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4: ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
4.1 Analog instruments
Analogue measuring instruments are those that show the measuring by
means of a moving pointer or reed that moves along a graduated scale
(Fig.4.1). These types of measuring instruments are the ones used, due to
their performance, measuring accuracy and price. Their use is very
important for power control switching and distribution panels within
electrical installations.
Fig.4.1 Analog instruments
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A series of symbols that define the main features of the instrument can be
seen at the lower part of the graduated scale.
Analogue meters are relatively simple and inexpensive and are often used
instead of digital instruments, especially when cost is of particular concern.
Whilst digital instruments have the advantage of greater accuracy and much
higher input impedance, analogue instruments suffer less from noise and
isolation problems. In addition, because analogue instruments are usually
passive instruments that do not need a power supply, this is often very useful
in measurement applications where a suitable mains power supply is not
readily available. Many examples of analogue meter also remain in use for
historical reasons. Analogue meters are electromechanical devices that drive
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a pointer against a scale. They are prone to measurement errors from a
number of sources that include inaccurate scale marking during
manufacture, bearing friction, bent pointers and ambient temperature
variations. Further human errors are introduced through parallax error (not
reading the scale from directly above) and mistakes in interpolating between
scale markings. Quoted inaccuracy figures are between ±0.1% and ±3%.
Various types of analogue meter are used as discussed below.
4.1.2 Moving‐coil meters
A moving‐coil meter is a very commonly used form of analogue voltmeter
because of its sensitivity, accuracy and linear scale, although it only responds
to d.c. signals. As shown schematically in Fig. 4.2, it consists of a rectangular
coil wound round a soft iron core that is suspended in the field of a
permanent magnet.
Fig.4.2 Moving‐coil meter
The signal being measured is applied to the coil and this produces a radial
magnetic field. Interaction between this induced field and the field produced
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by the permanent magnet causes a torque, which results in rotation of the
coil. The amount of rotation of the coil is measured by attaching a pointer to
it that moves past a graduated scale. The theoretical torque produced is
given by:
Where:
B: Flux density of the radial field
I: Current flowing in the coil
h: Height of the coil
w: Width of the coil
N: Number of turns in the coil
If the iron core is cylindrical and the air gap between the coil and pole faces
of the permanent magnet is uniform, then the flux density B is constant, and
equation above can be rewritten as:
i.e. the torque is proportional to the coil current and the instrument scale is
linear. As the basic instrument operates at low current levels of one milliamp
or so, it is only suitable for measuring voltages up to around 2 volts. If there
is a requirement to measure higher voltages, the measuring range of the
instrument can be increased by placing a resistance in series with the coil,
such that only a known proportion of the applied voltage is measured by the
meter. In this situation the added resistance is known as a shunting resistor
(Fig.4.3).
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Fig.4.3 Shunting a resistor to measure higher voltages
Whilst Fig. 4.2 shows the traditional moving‐coil instrument with a long U‐
shaped permanent magnet, many newer instruments employ much shorter
magnets made from recently developed magnetic materials such as Alnico
and Alcomax. These materials produce a substantially greater flux density,
which, besides allowing the magnet to be smaller, has additional advantages
in allowing reductions to be made in the size of the coil and in increasing the
usable range of deflection of the coil. Some versions of the instrument also
have either a specially shaped core or specially shaped magnet pole faces to
cater for special situations where a non‐linear scale such as a logarithmic one
is required.
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5.1.3 Moving‐iron meter
As well as measuring d.c. signals, the moving‐iron meter can also measure
a.c. signals at frequencies up to 125 Hz. It is the cheapest form of meter
available and, consequently, this type of meter is also commonly used for
measuring voltage signals. The signal to be measured is applied to a
stationary coil, and the associated field produced is often amplified by the
presence of an iron structure associated with the fixed coil. The moving
element in the instrument consists of an iron vane that is suspended within
the field of the fixed coil. When the fixed coil is excited, the iron vane turns
in a direction that increases the flux through it. The majority of moving‐iron
instruments are either of the attraction type or of the repulsion type. A few
instruments belong to a third combination type. The attraction type, where
the iron vane is drawn into the field of the coil as the current is increased, is
shown schematically in Fig. 4.4(a). The alternative repulsion type is sketched
in Fig. 4.4(b).
Fig.4.4 Moving‐iron meter: (a) attraction type, (b) repulsion type
For an excitation current I, the torque produced that causes the vane to turn
is given by:
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Where
M is the mutual inductance and ԕ is the angular deflection. Rotation is
opposed by a spring that produces a backwards torque given by:
At equilibrium, T = Ts and ԕ is therefore given by:
The instrument thus has a square‐law response where the deflection is
proportional to the square of the signal being measured, i.e. the output
reading is a root‐mean‐squared (r.m.s.) quantity. The instrument can
typically measure voltages in the range of 0 to 30 volts. However, it can be
modified to measure higher voltages by placing a resistance in series with it,
as in the case of moving coil meters. A series resistance is particularly
beneficial in a.c. signal measurements because it compensates for the effect
of coil inductance by reducing the total resistance/inductance ratio, and
hence measurement accuracy is improved. A switchable series resistance is
often provided within the casing of the instrument to facilitate range
extension. However, when the voltage measured exceeds about 300 volts, it
becomes impractical to use a series resistance within the case of the
instrument because of heat‐dissipation problems, and an external resistance
is used instead.
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4.1.4 Electrodynamic meters
Electrodynamic meters (or dynamometers) can measure both d.c. signals
and a.c. signals up to a frequency of 2 kHz. As illustrated in Fig. 5.4, the
instrument has a moving circular coil that is mounted in the magnetic field
produced by two separately wound, series‐connected, circular stator coils.
The torque is dependent upon the mutual inductance between the coils and
is given by:
Where:
I1 & I2: Currents flowing in the fixed and moving coils
M: Mutual inductance
ԕ: Angular displacement between the coils
When used as an ammeter, the measured current is applied to both coils.
The torque is thus proportional to current2. If the measured current is a.c.,
the meter is unable to follow the alternating torque values and it displays
instead the mean value of current2. By suitable drawing of the scale, the
position of the pointer shows the squared root of this value, i.e. the r.m.s.
current. Electrodynamic meters are typically expensive but have the
advantage of being more accurate than moving‐coil and moving‐iron
instruments.
Voltage, current and power can all be measured if the fixed and moving coils
are connected appropriately. When used for voltage measurement, the
instrument can typically measure voltages in the range of 0 to 30 volts.
However, it can be modified to measure higher voltages by placing a
resistance in series with it, as in the case of moving‐coil and moving‐iron
meters. Also, as in the moving‐iron meter, a series resistance is particularly
beneficial in a.c. signal measurements because it compensates for the effect
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of coil inductance by reducing the total resistance/inductance ratio, and
hence measurement accuracy is improved. This series resistance can either
be inside or outside the instrument case, as discussed above for the case of
moving‐iron meters.
Fig.4.5 Electrodynamic meter
4.1.5 Clamp‐on meters
These are used for measuring circuit currents and voltages in a non‐invasive
manner that avoids having to break the circuit being measured. The meter
clamps onto a current carrying conductor, and the output reading is
obtained by transformer action. The principle of operation is illustrated in
Fig.4.6, where it can be seen that the clamp‐on jaws of the instrument act as
a transformer core and the current‐carrying conductor acts as a primary
winding. Current induced in the secondary winding is rectified and applied
to a moving‐coil meter. Although it is a very convenient instrument to use,
the clamp‐on meter has low sensitivity and the minimum current
measurable is usually about 1 amp.
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Fig.4.6 Clamp‐on meter
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Fig.4.7 Analogue multi‐meter
4.1.7 Measuring high‐frequency signals
One major limitation in using analogue meters for a.c. voltage measurement
is that the maximum frequency measurable directly is low, 2 kHz for the
dynamometer voltmeter and only 100 Hz in the case of the moving‐iron
instrument. A partial solution to this limitation is to rectify the voltage signal
and then apply it to a moving‐coil meter, as shown in Fig. 4.8. This extends
the upper measurable frequency limit to 20 kHz. However, the inclusion of
the bridge rectifier makes the measurement system particularly sensitive to
environmental temperature changes, and non‐linearities significantly affect
measurement accuracy for voltages that are small relative to the full‐scale
value. An alternative solution to the upper frequency limitation is provided
by the thermocouple meter.
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Fig.4.8 Measurement of high‐frequency voltage signals
5.1.8 Thermocouple meter
The principle of operation of the thermocouple meter is shown in Fig. 4.9.
The measured a.c. voltage signal is applied to a small element. This heats up
and the resulting temperature rise is measured by a thermocouple. The d.c.
voltage generated in the thermocouple is applied to a moving‐coil meter.
The output meter reading is an r.m.s. quantity that varies in a non‐linear
fashion with the magnitude of the measured voltage. Very high‐frequency
voltage signals up to 50MHz can be measured by this method.
Fig.4.9 Thermocouple meter
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5.1.9 Electronic analogue voltmeters
Electronic voltmeters differ from all other forms of analogue voltmeters in
being active rather than passive instruments. They have important
advantages compared with other analogue instruments. Firstly, they have
high input impedance that avoids the circuit loading problems associated
with many applications of electromechanical instruments. Secondly, they
have an amplification capability that enables them to measure small signal
levels accurately.
The standard electronic voltmeter for d.c. measurements consists of a simple
direct coupled amplifier and a moving‐coil meter, as shown in Fig. 4.10(a).
For measurement of very low‐level voltages of a few micro‐volts, a more
sophisticated circuit, known as a chopper amplifier, is used, as shown in Fig.
4.10(b). In this, the d.c. input is chopped at a low frequency of around 250
Hz, passed through a blocking capacitor, amplified, passed through another
blocking capacitor to remove drift, demodulated, filtered and applied to a
moving‐coil meter.
Fig.4.10 D.C. electronic voltmeter: (a) simple form, (b) including chopper amplifier
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Three versions of electronic voltmeter exist for measuring a.c. signals:
• The average responding type is essentially a direct‐coupled d.c.
electronic voltmeter with an additional rectifying stage at the input.
The output is a measure of the average value of the measured voltage
waveform.
• The second form, known as a peak‐responding type, has a half‐wave
rectifier at the input followed by a capacitor. The final part of the
circuit consists of an amplifier and moving‐coil meter. The capacitor is
charged to the peak value of the input signal, and therefore the
amplified signal applied to the moving‐coil meter gives a reading of
the peak voltage in the input waveform.
• Finally, a third type is available, known as an r.m.s.‐ responding type,
which gives an output reading in terms of the r.m.s. value of the input
waveform. This type is essentially a thermocouple meter in which an
amplification stage has been inserted at the input.
4.1.10 Calculation of meter outputs for non‐standard waveforms
The examples below provide an exercise in calculating the output reading
from various types of analogue voltmeter. These examples also serve as a
useful reminder of the mode of operation of each type of meter and the form
that the output takes.
Example 4.1
Calculate the reading that would be observed on a moving‐coil ammeter
when it is measuring the current in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.11.
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Fig.4.11 Circuit for example 5.1 & 5.2.
Solution
A moving‐coil meter measures mean current.
Example 4.2
Calculate the reading that would be observed on a moving‐iron ammeter
when it is measuring the current in the circuit shown in Fig.5.11.
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Solution
A moving‐iron meter measures r.m.s. current.
Example 4.3
A dynamometer ammeter is connected in series with a 500Ω resistor, a
rectifying device and a 240V r.m.s. alternating sinusoidal power supply. The
rectifier behaves as a resistance of 200Ω to current flowing in one direction
and as a resistance of 2 kΩ to current in the opposite direction. Calculate the
reading on the meter.
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Solution
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4.1.1 D’Arsonval or Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
4.1.1.1 Basic principles
Fig.4.12 Basic principle of analog electrical instrument
Important parts of PMMC Instrument are (Fig.4.13):
• Permanent magnet with two soft iron poles
• Moving coil
• Controlling or restoring spring
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Fig.4.13 Basic D’Arsonval meter movement
When a current I flows through a one‐turn coil in a magnetic field, a force
exerted on each side of the coil as shown by the relationship below (Fig.4.14):
Fig.5.14 Force equations
Where:
L = the length of coil perpendicular to the paper (m)
I = the current flows through the coil (A)
B = Magnetic field (Tesla)
Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N
turns is given by:
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The force on each side acts at a coil diameter D, producing a deflecting
torque is given by:
The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is proportional to the
angle of deflection of the pointer:
Where K is the spring constant
For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal.
Since all quantities except θ and I are constant for any given instrument, the
deflection angle is:
Therefore the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil current.
Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear.
4.1.1.2 Galvanometer
Galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to
extremely current levels. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive
instrument with the type of center‐zero scale; therefore the pointer can be
deflected to either right or left of the zero position. The current sensitivity is
stated in μA/mm. Galvanometers are often used to detect zero current or
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voltage in a circuit rather than to measure the actual level of current or
voltage. In this situation, the instrument is referred as a null detector.
4.1.1.3 DC Ammeter
Fig.4.15 Working principle of DC Ammeter
Example 4.4:
An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Rm = 99Ω
and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Shunt resistance Rs = 1 Ω. Determine the total
current passing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25
FSD.
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Solution
Known: FSD of Im, Rm, and Rs
Example 4.5:
A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 μA and a coil resistance of 1kΩ.
Calculate the required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into
an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA and (b) FSD = 1 A.
Solution:
Known: FSD of Im, Rm
(a) FSD = 100 mA: Rs = 1.001Ω
(b) FSD = 1 A: Rs = 0.10001Ω
4.1..1.3 DC Ammeter multirange
A make‐before‐break must be used so that instrument is not left without a
shunt in parallel to prevent a large current flow through ammeter (Fig.4.16).
Fig.4.16 DC Ammeter: Multirange ammeter using switch shunts
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4.1.1.4 DC Ammeter: Ayrton shunt
Fig.4.17 DC ammeter Ayrton shunt
Example 4.6:
A PMMC instrument has a three‐resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it
to make an ammeter. The resistance values are R1 = 0.05Ω, R2 = 0.45Ω, and
R3 = 4.5Ω. The meter has Rm = 1 kΩ and FSD = 50 μA. Calculate the three
ranges of the ammeter (Fig.4.18).
Fig.4.18 Three‐resistor Ayrton
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Solution
Known: FSD of Im, Rm, R1, R2, and R3
4.1.1.5 DC Voltmeter
Fig.5.19 PMMC: DC voltmeter
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4.1.1.6 DC Voltmeter multirange
Fig.5.20 DC Voltmeter multirange
Example 4.7:
A PMMC instrument with FSD of 50 μA and a coil resistance of 1700 _ is to
be used as a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate the
required values of multiplier resistor for the circuit Fig 4.21 (a) and (b)
Fig.5.21 DC Voltmeter multiplier resistor
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Solution:
Known: FSD of Im, Rm
4.1.1.7 Ohmmeter: Voltmeter‐ammeter method
Pro and con:
• Simple and theoretical oriented
• Requires two meter and calculations
• Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter [Fig.5.22 (a)] and Current in
voltmeter [Fig.5.22 (b)]
Fig.5.22 Ohmmeter: Voltmeter‐ammeter method
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4.1.1.8 Ohmmeter: Series connection
Voltmeter‐ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications (mostly
used in Laboratory). Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one
parameter constant. Basic series ohmmeter consists of a PMMC and a series‐
connected standard resistor (R1). When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted
(Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection Rx = R1 + Rm,
and at zero defection the terminals are open‐circuited (Fig.4.23).
Fig.4.23 Ohmmeter: Series connection
4.1.1.9 Bridge circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of comparison.
That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is equal to the unknown
value.
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The standard resistor R3 can be adjusted to null or balance the circuit
(Fig.4.24).
Fig.4.24 Wheatstone bridge and balance condition
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in Wheatstone
bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity (currents per unit
defection) and internal resistance. Consider a bridge circuit under a small
unbalance condition, and apply circuit analysis to solve the current through
galvanometer (Fig.4.25).
Fig.4.25 Thévenin equivalent circuit
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Fig.4.26 Thévenin equivalent circuit analyis
Example 5.8:
Fig.4.27 shows the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance
negligible. The galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/μA and an
internal resistance of 100Ω. Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer
caused by the 5Ω unbalance in arm BC
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Solution:
The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005Ω.
Fig.4.27 Wheatstone bridge
4.2 Digital instruments
In digital instruments, the measurement process provides discontinuous
information, expressed in a number with various digits (Fig.4.28). This is the
numerical value of the parameter measured; the numerical indication is
presented throughout the time scale with a predetermined frequency. In
general, digital instruments have advanced input features when compared to
analogue instruments, for example, a higher input impedance in voltage
circuits (greater than 2 MW), with a lower consumption of energy and
higher accuracy, offering an automatic scale selection and indication of the
polarity, which is stored in the instrument and this improves the reliability
of the measurement process.
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Fig.4.28 Digital instruments
4.2.1 Digital meters
All types of digital meter are basically modified forms of the digital voltmeter
(DVM), irrespective of the quantity that they are designed to measure.
Digital meters designed to measure quantities other than voltage are in fact
digital voltmeters that contain appropriate electrical circuits to convert
current or resistance measurement signals into voltage signals.
Digital multimeters are also essentially digital voltmeters that contain several
conversion circuits, thus allowing the measurement of voltage, current and
resistance within one instrument. Digital meters have been developed to
satisfy a need for higher measurement accuracies and a faster speed of
response to voltage changes than can be achieved with analogue
instruments. They are technically superior to analogue meters in almost
every respect. However, they have a greater cost due to the higher
manufacturing costs compared with analogue meters. The binary nature of
the output reading from a digital instrument can be readily applied to a
display that is in the form of discrete numerals.
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Where human operators are required to measure and record signal voltage
levels, this form of output makes an important contribution to measurement
reliability and accuracy, since the problem of analogue meter parallax error
is eliminated and the possibility of gross error through misreading the meter
output is greatly reduced. The availability in many instruments of a direct
output in digital form is also very useful in the rapidly expanding range of
computer control applications.
Quoted inaccuracy figures are between ±0.005% (measuring d.c. voltages)
and ±2%. Additional advantages of digital meters are their very high input
impedance (10MΩ compared with 1 ‐ 20 kΩ for analogue meters), the ability
to measure signals of frequency up to 1MHz and the common inclusion of
features such as automatic ranging, which prevents overload and reverse
polarity connection etc. The major part of a digital voltmeter is the circuitry
that converts the analogue voltage being measured into a digital quantity. As
the instrument only measures d.c. quantities in its basic mode, another
necessary component within it is one that performs a.c to d.c. conversion
and thereby gives it the capacity to measure a.c. signals.
After conversion, the voltage value is displayed by means of indicating tubes
or a set of solid state light‐emitting diodes. Four‐, five‐ or even six‐figure
output displays are commonly used, and although the instrument itself may
not be inherently more accurate than some analogue types, this form of
display enables measurements to be recorded with much greater accuracy
than that obtainable by reading an analogue meter scale. Digital voltmeters
differ mainly in the technique used to effect the analogue‐to‐digital
conversion between the measured analogue voltage and the output digital
reading. As a general rule, the more expensive and complicated conversion
methods achieve a faster conversion speed. Some common types of DVM are
discussed below.
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CHAP.5 ELECTRICAL INDICATING AND TEST INSTRUMENTS
The magnitude of voltage signals can be measured by various electrical
indicating and test instruments, such as the cathode ray oscilloscope, the
digital storage oscilloscope, and meters (both analogue and digital). As well
as signal‐level voltages, many of these instruments can also measure higher‐
magnitude voltages, and this is indicated where appropriate.
5.1 Cathode ray oscilloscope
The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most versatile and useful
instrument available for signal measurement. In its basic form, it is an
analogue instrument and is often called an analogue oscilloscope to
distinguish it from digital storage oscilloscopes which have emerged more
recently. The analogue oscilloscope is widely used for voltage measurement,
especially as an item of test equipment for circuit fault‐finding, and it is able
to measure a very wide range of both a.c. and d.c. voltage signals.
Besides measuring voltage levels, it can also measure other quantities such as
the frequency and phase of a signal. It can also indicate the nature and
magnitude of noise that may be corrupting the measurement signal. The
more expensive models can measure signals at frequencies up to 500MHz
and even the cheapest models can measure signals up to 20 MHz. One
particularly strong merit of the oscilloscope is its high input impedance,
typically 1MΩ, which means that the instrument has a negligible loading
effect in most measurement situations.
Disadvantages of oscilloscopes include their fragility (being built around a
cathode ray tube) and their moderately high cost. The most important
aspects in the specification of an oscilloscope are its bandwidth, its rise time
and its accuracy. The bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies over
which the oscilloscope amplifier gain is within 3 dB of its peak value, as
illustrated in Fig.5.1. The 3 dB point is where the gain is 0.707 times its
maximum value.
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