TUVILLARA | BS PHARM
Blood Physiology
Human Physiology with Pathophysiology Lec #4
SEM2, Midterms – Charles Suarez, RPh, DMD
Lymphatic System Functions:
 Fluid Balance
o Nutrient exchange in blood – location:
capillaries
o 30L total blood volume
o 3L – interstitial fluid (outside circulation;
extracellular fluid)
o Excess is drained, if left undrained,
becomes edema (swelling due to
accumulation of interstitial fluid)
o Pedal edema – edema in pregnancy
 Lipid Absorption
o Digestion: stomach
o Absorption: small intestine
 Defense
Lymphatic Vessels
 Begin as Lymphatic Capillaries, then joins
together to form Lymphatic Vessels
 Far more permeable than blood capillaries
 Contain one-way valves
o Lacteals
 Located in the small intestine
 Specific lymphatic capillaries
found only in your small
intestine
o Chylomicrons
 Carriers
 Transports & carries
digested/processed lipids from
stomach to small intestine
o Lymph + Lipids = Chyle (dumped in
veins for nutrition
Mechanism for lymph movement through Vessels:
 Contraction of lymphatic vessels
o Highly affecting the lymphatic vessels
 Contraction of Skeletal muscles
o Can squish vessels (maipit)
 Thoracic pressure changes
o Through inspiration (expand; pressure
decreases) & expiration (compress;
pressure increases)
Lymph Nodes
 Round, oval, or bean-shaped bodies distributed
along the various lymphatic vessels (1mm-
25mm long)
 Filter lymph
 Lymphatic Trunks
o Jugular Trunk – head and neck
o Subclavian Trunk – upper limbs, sup
thoracic wall
o Bronchomediastinal Trunk – thoracic
organs, deep thoracic wall
o Intestinal Trunk – abdominal organs;
the only one not paired
o Lumbar Trunk – lower limbs
Thoracic Duct
 Drains lymph from the right side of the body
inferior to the thorax and the entire left side of
the body
 Largest lymphatic vessel
Right lymphatic duct
 Drain the right side of the head, upper-right
limb, and right thorax
 Drains whatever thoracic duct cannot drain
 Drains lymph in the internal jugular vein
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o Ring of Waldeyer – collective term for

the three tonsils

Lymph Nodes
 Lymphocytes congregate, function, and
proliferate within lymph nodes
 Approximately 450 lymph nodes
o 70 in cervival area
o 30 in axillary area
o 100 in thoracic area
o 230 in abdominoinguinal & popliteal
area (back of the knee)
 Covered by capsule
 Layers:
o Cortex – outer
o Medulla – inner
Lymphatic Tissues and Organs  Lymphatic nodules location in
 Consists primarily of lymphocytes medulla known as Lymphatic
 Lymphoid stem cells Follicles
o B-lymphocytes – antibodies
o T-lymphocytes – produce cytotoxic T- Spleen
cells (attack cells)  Graveyard of RBCs
 Contains reticular fibers, from networks that  Size of a clenched fist, located left, superior part
trap microorganism & other particles of abdominal cavity
 Filtering the fluid that passes the lymphatic  Upper left quadrant, epigastric & left
system hypochondrium region
 Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)  Has an outer (dense irregular CT) capsule
o Aggregations of nonencapsulated LT,  Two Compartments:
found beneath the lining of digestive, o White Pulp
respiratory, urinary and reproductive  Lymphatic Tissues
tracts.  many lymphocytes
o Diffuse LT, Lymphatic Nodules and o Red Pulp
Tonsils  associated with Veins, and
 Diffuse Lymphatic Tissue – contain dispersed contain splenic cords
lymphocytes, macrophages, and other cells; has  filters blood through splenic
no clear boundary; and blends with surrounding cords (networks of reticular
tissues (kalat) fibers)
 Lymphatic Nodules - dense compact  destruction of nonfunction RBC
arrangement of LT, more numerous happens
o Peyer’s Patches – aggregates of
lymphatic nodules found in your small Thymus
intestine and appendix  Bi-lobed gland, located in the superior
 Tonsils mediastinum.
o Large groups of lymphatic nodules and  Contains a capsule
diffuse lymphatic tissue located deep to  Layers: Cortex and Medulla
the mucous membranes within the  Site for the maturation of T cells (red bone
pharynx marrow – site of origination/production)
o Palatine tonsils (palate), Pharyngeal o Thymosin – hormone important for T-
Tonsils (pharynx) , Lingual Tonsils cell maturation
(posterior to the base of the tongue
o Adenoids – normal enlarged pharyngeal Immunity
tonsils
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 Ability to resist damage from foreign  Signals the macrophage

substances, such as microorganisms; harmful through binding in
chemicals, such as toxins released by microorganism
microorganisms; and internal threats  Activated C5-C9
 Innate Immunity – nonspecific resistance
o inborn; genetically determined
 Adaptive Immunity – specific resistance
o Specificity – ability to recognize a
particular substance
o Memory – ability to remember a
previous encounter with a particular
substance

Innate Immunity
Main Components:
1. Physical barriers
2. Chemical Mediators Interferon
3. Cells  Are proteins that protect the body against viral
infection.
Physical Barriers  Endogenous antivirals in the body (proteins)
 Prevent microorganisms and chemicals from  Interferon  - synthetic interferon
entering the body. They also remove  MOA:
microorganisms and other substances from the o Virus infiltrates nucleus of cell for viral
body surface in several ways replication (RNA: viral proteins)
 Skin and Mucous Membrane o Interferon is produced by cell
 Tears, Saliva, Urine, Coughing and Sneezing o Interferon attaches to plasma
membrane of a cell to alert that there is
Chemical Mediators a virus nearby, causing a production in
Complement antiviral protein
 Group of about 20 proteins that make up
approximately 10% of the globulin part of White Blood Cells
plasma Neutrophils
 C1-C9, Factors B, D, and P  First cells to enter infected tissues in large
 Complement Cascade numbers.
o MAC (Membrane Attack Complex)  For acute bacterial infection
 Activates MAC, activates C5-C9
o activation of C5-C9 Macrophages
 1st mechanism: lysis of enemy  Large phagocytic cells derived from monocytes
cell
 Pierces/perforates Basophils and Mast Cells
plasma membrane of  Play important roles in stimulating inflammation
foreign membrane  Produces antihistamine
 Influx of H2O and Na
until cell bursts Eosinophils
 2 mechanism: lysozyme
nd
 Eosinophil numbers increase in response to
 Lysozyme digests the parasitic infections.
bacterial cell wall
o Opsonization Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells)
 The process of stimulating  A type of Lymphocyte, that releasing chemicals
phagocytic activity of that damage plasma membranes and cause the
macrophage cells to lyse
o C3 – opsonids  Type of T-cells that lacks specificity & memory
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Adaptive Immunity
Recognize, respond to, and remember a particular
substance
 Antigen- substances that can stimulate adaptive
immunity
o Foreign Antigens
o Self-Antigens – for autoimmune
diseases
 Transplants – immunosuppresants (to accept
transplant)
o Prednisone - corticosteroids
 Divisions:
o Antibody-mediated Immunity – B cells
o Cell-mediated Immunity – T cells
Activation of Lymphocytes
General Principles:
1. Recognition – Lymphocytes must be able to
recognize the antigen;
2. Proliferation – after recognition, the
lymphocytes must increase in number to
destroy the antigen
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
 Occur in body fluids (plasma), effective against
extracellular antigens, such as bacteria,
protozoans, fungi, parasites and toxins.
 γ-globulin – immunoglobulins (Ig)
o IgM, IgA, IgG, IgE, IgD
o Structure: Four-polypeptide chain, two
identical heavy chains and two identical
light chains
 Variable Region – part that combines with
antigen (antigen attach/binding site
 Constant Region – can activate complement
cascade
Cell-mediated Immunity
Cytotoxic T Cells
Immunoglobulins
 IgM – Secreted during primary response
o Pentameric immunoglobulin
o Primary response (slow; onset of 3-14
days)
 1st exposure of B-cells to
recognize the antigen
 Proliferation/increase in #, half
as plasma cells; half as memory
cells
o Secondary response (fast; onset of
hours – days)
 Same antigen enters the body
 Memory B-cells recognize the
same antigen, MBC increases in
#, half plasma cells, half
memory b-cells
 Plasma cells  IgG
 IgA – Main antibody found in external
secretions
 IgG – Main form of antibody secreted during
secondary response
 IgE – Responsible for allergic reaction
o Basophils + Mast Cells + IgE = release of
antihistamine (Allergy Reaction)
 IgD – Membrane-bound Ig on surface of B Cells
 Most effective against intracellular
microorganisms through the action of cytotoxic
T cells
 Fights infection by destroying infected cells
 After T cells are activated by an antigen on the
surface of a target cell, they undergo a series of
divisions to produce cytotoxic T cells and
memory T cells
 Two main effects:
o Lyse Cells
 Protein component
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 Perforin – protein involved in

lysis of cells; same action with
C9
o Produce Cytokines
 Chemotaxis effect
 Interferon, IL, Lymphokines

Acquired Adaptive Immunity

Four Types:
1. Active Natural Immunity
 Antigens are introduced through natural
exposure.
 Caused by disease-causing microorganisms
 When a person gets sick

2. Active Acquired Immunity

 antigen is deliberately introduced into a
person’s body to stimulate the immune system
 AKA Vaccination/Immunization
 Vaccines – live attenuated (weakened)
virus/bacteria (for IgM)
o DPT
 Diptheria – Caryne bacterium
diptherinae
 Pertussis – Borgdatela
burgdoferi
 Tetanus – Clostridium tetani
o MMR
 Mumps – Mumps rubulavirus
 Measles – Rubeola
 Rubella – German measles

3. Passive Natural Immunity

 Antibodies are transferred from a mother to
her child across the placenta before birth.
 Immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA)

4. Passive Acquired Immunity

 Usually begins with vaccinating an animal. After
the animal’s immune system responds to the
antigen, antibodies are removed from the
animal and injected into the human requiring
immunity.
 Induce the disease on an animal to produce
antibodies, then antibodies are harvested for a
sick person