspection data which is available

for subsequent review or audit.
 Use of a two man team means the probe can be deployed by diver or
abseiler who is not a skilled ACFM operator. Data analysis is conducted
by a skilled operator who is not required to dive or climb.
Some limitations of ACFM are:
 High capital cost of equipment compared to MPI.
 Operator requires a higher level of training and to possess knowledge of

computer operation and welding as well as NDT.
 Sensitivity to shallow cracks is less than MPI in some situations.
 Equipment is less portable than MPI.
 Complex signals can arise from tight geometries, plate edges and
branched cracks.
Results from field trials

The underwater ACFM equipment purchased by PETROBRAS has been in
regular use since 1997 for structural inspection of offshore platforms. In
1999 trials were also conducted on the use of ACFM to inspect industrial
pressure vessels.
Some of the ACFM inspections conducted by PETROBRAS are detailed

below. These provide an indication of the amount and type of inspections
conducted and the cost savings achieved in using ACFM rather than
conventional MPI
Underwater inspection in E&P-RNCE offshore platforms

Structural welds on 7 fixed offshore platforms were inspected using ACFM.
These platforms were located in the Northeast state of Rio Grande do Norte
and the welds were located in water depths ranging between 7m and 30mm.
A total of 25 structural welds were inspected. The diving was carried out
from the platform, rather than a dive boat, and involved a 6 man dive team.
The divers used for probe handling had four hours training in the scanning
of ACFM probes and in communication with the ACFM inspection technician
who was located on the platform deck. Some cracks were found during the
inspection. The cost saving compared to using underwater MPI inspection
was estimated at US$ 45,000
PETROBRAS V Underwater inspection

PETROBRAS V is a jackup platform and was docked in SUAPE harbour in
the state of Pernambuco. Inspections were carried out on selected areas of
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
the: spudcans and legs. Some of the leg welds were out of the water, some
were beneath the surface.
In order to provide confirmatory information, all cracks detected by ACFM

were re-inspected using MPI and in all cases location and crack length
determined by ACFM was confirmed by MPI On the .underwater welds it
took three attempts to confirm with MPI, even though the location of the
cracks had been established by ACFM. This difficulty with MPI arose
because of the poor visibility due to muddy water in the harbour. In addition
to crack detection, cracks found were also sized using ACFM to detect their
length and depth. Obviously MPI could not confirm the depth and so
grinding was carried out to remove the crack and again this process
confirmed the depth measurement provided by ACFM.
The use of ACFM reduced the docking time by two days and resulted in cost
savings of US$100,000.
Underwater inspection of Ceara offshore platforms

Inspections were carried out on 8 fixed offshore platforms in the Northeast
state of Ceara. A total of 59 welds were selected for inspection in water
depths up to 42 metres.
In this operation, all diving was carried out from the deck of a supply boat,
which provided very good access to the inspection sites and easy
deployment of the equipment. Some bad weather was experienced and the
severe motions of the supply boat led to a failure in the topside unit. This
was subsequently repaired.
The average time for preparation and inspection of node weld at 40 metre
water depth was twenty minutes; this is approximately four times faster than
MPI.
Cost savings on this operation were estimated at US$ 250,000 compared to

MPI inspection.
Underwater Inspection in E&P - BC Platforms

For the past three years, ACFM has been used for the inspection of
selected structural welds on a fixed and floating (semi submersible) platform
located in the Campos Basin. Excellent results have been achieved and the
estimated saving compared to MPI is US$I,500,000.
Inspection of gas storage spheres of E&P - SEAL

Gas Storage spheres (Figure 5) are routinely used in industrial applications.
ACFM was used for the inspection of selected areas of three spheres
located in Aracaju. The selected welds had been previously inspected using
MPI.
The ACFM inspections were carried out using the underwater equipment.
This led to overheating due to the high internal temperature in the sphere
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
(34°C) which resulted in the equipment shutting down on occasions. ACFM

equipment is available for topside use but at the time of the inspections,
PETROBRAS did not have any available.
These inspections allowed direct comparison, in terms of timing and

performance, with MPI. ACFM found two crack like indications, only one of
which was confirmed by MPI. The MPI inspection took three times longer
than ACFM excluding report writing. When writing up of the MPI report was
taken into account, the savings using ACFM were even greater.
New development in ACFM technology

Portable, lightweight equipment is available for above water inspection. The
latest generation QC battery powered ACFM equipment is called the
AMIGO (Figure 6). This weighs only 4½kg and has a battery life of ten
hours. This equipment is ideally suited to sphere inspection.
The underwater inspection carried out by PETROBRAS made use of a diver

to deploy the probe with the inspection specialist operating the PC. The
same approach is used topside but this time using climbers (abseilers) to
deploy the probes, Figure 7. This approach is used in other parts of the
world for the inspection of offshore platforms topside, storage spheres,
cranes and bridges. PETROBRAS inspection contractors have started to
introduce rope access methods into the region and PETROBRAS have now
purchased ACFM topside equipment as well.
Topside inspection offers more challenges than subsea in terms of the

range of geometries and material encountered. To meet these demands, a
number of special probes have been developed which allow better access to
tight geometries and reduced response for geometric features such as plate
edges and attachments. These combined with new high frequency options
allow the inspection of both carbon steel and non magnetic materials in a
wide range of industrial configurations.
All of the above examples have been of manual weld inspection. These are
typical of ACFM operations around the world In some cases it is desirable to
include some automation into the inspection process, especially if there are
individual components to be inspected. More complex ACFM probes are
available containing multiple inspection sensors. These are known as ACFM
arrays and allow larger areas to be inspected in a single scan. These can
also be fitted with position encoding to allow a complete record of the
distance travelled and the exact location of defects found. Examples of such
systems developed for the Oil Industry are an automated system for the
inspection of titanium drilling risers (developed for Statoil in Norway)
Figure8, and a Drillstring Thread Inspection system, Figure 9, now being
used in the North Sea to improve drillstring inspection reliability.
Conclusions
From the results of the subsea inspection evaluation conducted with ACFM,
and reported in this paper, it is reasonable to predict that ACFM will replace
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
MPI for all underwater structural weld inspection on PETROBRAS Offshore

platforms. The training and certification of ACFM operators is now being
implemented within the PETROBRAS Certification Scheme and specific
procedures will be developed to ensure that the benefits achieved to date
are maintained in the future.
For topside inspection, the results have been extremely encouraging and it
is considered likely that ACFM will now be introduced into PETROBRAS
activities both on platform topside and in the refineries they operate.
References
Smith M, Underwater ACFM - Inspection Procedure, Technical Software
Consultants Limited, September 1995.
Martins MVM, Procedimento para Operacao do Detector de Trincas U21, de

Fabricacao de Firma Technical Software Consultants Limited, utilizando o
programa W AMI 4 x - PETROBRAS, junho, 1998.
Femandes J, et all Relatorio de inspecao com ACFM no E&P-RNCE -

PETROBRAS, novembro, 1998.
Martins MVM, Marques FCR, Inspecao em soldas estruturais da platforma

PETROBRAS-V (p A-16) com a tecnica ACFM - Comunicacao Tecnica
SEMEC 042/99 - PETROBRAS, marco 1999.
Marques FCR, Inspecao Estrutural Subrnarina por ACFM nas Plataformas

Mantimas do Caera, PETROBRAS, maio 1999.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Figure 1 Flow of current around a surface.
Figure 2 Screen showing typical crack like signals.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Figure 3 Schematic layout of underwater ACFM system.
Figure 4 Diver deploying an ACFM probe.
Figure 5 Gas storage sphere. Figure 6 Belt mounted portable

ACFM equipment.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Figure 7 Deployment of ACFM using a Figure 8 Automated riser i

inspection systemrope access. technician.
Figure 9 The ATI system hand deployed pin probe.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
ASTM Standard Practice Produced for the Examination

of Welds using the Current Field Measurement (ACFM) Technique
A Raine
The majority of countries have: their own standards organisations and these
organisations produce documents that have to be complied with whenever
manufacture, inspection or verification is to be carried out. In the UK this is
BSI; Germany has the DIN standard, Austria has those produced by the
Austrian Standards Organization ON and the USA has the American
National Standards Institute. ANSI. In some cases there are topics which
are not covered by National Standards; these may then be included in
European Standards (CEN) or International Standards (ISO). The current
status with British Standards is that if there is a CEN document then this has
priority over the BSI document. This rule also applies to private company
standards ie British Gas and the Electricity Board Standards ESI, because
of this representatives of these companies have been nominated on to CEN
committees through their parent National Standards Organisations for
example BSI to ensure compatibility of standards when they are produced in
Europe. Committees consisting of members nominated by their parent
NSOs are producing international Standards (ISO) and once again an
attempt is being made to ensure that these will be compatible with CEN
documents.
In some cases there are manufacturing routes and inspection techniques

that are not included in the range of European and International Standards
and in these cases these have then to be approved by some independent
body or organisation. These may he Certifying Authorities such as Lloyd’s
Register, Det Norske Veritas, Bureau Veritas, Offshore Certification Bureau,
Germanischer Lloyds, AB or TU\/.
Alan Raine has been involved in non-destructive testing since 1966, when
he worked as a metallurgist for British Steel. He left British Steel when he
was Section Manager Metallurgical Services in 1980 and joined British Gas
at the Engineering Research Station as principal Engineering the NDT
section. He remained there until 1993, spending the majority of his time in
the offshore sector until he joined Technical Software Consultants Ltd as
Business Development Manager. During his career in NDT, he has been
Chairman of the UCL Underwater NDE Centre, the Harwell Offshore
Inspection Service, the IIW Working Group 2 (NDT offshore welded
constructions) and several Group Sponsored Projects, and has been a
member of other GSPs and working groups including the European Working
Group on Acoustic Emission (EWGAE). He has a Masters Degree from
Durham University and is a Chartered Engineer and a Fellow of the British
Institute of Non-Destructive Testing. He was the recipient of BINDT’s Tony
Lager Award for 2002.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Contact: TSC Inspection Systems, 6 Mill Square, Featherstone Road,

Wolverton Mill, Milton Keynes MK12 5RB. Tel:+44 (0)1908 220 255; Fax:
+44 (0)1908 220 959.
Status of the alternating current field measurement technique

The ACFM technique is not included in any British European or International
Standards. There is an ACFM training scheme that is Lloyds approved,
producing a Certificate of Competence. The British Institute of Non-
Destructive Testing has also accredited this course. Documents have been
produced for the National PCN scheme, including specific requirements for
personnel, course syllabus, examination syllabus and details of the practical
examination samples. All of these documents have now been approved by
PCN. The Welding Institute also runs a course leading to CSWIP
certification which is issued under the authority of their Governing Board for
Certification.
The ACFM technique and procedures for its application have been
approved by various organisations in a number of countries. In the absence
of the above standards it was decided to seek approval from the various
nominated certifying bodies operating nationally. Lloyd’s Register has
approved the technique for both subsea and topside applications. Plant
Safety (A private Certifying Authority) has approved the technique for the
inspection of a large onshore gas processing plant. The ACFM technique
has been approved by Det Norske Veritas for the subsea system, the
topside system and the ROV system. The situation in Holland is that if the
technique is Lloyds approved then it will be accepted. Bureau Veritas in
France has issued an Attestation, confirming that ACFM is acceptable for
crack detection and sizing on subsea welds. OCB and Germanischer Lloyds
have also approved the technique. The technique has been included in the
ABS Guide for non-destructive Inspection of Hull Welds issued in
September 2002.
The ACFM technique is now included in the ISO Draft International

Standard for Fixed Offshore Structures 13819-2 which is the international
version of API RP2A-LRFD) section 0 In-service inspection and structural
integrity management. It is also included in IIS/IIW Document V-1097-97
(IlS/IIW-1372-97) Information on Practices for Underwater Non-Destructive
Examination, January 1998.
There is an EPRI NDT Handbook (NDT Guidelines for Fossil Fuel Plants)
which has the alternating current field measurement technique included.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
Even though all of the above has been documented, the ACFM technique is
still not present in a recognised national standard.
Development of the ASTM standard

In the late 1990s, after a meeting of the Emerging Technologies committee
at an ASNT conference, a meeting was convened by a number of interested
parties who were interested in the production of an ASTM standard for the
examination of welds using the alternating current field measurement
technique. The group consisted of representatives from the petrochemical
industry, oil and gas industries, governmental agencies and inspection
companies. The majority of those representatives were or had been users of
the technique and wanted some form of standardisation to which inspection
using this technique could be adhered.
The group also obtained the support of other representatives who could not
attend the meeting. A draft document was produced and submitted to the
group for comment. After several drafts had been produced and commented
upon, this document was submitted to ASTM in January 2001 with a request
that Subcommittee E07,01 on Electromagnetic. Methods should examine it.
The subcommittee then requested that a presentation be made on the
technique to the Subcommittee, as it was new technology to some of the
committee. The subcommittee then subjected the draft to ballot by its
members before accepting that is was ready for the Main Committee E07 on
Non-destructive Testing to ballot the draft, In January 2003 the draft was
approved by the main committee and approved for editing and publication in
February 2003. The standard practice for examination of welds using the
alternating current field Measurement Technique, Designation E2261-03
was published in April 2003.
Introduction to alternating current field measurement testing

Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) is a non-contacting
electromagnetic technique used in the inspection of welds for the detection
and characterisation of surface-breaking discontinuities in the majority of
conducting metals. It was initially used for the inspection of subsea nodal
welds on offshore structures where a technique was required to inspect the
welds with little or no cleaning prior to inspection. This technique had to be
able to characterise the discontinuities, produce a permanent record and be
able in some instances to inspect through up to 1/4" of coating. The
technique had to be shown to be as reliable as magnetic particle inspection
for detection and sizing for length, as that was the standard technique used
before ACFM was introduced. The ACFM technique was subjected to
monitored trials using a library of welds containing discontinuities which had
all been characterised using standard techniques such as magnetic particle
inspection for length and ultrasonic time-of-flight diffraction for depth. The
discontinuities were not artificial flaws that had been embedded in the welds
or artificial defects produced by slots but were all discontinuities produced
by subjecting the welds to a fatigue process. Thus the discontinuities were
natural flaws.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
The results produced from Probability of Detection trials carried out on these
welds showed that ACFM was as good, if not slightly better than magnetic
particle inspection for detection and the sizing results were within 40 mils on
length and 20 mils on depth. The magnetic particle inspection technique
used was the most sensitive using ultraviolet light and fluorescent particles
with darkened conditions. Once this confidence had been achieved the
technique was used more subsea and also became used for topside
applications. It was especially good for the inspection of duplex stainless
steel, replacing dye penetrant inspection together with the pre- and post-
cleaning operations. The technique was then introduced to the onshore
petrochemical industry and was used to inspect pressure vessels and
pipework of all shapes and forms. The applications then became more
diverse and soon the technique was being used by NASA, in theme parks,
for the inspection of bridges and underground silos as well as rail track and
rail car axles.
Development of the ACFM technique

Whereas some of the newer electromagnetic techniques have been in use
since the early 1950s, the alternating current field measurement technique
has only been around since the late 1980s or early 1990s.
Prior to the use of alternating current field measurement the alternating

current potential drop method was being used in the early 1980s to
determine crack depth. both University College and Det Norske Veritas had
developed ACPD systems. One used high currents and Iow frequency and
the other used low current and high frequency operations, the difference
being that one produced a greater skin depth or penetration into the material
under examination. Both systems used prods to inject an alternating current
into the material under test, then measured the potential drop over a fixed
distance over the crack and adjacent to the crack. It was then possible to
determine the depth of the crack (see Figure1). The industry decided it liked
the advantage of being able to measure accurately the depth of cracks but
not the disadvantages of having to clean the surface in order to inject the
current.
Figure 1 ACPD diagram.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
An induction technique was developed by University College, which used a

uniform electric field and then detection coils were produced, which would
measure the magnetic field disturbances associated with any surface-
breaking defects (Figure 2). The Wolfeson Unit at University College then
developed mathematical models in order to size these cracks. The
alternating current field measurement technique was developed. This had
the advantage over the alternating current potential drop technique in that it
was a non-contacting electromagnetic technique, where the surface did not
have to he cleaned and the system did not have to be calibrated. [n order to
do this a uniform electric field had to be produced and induced into the
material under test producing a uniform magnetic field parallel to the weld
toe. This magnetic field could he modelled and the responses from defects
also modelled eventually being able to produce accurate measurements of
defect depth.
Figure 2 Relationship between electric current, magnetic flux density on the

surface and below the surface for ACFM.
Introduction to the ACFM technique

The technique consists of the production of a uniform parallel electric field
using a probe with a specially wound coil, which is then induced into the
surface of the metal under test. A uniform magnetic field is then produced
parallel to the weld, which is in the opposite direction to that produced using
magnetic particle inspection. Two orthogonally air-wound coils located in the
probe detect any disturbances in the magnetic field associated with
discontinuities in the weld. Measurements of these disturbances are used to
detect and characterise the discontinuities. One magnetic field, the Bx. is
parallel to the weld and is sensitive to the depth of the discontinuity. The
current density associated with the discontinuity is reduced as the current
tries to flow around and beneath it and thus reduces the magnetic field
values.
The Bz magnetic field is normal to the surface at the weld toe and is
proportional to the curvature of the current at each end of the discontinuity,
one end being a clockwise movement and the other a counter-clockwise
movement producing· a negative and a positive Bz value. The distance
between these two Bz values is marked on the weld and gives the ACFM
length of the discontinuity. The location of each of the two Bz positions is
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
just inside the true length of the discontinuity. This length is then used in an
algorithm with the Bx background and the Bx minimum values to produce
the values for the depth and the true length of the discontinuity. This length
is longer than the ACFM length produced from measuring the distance
between the two Bz values. The algorithm was produced by measuring the
values of surface magnetic field disturbances from a large number of
surface-breaking discontinuities and comparing the values produced with
the lengths and depths of the discontinuities. The lengths and depths had
been measured using techniques such as magnetic particle inspection,
alternating current potential drop and time-of-flight diffraction ultrasonic
inspection.
When the scanning of the weld takes place the Bx and Bz indications are
displayed in real time on a PC screen as separate indications and as a
combined XY plot (Figure 3). This plot is independent of scanning speed
and shows which way and how the scan was carried out, how many defect
indications are present and whether the defect is longitudinal or transverse.
For longitudinal defects the XY plot normally goes downwards and for
transverse defects the XY plot goes upwards. The only time this does not
occur is if thin stainless steel or other material is being inspected which has
a thick skin depth equal to the wall thickness of the material being
inspected. If a defect is detected on the far face away from the scanning
face the Bx will go upward and so will the direction of the XY plot. If the
defect is long and shallow then the XY plot will also be long and shallow. If a
defect is detected, which is inclined to the toe of the weld either into the
parent metal or the weld metal then the XY plot will be inclined away from
the norm. This depends on whether the beginning of the defect is closer or
nearer to the nose of the probe. Thus the XY plot is very important as a
source of information to the operator when interpreting the data.
Figure 3 Bx, Bz and butterfly display for ACFM.
In comparison with eddy currents even the basic display is different

Conventional eddy current displays normally show amplitude and phase.
The ACFM technique only displays amplitude of magnetic fields along a
linear time-base. This is because the ACFM technique operates at a fixed
phase angle. With conventional eddy currents a current is passed through a
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
coil producing a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of the current.
If this coil is brought close to a conducting metal then a secondary circuit is
set up in this material. This in turn produces a secondary magnetic field,
which is in opposition to the primary field. These can be balanced to
produce a null value on a display. If there is a change in the eddy currents
flowing in the material then the secondary field will alter and· produce an
indication on the display. The change can be produced by an edge effect lift
off, change in conductivity change in permeability when moving from weld
metal to parent plate geometry changes and from a crack. Only the
presence of a crack will produce a change in the background magnetic field
values in the Bx and the Bz directions.
The ASTM standard

The standard recognised the fact that ACFM was new technology that
required specialised training and experience and that ACFM was distinct
from eddy current in the same way as remote field testing and magnetic flux
leakage. Specialised training courses are available as mentioned earlier.
The standard describes the procedure to be followed during the examination

of welds. It includes a summary and detailed description of the ACFM
practice during the examination of a weld to evaluate the weld in the area of
the toe for surface-breaking discontinuities such as fatigue cracks.
Although personnel qualifications are not specified as there are no US
schemes the standard does state that personnel should be qualified to a
nationally recognised NDT personnel qualification practice or standard or
similar document. Because this is a relatively new technique a section was
included to describe items and conditions, which may compromise the
ACFM technique.
It describes what interferences can occur so as to give the operator some

warning of what may occur on site as compared to using the technique in a
classroom. It also describes the indications that can be produced by non-
linear discontinuities.
A full description is given of the instrumentation, the probes available and

their applications as well as the displays expected from discontinuities.
There is also a section on checking the performance prior to and during the
inspection operation so as to ensure that the equipment will operate
successfully and can be demonstrated to do so in order to give confidence
to the operator. This quality control section is included to ensure that checks
can be made that the technique and the equipment are operating
satisfactorily.
Practical considerations such as a recommended scanning speed together

with an appropriate data-sampling rate are included so that the same
conditions are used in the laboratory and in the field. For short welds a
faster sampling rate can be used and for long welds a slower sampling rate
can be used. This ensures an efficient use of the data on the PC screen
display. A test is described that recognises continuous cracking so that
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
scanning does not commence on an area of the weld that contains

discontinuities.
Similarly, it is important to know the direction of scanning as this produces

recognisable indications on the display for longitudinal discontinuities.
Scanning in this manner will also give recognisable indications from
transverse discontinuities and those inclined to the weld toe. Scanning
patterns are described for longitudinal welds in Figure 4 and more complex
welds such as attachments, corners and cutouts (Figures 5 and 6).
A section describes in detail the procedure for sizing for length and depth
and a final section describes in detail the important requirements of a final
report.
Conclusions
A standard has, been produced for the ACFM technique, which has been
through the development process of the ASTM committee and balloting
stages.
Figure 4 Circumferential-scanning pattern.
Comments have been received from representatives from all areas of

industry and not until these comments or negative ballots have been
resolved has the standard been allowed to progress to the next stage of
production and finally publication.
The document is now in open circulation, making it available to inspection

companies wanting to apply the ACFM technique to all forms of weldments.
It can be used by companies who want to have It applied to their plant,

knowing that the inspection company will have to comply to the scanning
patterns and procedures, with the knowledge that any follow up work will be
carried out in the same manner.
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
The publication of the ASTM standard should introduce some conformity in

the standard of examination carried out using the ACFM inspection
technique.
It will act as a reference document for inspection companies and clients. It

could be used by other organisations such as ASNT and ASME as a
reference document.
In total it should benefit industry, as it is a National Standard.
Figure 5 Cruciform welds.
Figure 6 Scanning pattern for cruciform welds.
References
Requirements for the Certification of Personnel Engaged in the
Electromagnetic Inspection of Welds Level I and Level 2. Document No.
CSWIP-DIV-8-96. 1st Edition August 1996.
Letter to Elf Enterprise Caledonia Ltd. from Lloyd’s Register, 9th March
1993 (Confidential).
Rev 2 November 2011
Appendix B
DVR-250-94-0125-Inspecion Procedure for Manual Alternating Current Field

Measurement (ACFM ) - Sub Sea Inspection. 24th August 1994.
DVR-2S0-94-0124-lnspection Procedure for Manual Alternating Current

Field Measurement (ACFM) – Topside Inspection. 24th August 1994.
DVR-2S0-94-0126-Inspection Procedure for Alternating Current Field

Measurement (ACFM) - Underwater Arrays for ROV Deployment. 5th
September 1994.
Bureau Veritas Attestation ATA133-9S-001 rev.00. Diver and ROV deployed

single ACFM Probe. ROV deployed TSC ACFM Array. 31st August 1995.
OCB Germanischer Lloyd - Certificate of Type Approval - No: 96/EA)/015A.

ACFM Crack Microgauge for ROV Deployment. Model U9 ACFM Crack
Microgauge for use with Topsides ACFM Inspection Procedure. Model U 11
ACFM Crack Microgauge for use with Underwater ACFM Inspection
Procedure. 29th July 1996.
Guide for Non-destructive Inspection of Hull Welds. September 2002.
ISO Draft International Standard 13819-2 (International version of API

RP2A-LRFD) Section 0: In-Service Inspection and Structural Integrity
Management. Rev. D. 22nd March 1996. Page 15.
IIS/IlW Document V-1097- (IIS/IIW-I372-97). Information on Practices for

Underwater Non Destructive Examination. August 1999.
EPRI NDT Handbook (NDT Guidelines for Fossil Fuel plants) CD 108450. C
R Brett, INSIGHT Vol 39, 1997 p 613.
Probability of Detection and Sizing trials at University College London.

Reference UCL/1662WD94 doc, 25.2.94.
Coated Nodes NDT. University College London. J R Rudlin, W D Dover. A T

Smith, J Sheppard, Reference NDE/92/l35, 23.6.92.
Topside Inspection Report (Phase 1) University College London J Rudlin, J

Austin. Reference TIPRPT.DOC\3, 25.5.95.
Evaluation of Electromagnetic Non-Destructive Testing Techniques. Dr M

Pollard, A Lear The Engineering Link Reference 11363/02. December 2000.
Validation of ACFM technique - Corus Rail Technologies.13 May 2003.

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ACFM Crack Microgauge Operators Course

Training & Examination Services

ACFM Crack Microgauge Operators Course

1 Overview of NDT Techniques for Surface Crack Detection and

7 Operation of Computer Basic Commands

Overview of NDT Techniques for

1 Overview of NDT Techniques for Surface Crack

The theory of ACFM was developed at University College London, funded

Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) is a technique which can be

1.2 General overview

The areas of application of some of the commonly used methods

1.3 Visual inspection

Visual inspection gives an overall appreciation of the general condition of

1.3.1 General visual inspection (GVI)

1.3.2 Close visual inspection (CVI)

The detection capability of CVI underwater has never been measured in

The major limitations of visual inspection are:

 Can only be used to assess surface-breaking defects.

1.4 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

MPI is usually good at detection of defects and using a UV system it is able

 Easier than ACFM for assessment of craze cracking.

 Requires high level of cleaning.

1.5 Dye penetrants

 Can be used on metals and non-metals.

 Cannot be used underwater.

1.6 Electromagnetic techniques for weld inspection

 Sensitive to surface defects.

 Very susceptible to permeability changes.

 No permanent record (unless automated).

1.7 Ultrasonic testing

 Sensitive to cracks at various orientations.

 No permanent record (unless automated).

1.8 Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD)

 Can be used to assess the depth of a surface-breaking defect.

Figure 1.1 Time-of-flight diffraction.

1.9 Ultrasonic creeping wave

Angle does not

1.10 Alternating current potential difference (ACPD)

 Good for sectioning the defect.

 High cleaning standard.

TOFD assessment ACFM or ACPD

Figure 1.4 Comparison of measurements carried out by TOFD and ACFM or

Table 1.1 Comparison of NDT techniques as discussed

Basic Electricity and Magnetism

2 Basic Electricity and Magnetism

2.2 Direct current circuits

Direct current (DC) originates from a chemical source, normally a battery, or

2.3 Ohms law

2.4 Resistance ()

Resistivity rho () is measured in ohms-metres

The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity sigma () and is measured in

Conductivity is the most frequently used parameter of a material measured

2.5 Magnetic effect of electric current

2.6 Magnetic theory

Magnetic flux density in magnetic materials (B)

Flux density (B) in Tesla

Figure 2.1 The hysteresis loop.

1 Material in the unmagnetised state.

2 Maximum flux density achieved in one direction (saturated).

3 Retentivity point (shows residual flux density).

6 The second point of retentivity.

7 The second point of coercive force.

 Virgin curve (cannot be repeated once the material has been

 Coercive force (measure of the amount of external magnetising force of