NUR1101 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 14 – LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

GUNGON, Shanley Sophia | BS Nursing – 157
• Pharyngeal - located near
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM the internal opening of the nasal
I. Lymphatic System cavity.
II. Functions of Lymphatic System o Adenoid - enlarged, can
III. Components of Lymphatic System interfere with normal breathing.
i. Lymphatic Organs • Lingual - posterior surface
ii. Overview of the Lymphatic System of the tongue.
iii. Immunity
iv. Cells of the Immune System
Lymph nodes
• small lumps of tissue that contain white blood cells,
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM which fight infection
Serves as a drainage of excess fluid (slow) • As lymph moves through the sinuses, phagocytic
Gets big if there are localized infections (kulani – lymph) cells remove foreign substances.
Ex. cough, sipon • The germinal centers are sites of lymphocyte
production.
Functions of Lymphatic System
1. Fluid balance
2. Fat absorption
3. Defence

Components of the Lymphatic System

Lymph
• Fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of
water and some solutes.

Lymphocytes
• Defense system → engulfing foreign body
• When lymphocytes go to lymphnodes, swelling will
happen
• Lymph nodes can swell for two common reasons: a
reaction to an infection and direct infection of the
lymph nodes.
Lymphatic capillaries
• Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to
circulatory system
• Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue spaces
• Tiny, close-ended vessels
• In most tissues
• Join to form lymphatic vessels
• Consists of simple squamous
Lymphatic vessels
• Group of lymph nodes – resembles small veins
• Where lymphatic capillaries join
• One-way valves
• When compressed, prevents the backward movement
of lymph
o Right lymphatic duct - vessels from the right upper limb
and the right half of the head, neck, chest empty.
Empties into right subclavian vein.
o Thoracic duct - collects lymph from the remaining
lymphatic vessels which do not enter the lymphatic duct.
Empties left subclavian vein.
Lymphatic Organs
Tonsils
• Form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around
nasal and oral cavities.
• Palatine - located on each side of the posterior
opening of the oral cavity.
Spleen
• Sized of a clenched fist
• not part of the connected lymphatic system, but it is
lymphoid tissue
• Located in abdomen
• helps reproduce RBC by destroying the old ones
• Filters blood
o Hemolytic disease - RBCs are destroyed
faster than they are made
o Spleenomegaly (megaly - enlargement)
• Detects and responds to foreign substances
• Serves as a blood reservoir
White pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding arteries
Red pulp - contains macrophages and RBC that connect
to veins.
Thymus gland
• near the heart, bilobed gland
• situated in the neck of vertebrates that produces T
cells for the immune system
o T cells - detect what kind of intruder enters
o B cells - battle ready → antibody
• Located in mediastinum behind the sternum
• Stop growing at age 1; At age 60 decrease in size
• Produces and matures lymphocytes
• Each lobe of thymus is surrounded by thin connective
tissue capsule.
• Trabeculae from the capsule divide each lobe into
lobules.
• Contains the lobule: cortex and medulla

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NUR1101 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 14 – LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
GUNGON, Shanley Sophia | BS Nursing – 157
o Cortex - • Found in skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract,
numerous and form urogenital tract
dark-staining areas • Can release leukotrienes
o Medulla - has
fewer lymphocytes Natural killer cells (NK cells)
• Type of lymphocyte
• Produce in red bone marrow
• Recognize classes of cells such as tumor cells or
virus infected cells
• Release chemical which lyse cells
Overview of the Lymphatic System
↑ infectious agent = ↑ fever Adaptive Immunity
Antigen – substances that stimulate adaptive immune
Immunity responses
• Ability to resist damage from foreign substances
Foreign antigens
• Immunity can protect microbes, toxins, cancer cells
• Introduced from outside the body
• Types of Immunity: Innate & Adaptive • Ex: Microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses,
chemicals
Innate Immunity Self-antigens
• present at birth • Molecules that the body produces to stimulate
• Defense against pathogens immune response
• Well mediated • Autoimmune disease – results when self-antigens
stimulate unwanted destruction of normal tissue
• Accomplished by physical barriers, chemical
mediators cells, inflammatory response
Adaptive immunity can be divided into:
Physical barriers
Antibody-mediated immunity Cell-mediated immunity
• First line of defense
• Prevent pathogens and chemicals from entering the • B cells – group of • T cells – second type
body in two ways: lymphocytes of lymphocyte
o Skin and mucous membranes act as • Antibodies – proteins • Protection against
barriers to pathogens and toxins found in plasma, intracellular antigens
o Tears, saliva, urine wash these substances derived from b cells (viruses, and
from body surfaces • Protection against intracellular bacteria)
extracellular antigens and tumors;
Chemical mediators (bacteria, toxins, and responsible for graft
• Kill microbes and prevent their entry into cells viruses) infection
• Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
• Lysozyme (enzyme)
o Found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria
• Mucous membrane –. Mucal buccosa
o Prevent entry of microbes
o Moist portion of the body
• Histamine (allergy)
o Promote inflmation by causing vasodilation
• Interferons (virus)
o Proteins that protect viral infections by
stimulating surrounding cells to produce
antiviral proteins (counterpart of
antibody)

Cells of the Immune System

White blood cells

• Produce in red bone marrow and lymphatic tissues
• Fight foreign substances

Phagocytic cells
• Ingest and destroy foreign substances
• Ex. neutrophils and macrophages

Mast cells
• Local
• Made in red bone marrow

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NUR1101 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 10 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
GUNGON, Shanley Sophia | BS Nursing – 157
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
I. Chemical Messengers Composed of endocrine glands and specialized endocrine
II. Classes of Chemical Messengers cells throughout the body.
i. Autocrine, Paracrine. Neurotransmitter, Endocrine glands - Release hormones into their
Endocrine surroundings. They have no special ducts to carry things away
III. Endocrine System Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry whatever is secreted
i. Functions into a body opening or body surface.
ii. Hormones
iii. Parts Functions of the Endocrine System

1. Metabolism
Chemical Messengers 1. Control of food intake and digestion
• Allows cells to communicate with each other to 2. Tissue development
regulate body activities. 3. Ion regulation
4. Water balance
• Most chemical messengers are produced by a
5. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
specific collection of cells/gland.
6. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
Classes of Chemical Messengers 7. Control of reproductive functions
8. Uterine contractions and milk release
Autocrine 9. Immune system regulation
• is the self-communication in the
autocrine cells, i.e., with itself. The endocrine system
• cell signal released from the cell consists of:
binds to the same cell 1. Hypothalamus
• Target cells are the signal- 2. Pituitary
producing cells 3. Pineal gland
• Ex.Eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thomboxanes, 4. Thyroid
prostacyclins, leukotrienes) 5. Parathyroid
6. Thymus
Paracrine 7. Adrenals
• Produced by a wide variety of tissues and secreted 8. Pancreas (islets)
into extracellular fluid 9. Ovaries
• Local messengers 10. Testes
• Target cells are the neighboring cells
• cell-to-cell communication with adjacent cells.
Hormones
• move by diffusion through the extracellular matrix.
• secreted by endocrine glands and cells into the
• Ex. Somatostatin, histamine, eicosanoids bloodstream
• travel through the general blood circulation to target
tissues.
• Regulate almost all physiological process in the body
• Hormones fit into two categories: lipid-soluble and
Neurotransmitter water soluble hormones.
• Also called chemical transmitter
• Produced by neurons to activate an adjacent cell Water soluble hormone Lipid soluble hormone
• Secreted into synaptic cleft rather than the • Hydrophilic • Lipophilic
bloodstream • Polar • Non-polar
• Their job is to carry chemical signals (“messages”) • Dissolve in water • Dissolve in fats rather
from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next target cell. (rather than oils / fats) than in water
• Body cannot function without neurotransmitter • Are formed from amino • Are usually formed from
• Ex. Acetylcholine, epinephrine acids cholesterol
• Cannot pass through • can pass through cell
Endocrine the target cell membranes
• Secreted into the blood by specialized cells membranes (which • Affect cells by binding
• Travels distance to target tissues include fatty to receptors inside the
• Affect cells that are distant from their source components). target cell.
• Results in coordinated regulation of cell function • Affect cells by binding
• Ex. Thyroid hormones, growth hormones, insulin, to receptors on the
epinephrine, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone surface of the target
cell

Pituitary and Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland
• divided into anterior and posterior (stems off the
hypothalamus)
• “master gland” – controls the function of so many
other glands

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NUR1101 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 10 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
GUNGON, Shanley Sophia | BS Nursing – 157
• Hyperparathyroidism – abnormal high rate of PTH
Hypothalamus – makes hormones • Hypoparathyroidism – abnormal now rate of PTH

Anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) Thymus gland

• makes its own hormones • Shrink down and is not active during adulthood
• made up of epithelial cells derived from embryonic • Site of T cell maturity before puberty
oral cavity • Makes thymosin – stimulate the making T cells

Hormones Secreted Adrenal gland

growth hormone (GH) encourages the liver to • Superior to each kidney
release insulin-like growth • Has two major parts: Adrenal medulla and adrenal
factor 1 (IGF-1), cortex

IGF-1 Adrenal medulla

• thickens and elongates • Inner part
bones. • Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and
• grows muscle and noepinephrine – involved in fight or flight
reduces fat storage.
• Preapare the body for intense physical activity
Prolactin (PRL) producing milk from
mammary glands • Major effects of hormones released from adrenal
Thyroid-stimulating production of the thyroid medulla are:
hormone (TSH) hormones: thyroxine (T4) 1. Release of stored energy sources to support
and triiodothyronine (T3), increased physical activity
stimulate and maintain 2. Increased heart rate = rises blood pressure
metabolism; growth and 3. Increased smooth muscle contraction in internal
development organ and skin blood vessels which also raises
Follicle stimulating stimulates gonads to make blood pressure
hormone (FSH) gametes (development of
follicles in the ovaries) Adrenal Cortex
• Secretes three classes of steroid hormones:
Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates androgen mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens
production by gonads; • Secretes mineralocorticoids (first class)
ovulation, secretion of o Ex. Aldosterone (major hormone) –
progesterone reabsorption of calcium and secretion of
Adrenocorticotropic Stimulates hormone release potassium
(ACTH) by adrenal cortex
• Secretes glucocorticoids (second class)
Melanocyte-stimulating stimulates melanocytes of
o Ex. Cortisol (major hormone) – increase
hormone (MSH) the skin increasing melanin
blood glucose levels and plays major roles
pigment production.
stress and inflammation
Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
• does not make its own hormones Pancreas
• extension of the brain, composed of nerve cells • The pancreas (islets) consists of three cell types:
• holds onto them then secretes the hormones alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells
• secrete oxytocin – important for uterine contractions • Alpha cells: Glucagon – increase blood glucose
levels
• secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – stimulates
kidneys to reabsorb water o Stimulate liver to convert its glycogen to
glucose
Pineal gland • Beta Cells: Insulin – reduce blood glucose levels
• Secretes melatonin – helps regulate circadian rhythm • Delta cells – secrete somatostatin
(sleep-wake cycle) • Gonads:
Ovaries Testes
Thyroid gland Estrogen – promotes uterine Androgens
• Made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band lining growth and female ex. Testosterone
called isthmus secondary sex characteristics help in sperm cell
• Lobes are connected to each side of the trachea Progesterone - promotes Testosterone production
• One of the largest endocrine glands uterine lining growth and keeps and male secondary sex
• Main function: secrete thyroid hormones – regulate it maintained for fetal characteristics
rate of metabolism development
o thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
• Calcitonin – lower blood calcium level Note: estrogen, progesterone, and androgens are present in
all individuals.
Parathyroid gland Higher concentration in females – estrogen, progesterone
• In the posterior wall of the thyroid gland Higher concentration in males – androgens
• Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) – raises blood
calcium levels

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CHAPTER 10 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
GUNGON, Shanley Sophia | BS Nursing – 157

REFERENCES:

28.1 Types of Hormones | Texas Gateway. (n.d.).

https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/281-types-
hormones

Biology Online. (2022, June 13). Autocrine signaling -

Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary.
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Betts, J. G. (2022, April 20). 17.2 Hormones - Anatomy and

Physiology 2E | OpenStax.
https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-
2e/pages/17-2-hormones

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). The Pancreas, Pineal Gland, and

Gonads | Biology for Majors II.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-
biology2/chapter/the-pancreas-pineal-gland-and-
gonads/

Neurotransmitters (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic.

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22513-
neurotransmitters

Thyroid stimulating hormone | You and Your Hormones from

the Society for Endocrinology. (n.d.).
https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/thyroid-
stimulating-hormone/

Too much of a good thing: the health risks of human growth

hormone (2023, September 1). Therapeutic Goods
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https://www.tga.gov.au/news/blog/too-much-good-
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Water-Soluble vs Fat-Soluble Hormones. (n.d.).

https://www.ivyroses.com/HumanBody/Endocrine/Hor
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The rest of the information are from Seeley’s book and

from the discussion

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