ANA101 ( L E C ) |1
ANA LEC FINAL TERM
LESSON: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Topic 1: The Lymphatic System (Lecture)
Topic 2: Body Defenses and Homeostatic Imbalances (Laboratory)
Topic 1 objectives:
 Identify the functions and importance of the lymphatic system in
the human body
 Describe the anatomy of the lymphatic system.
 Name the accessory organs of the lymphatic system.
Pre-activity
 The lymphatic system plays a significant role in maintaining fluid
balance in the body
o o
 Lymphatic vessels are type of blood vessels that carry lymph
through the body
o 2. Lymph veins
 Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph
and remove harmful substances
o
 The spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system, and it is
involved in filtering blood and removing damaged blood cells
o is clear water, and transfer it back to the bloodstream.
 The thymus gland is involved in the production of digestive
enzymes.
INTRODUCTION
 The lymphatic system is a vital and often overlooked component
of the human body, serving as a critical part of the immune system
and essential for maintaining overall health
 Comprising a network of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
various lymphoid organs, this system plays a crucial role in
filtering harmful substances, fighting infections, and facilitating
fluid balance within the body
OTHER FUNCTIONS
 Lymphatic vessels transport lymph, a clear fluid containing
immune cells, throughout the body,.
 collecting excess fluid and waste products from tissues
 and returning them to the bloodstream
 Lymph nodes, small bean-shaped structures distributed along the
lymphatic vessels,
o act as filters, trapping and removing pathogens, bacteria,
and other foreign particles to activate the body's immune
response
 The lymphatic system also includes key organs such as the
spleen, thymus gland, tonsils, and adenoids, each contributing to
specific immune functions.
o The spleen
 filters blood ,
 removes damaged blood cells, and
 stores platelets
o the thymus gland
 plays a crucial role in the development and maturation
of T-cells, essential immune cells that help protect
against infections
NOTE:
 This intricate network of lymphatic vessels and organs works
tirelessly
o to defend the body from harmful invaders,
o Maintaining a delicate balance between immunity and fluid
regulation.
 Understanding the lymphatic system's functions and importance
can provide valuable insights into human health and the body's
defense mechanisms against diseases and infections
A. THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Through Lymphatic vessels and Capillaries:
 The lymphatic system carries a fluid called lymph.
 The lymphatic system carries a fluid called lymph
What are the organs of the lymphatic system?
1. Lymph
3. Lymph nodes
4. Tonsils
5. Spleen
6. Thymus gland
7. Peyer’s patches in the intestine make up the system
How the blood and cardiovascular system are connected with the
lymphatic system?
 Both systems use a network of lymphatic capillaries and
lymphatics, which transport essential fluids throughout the body.
 Eventually, this lymph returns to the blood from where it came.
 Our lymphatic system is crucial to our ability to control and
eradicate a vast number of bacteria that can infect our bodies and
lead to sickness and even death in addition to fluid regulation
 The lymphatic system consists of four organs,
 lymph channels, and lymph nodes.
 The spleen,
 thymus gland,
 vermiform appendix,
 Peyer's patches are the organ
Two Distinct Components:
1. Lymphatic vessel network that is rambling.
2. There are several lymphoid organs and tissues dispersed
throughout the body.
 Fluids that have escaped from the blood vascular system are
returned to the blood by the lymphatic vessels.
 Phagocytic cells and lymphocytes
Lymphoid Organs:
 The immune system includes it. Additionally, it helps the body
absorb fats and nutrients with a high fat content.
 Involves a vast network of vessels that traverses nearly all of our
tissues in order to permit the circulation of a fluid known as
lymph.
Example: person AA
Anyone with swollen glands ought to visit a physician.
 if the swelling persists,
 if nodes are stiff, rubbery, or challenging to move.
 If you have a fever,
 Unaccounted-for weight loss, or
 Problems with breathing or swallowing.
Major Functions: Lymph Nodes
 Guards the body from foreign objects.
 Aids in blood flow between cells and the body's fluid balance, or
homeostasis
 Aids in the digestive system's ability to absorb fats and nutrients
that are fat-soluble
 The system has unique, tiny vessels known as lacteals. These
allow it to absorb fats and nutrients from the intestines that are
fat-soluble.
They work with the capillaries in the small intestine's
folded surface membrane.
The Two Semi-Independent Parts of the Lymphatic System
1. Lymphatic vessels
 Return fluids to the blood that have escaped from the blood
vascular system.
 Its job is to collect extra tissue fluid, also known as lymph, which

Referred to as lymphatics, this system only allows lymph to travel
in one direction— toward the heart
2. Lymphoid Tissues and Organs

Phagocytic cells and lymphocytes, which are crucial for the
body's defense and disease resistance, are housed in the lymphoid
organs.

It also has a significant impact on the immunological system,
fluid balance, and fat and fat-soluble nutrition absorption
 As lymph veins remove fluid from body tissues, foreign
substances can be transported to lymph nodes where immune
system cells can analyze them
Facts about the Lymphatic System
Swollen Nodes
 In reaction to infection, the lymph nodes expand as a result of an
accumulation of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms, as well
as immune system cells.
 Lymphadenitis, a condition in which lymph nodes get infected,
is another possibility.
 Visit a doctor if your lymph nodes continue to swell, if your skin
feels hard and rubbery, or if you have other symptoms
B. ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
1. Lymphatic System
 Is made up of tissues such as lymph nodes, ducts, and vessels.
 Every day, the cardiovascular system leaks about 2 liters of fluid
into bodily tissues.
 These fluids, or lymph, are collected by a network of vessels.
 Blood plasma is the source of lymph, a transparent fluid.
 ANA101 ( L E C ) |2

2. The Lymph Vessels
 Create a branching network that reaches the majority of the body's
tissues.
 They function in a manner similar to that of blood vessels.
 In order to return fluid from the tissues, the lymph vessels
collaborate with the veins.
 When we utilize our muscles, unlike blood, the lymphatic fluid is
squeezed through the vessels rather than pumped.
 The characteristics of the valves and the wall of the lymph vessel
aid in regulating the flow of lymph. However, lymphatic tubes
have valves inside them, just like veins, to prevent fluid from
going backward.
 Lymph
o Drained progressively towards larger vessels until it reaches
the two main channels, like the lymphatic ducts in our trunk
3. The Lymph Nodes
 Lymph nodes are a juncture where vessels branch.
 Despite frequently being called "glands," these structures are not
real glands because they are not a member of the endocrine
system.
 Immune cells scan the body for alien substances like bacteria,
viruses, or fungi.
 The body's tissues include more than only lymphatic tissues.
Including:
o The tonsils
o Spleen
o Thymus gland are also lymphatic tissues.
4. The Tonsils
 Situated in the mouth's rear.
 Create antibodies and lymphocytes, a subset of white blood cells.
 They are in an advantageous position, dangling from a ring that
forms the intersection of the mouth and throat
 Allows them to defend against swallowed and inhaled foreign
objects.
 Tonsillitis affects the tissues in the tonsils.
 Inflammation of the tonsils
5. The Spleen
 Although it is a lymphoid tissue, it is not similarly related to the
lymphatic system as lymph nodes are.
 This contributes to the creation of white blood cells, which are a
component of the immune system.
 Its primary function is to filter the blood, removing bacteria as
well as old, damaged red blood cells and platelets.
 Because the B cell lymphocytes of the immune system develop
here, it is thought to be a component of the lymphatic system.
8. Liver of a Fetus
 Because it aids in the formation of lymphocytes, a fetus' liver is
viewed as a component of the lymphatic system throughout
gestation.
9. Peyer’s Patches
 Look like tonsils present in the small intestine's wall.
 Peyer's patches' macrophages are perfectly situated to seize and
eliminate germs.
 The Peyer's patches and tonsils are a subset of the Mucosa-
Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT), a group of the tiny
lymphoid tissues.
 MALT guards against foreign invaders' relentless assault on the
upper respiratory and digestive systems.
C. MAJOR FUNCTIONS
1. Fluid Balance
 Preserves fluid equilibrium.
 It returns extra fluid and proteins from the tissues that the blood
vessels are unable to return.
 The fluid, often referred to as interstitial fluid, is found in cavities
and tissue gaps around cells.
 The tiniest blood and lymph capillaries can access these.
 The venous capillaries and veins return around 90% of the plasma
from arterial blood capillaries that enters tissues.
 The lymphatics empty the final 10% back into the body.
 About 2 to 3 liters are returned daily. Large proteins in this fluid
prevent them from traveling through blood arteries.
2. Absorption
 The lymphatic system has specially modified a portion of the gut
membrane in the small intestine to receive the majority of the fats
absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.
 The microscopic lacteal cells that are a component of the villi in
this area of the intestine.
 The microscopic folds in the gut's absorbent surface, known as
the villi, produce these projecting projections that resemble
fingers.
 By absorbing lipids and fat-soluble vitamins, lacteals create
chyle, a milky-white fluid.
 Emulsified fats, or free fatty acids, and lymph are both present in
this fluid. When it enters the venous blood circulation, it
indirectly distributes nutrients.
 Blood capillaries directly absorb other nutrients.
 Nevertheless, despite these protections, viruses frequently
manage to infiltrate the body.
 In this instance, our immune system can react appropriately
thanks to the lymphatic system.
 These microorganisms, or pathogens, can be dangerous and even
lethal if the immune system is unable to combat them.
4. Waste Removal
 Lymph nodes filter lymph to remove foreign particles, pathogens,
and cellular debris. This process helps to cleanse the lymph before
it is returned to the bloodstream.
Summary
The lymphatic system is a crucial part of the body's circulatory and
immune systems, working to maintain fluid balance, transport immune
cells, and remove waste and toxins from tissues. Here's a summary of
the key points about the lymphatic system:
 The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, lymphatic organs (spleen, thymus, and tonsils), and
lymphatic tissue scattered throughout the body. Lymphatic
vessels are similar to blood vessels but carry a clear fluid called
lymph
The following functions such as
 Fluid Balance: Lymphatic vessels collect excess tissue fluid
(interstitial fluid) that leaks out from blood capillaries. This fluid,
now called lymph, is returned to the bloodstream, preventing
tissue swelling (edema).
 Immune Response: The lymphatic system transports immune
cells, such as lymphocytes and macrophages, which play a crucial
role in defending the body against infections and diseases.
 Waste Removal: Lymph nodes filter lymph to remove foreign
particles, pathogens, and cellular debris. This process helps to
cleanse the lymph before it is returned to the bloodstream

3. IMMUNE SYSTEM
6. The Thymus Gland  Protect the body from harmful organisms; without this, an illness
 An endocrine gland and lymphatic organ located behind the would kill us very quickly.
sternum.  Our bodies are continually exposed to microbes that could be
 It secretes hormones and plays a key role in immunological T cell dangerous,
development, maturation, and differentiation. o Including diseases.
 It participates in the immune system's development from  The initial line of defense for the body consists of:
conception through childhood o Natural barriers like the skin.
o Toxic defenses, such as the stomach's acidic contents.
7. The Bone Marrow o "Friendly" microorganisms in the body
 ANA101 ( L E C ) |3

LESSON: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM o Mouth 5. The food is digested in the small intestine
Topic 1: The Digestive System Overview (lecture) o Esophagus  It is dissolved by the juices from the pancreas, liver, and
Topic 2: Functions of the Digestive System (lecture) o Stomach intestines
Topic 3: Anatomy of the Digestive System (Laboratory) o Small intestine  The contents of the intestine are mixed nad pushed forward
o Large intestine (Colon and rectum to allow further digestion.
Topic objectives: o Anus
 Describe the overview of the digestive system  Organs that help with digestion, but are not part of the digestive 6. Last, the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal
 Explain the digestive work process tract: walls
 Name the organs of the digestive tract and other organs that aid
o Tongue  The waste products, including undigested parts of the food
o Glands in the mouth that make saliva (fiber) and older cells that have been shed from the lining of
in digestion
o Pancreas the intestine (mucosa) move into the colon.
o Liver  Waste products in the colon often remain for a day or two
INTRODUCTION
o Gall bladder until the feces are expelled by a bowel movement
The Digestive System
The organs of the Digestive System can be separated into two main  Parts of other organ systems, such as nerves and blood, also play
groups: a major role in the digestive process. The process of food digestion
 Forming the alimentary canal
HOW DOES FOOD MOVE THROUGH THE DIGESTIVE
 Accessory organs
SYSTEM?
 Muscles propel food and liquid along the digestive tract in a
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
wave-like movement.
 Performs the whole menu of digestive functions:
 This movement is called peristalsis.
o Ingestion
o Digestion  In general there are 6 steps in the process of moving food and
o Absorption liquid through the digestive system:
o Defecation
 The accessory organs assist the process of digestive breakdown THE 6 STEPS OF FOOD AND LIQUID MOVED THROUGH
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
in various ways:
1. the first step in the digestive process in the mouth
o Teeth
o Tongue  this is where food is chewed and broken down into a size
o Several large digestive glands that can be safely swallowed
 the start of swallowing food or liquid is voluntary
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW  But once it begins, the process becomes involuntary and
What is digestion? continues under the control of the nerves.
 Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of
nutrients to be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells 2. The esophagus connects the throat above with the stomach below
throughout the body.  It is the first organ into which the swallowed food goes.
 It is the process by which food and liquid are broken down into
smaller parts. 3. The esophagus and stomach join. There is a ring-like valve that
 The body can then use them to build and nourish cells and to make closes the passage between two (2) orgnas
energy.  When food nears the closed ring, the surrounding muscles
relax and allow the food to pass into the stomach
HOW DOES THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS WORK?  Then closes again
Digestion involves:
• The mixing of food 4. the food then enters the stomach
• The movement of food through the digestive tract  the stomach completes three (3) mechanical tasks: stores,
• A chemical breakdown of large molecules of food into mixes, and empties
smaller molecules  first, the stomach stores the swallowed food and
Digestion begins in the mouth, where food and liquids are taken in. liquid. This needs the muscle of the upper part of the
It is completed in the small intestine. stomach to relax and accept large volumes of
swallowed material
What is included in the Digestive System?  second, the lower part of the stomach mixes up the
 The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract and other food, liquid, and digestive juices made by the stomach
organs that aid in digestion. through muscle action
 The digestive tract is series of hollow organs joined in a long,  third, the stomach empties the contents into the small
twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. It consist of the intestines.
following:
 ANA101 ( L E C ) |4

LESSON: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Topic 1: The Digestive System Overview (lecture)
Topic 2: Functions of the Digestive System (lecture)
Topic 3: Anatomy of the Digestive System (Laboratory)
Topic objectives:
 Identify the major functions of the digestive system
 Explain and describe the major functions of the digestive
system
5. Absorption
 Transport of digested end products from the lumen of the
GI tract to the blood or lymph is absorption
 For absorption to occur, the digested foods must first enter
the mucosal cells by active or passive transport processes.
 The small intestine is the major absorptive site.
6. Defecation
 It is the elimination of the indigestible substances from the
body via the anus in the form of feces.
immune system function. Proper digestion helps maintain
a healthy balance of gut microbiota.
In summary, the proper process of digestion is essential for
nutrient absorption, energy production, cellular repair, immune system
support, metabolic regulation, waste elimination, and the prevention of
digestive disorders. A healthy digestive system contributes to overall
physical well-being and helps maintain a balanced and functional body.

OVERVIEW OF GASTROINTESTINAL PROCESSES AND IMPORTANCE OF THE PROPER PROCESS OF DIGESTION

CONTROLS
The Digestive System
 The major functions of the digestive tract are usually summarized
in two words: digestion and absorption
 The essential activities of the GI tracts include the following
processes: ingestion, propulsion, food breakdown: chemical
digestion, absorption, defecation
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Ingestion
 Food must be placed into the mouth before it can be acted
on
 This is an active, voluntary process
2. Propulsion
 If foods are to be processed and more than one digestive
organ, they must be propelled from one organ to the next.
 Swallowing is an example of food movement that depends
largely on the propulsive process called peristalsis
 Peristalsis is involuntary movement and involves
alternating waves of contractions and relaxation of the
muscles in the organ wall. The net effect is to squeeze the
food along the tract.
 Segmentation may help to propel food stuffs through the
small intestine. It normally moves back and forth across the
internal wall of the organ. Serving to mix it with the
digestive juices.
 One of the example of mechanical digestion
3. Food breakdown: mechanical digestion
Physical process
 Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
 Churning of food in the stomach
 Segmentation in the small intestine
 Mechanical digestion prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes
4. Food breakdown: chemical digestion
 The sequence of steps in which large foods molecules are
broken down to their building blocks by enzymes (protein
molecules that acts as catalysts.)
 Carbohydrates:
- Monosaccharide
- Disaccharide
- Polysaccharide
 Proteins are broken down to amino acids
The proper process of digestion is crucial for maintaining
overall health and well-being. Digestion is the process by which the
body breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used for
energy, growth, and repair.
1. Nutrient absorption
 Digestion is necessary for breaking down complex food
molecules into smaller, absorbable nutrients such as
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
These nutrients are essential for various physiological
functions in the body, including energy production, tissues
repair, and the maintenance of overall health.
2. Energy production
 The body requires a constant supply of energy to perform
its functions. Proper digestion ensures that carbohydrates
are broken down into glucose, which can be absorbed into
the bloodstream and used for energy by cells through the
body.
3. Cellular repair and growth
 Proteins are essential for the repair and growth of cells,
tissues, and organs. Digestion breaks down dietary proteins
into amino acids, which are then used to build and repair
various structures in the body.
4. Immune system support
 The digestive system plays a crucial role in supporting the
immune system. A significant portion of the immune
system is located in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue
(GALT). Proper digestion helps prevent the entry of
harmful pathogens through the digestive tract and supports
the production of antibodies.
5. Metabolic regulation
 The digestive process influences metabolic activities in the
body. For example, the absorption of nutrients regulates
blood sugar levels, and proper digestion is important for
maintaining a balanced metabolism.
6. Elimination of waste
 The digestive system not only absorbs nutrients but also
eliminates waste products from the body. The proper
functioning of the digestive system ensures the efficient
removal of indigestible substances and metabolic
byproducts.
7. Maintaining gut microbiota
 The gut is home to a diverse community of microorganisms
known as the gut microbiota. These microorganisms play
a crucial role in digestion, nutrient absorption, and

LESSON: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Topic 1: Functions of the Endocrine (Lecture)
Topic 2: the major organs of the endocrine system (laboratory)
Topic 3: other hormone producing organs and tissues of the endocrine
system (lecture)
Topic objectives:
 Name the two major mechanisms of actions of hormones
 Describes the chemistry of hormones
 Identify the major functions of the endocrine system
INTRODUCTION
The Endocrine System
 Compared to other organs of the body, the organs of the endocrine
system are small and unimpressive.
 Homeostasis depends on the precise regulation of the organs and
organ systems of the body.
 The nervous and endocrine systems are the two major systems
responsible for that regulation.
 The regulatory functions of the nervous and endocrine system
are similar in some respects, but they differ in other important
ways.
 The nervous system controls the activity of tissues by sending
action potentials along axons, while the endocrine system
releases chemical signals into the circulatory system.
 Together they regulate and coordinate the activity of nearly all
other body structures.
 When these systems fail to function properly, homeostasis is not
maintained.
 Failure of some component of the endocrine system to function
can result in diseases such as diabetes mellitus or Addison’s
disease.
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
The Chemistry of Hormones
 The key to the incredible power of the endocrine gland is the
hormones they produce and secrete.
 Hormones are chemical substances secreted by cells into the
extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body.
1. Almost all hormones are classified chemically as either amino
acid-based molecules (protein, peptides and amines) or steroids.
2. Steroid hormones (made from cholesterol) include the sex
hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and testes) and the
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.
A. Mechanism of Hormone Action
 Although the blood borne hormones circulate to all the organs of
the body, a given hormone affects only certain tissue cells or
organs, to as its target cells or target organs.
 The target specific protein receptors must be present on its plasma
membrane or in its interior, to which that hormone can attach.
 The term hormone comes from a Greek word meaning “to
arouse”
 The body’s hormones arouse or bring about their effects on the
body’s cells primarily by altering cellular activity.
o By increasing or decreasing the rate of a normal, or
usual, metabolic process rather than by stimulating a
new one.
 The precise changes that follow during binding of the specific
hormone and the target cell type:
1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state.
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain regulatory molecules
in the cell.
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes.
4. Stimulation of mitosis
1. Steroidal hormone mechanisms
 Diffuse through the plasma membranes of their target cells
 Once inside the steroid hormone; enters the nucleus
 Binds to a specific receptor protein-The hormone –receptor
complex
 Binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA.
 Activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA
(mRNA) then the tRNA
 Translated in the cytoplasm, the resulting in the synthesis
of new proteins.
2. Non-steroidal hormone mechanisms
Protein and peptide hormones are unable to enter the target cells and
instead bind to receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma membrane
 The hormone binds to the membrane receptor
 Setting off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme, the
enzyme in turn
 Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second messenger
molecule
 Oversees additional intracellular changes that promote the
typical response of the target cell to the hormone.
1. Water balance
 The main regulatory functions of the endocrine system
 The endocrine regulates water balance by controlling the
solute concentration of the blood.
2. Uterine contractions and milk release
 The endocrine system regulates uterine contractions during
delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release from
the breast in lactating females
3. Growth, metabolism, and tissues maturation
 The endocrine system regulates the growth of many tissues,
such as bone and muscle, and the rate of metabolism of
many tissues which help maintain a normal body
temperature and normal mental functions.
 Maturation of tissues, which result in the development of
adult features and adult behavior are also influences by the
endocrine system.
4. Ion regulation
 Regulates sodium and potassium (Na, K, Ca) concentrations
in the blood.
ANA101 ( L E C ) |5
5. Blood glucose control
 Regulates blood glucose levels and other nutrient levels in
the blood.
6. Immune system regulation
 Helps control the production and functions of immune cells.
7. Reproductive functions control
 Controls the development and functions of the reproductive
systems in males and females
LESSON: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Topic 1: Functions of the Endocrine (Lecture)
Topic 2: the major organs of the endocrine system (laboratory)
Topic 3: other hormone producing organs and tissues of the
endocrine system (lecture)
Pre-activity
 Estrogen and progesterone are hormones primarily produced by
the testes in males
 False. They are primarily produced by the ovaries in
females
 Testosterone is a hormone that play a crucial role in the
development of male reproductive tissues and the maintenance of
male secondary sexual characteristics
 True
 Melanin, a hormone responsible for skin pigmentation, is
produced by the thyroid gland
 False. Melanin is not a hormone, and skin pigmentation is
not regulated by the thyroid gland
 Oxytocin is a hormone that play a role in social bonding, trust,
and love, and it is often referred to as the “love hormone” or
“cuddle hormone”
 True
 Growth hormone (GH) stimulates growth and cell reproduction
and is primarily produced by the adrenal glands.
 False. Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland.
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases calcium levels in the blood
by promoting its release from bone and reducing calcium
excretion by the kidneys.
 True
 Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are hormones produced
by the thyroid gland and play a crucial role in regulating
metabolism.
 True
 The thyroid gland primarily produces insulin.
 False. The thyroid gland produces hormones such as
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), but insulin is
produced by the pancreas.
 The thyroid gland primarily produces insulin.
 False. The thyroid gland produces hormones such as
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), but insulin is
produced by the pancreas.
 The adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys.
 True. The adrenal glands are situated on top of each kidney.
 The pancreas produces glucagon, which raises blood sugar levels.

 True. Glucagon is produced by the pancreas and acts to
increase blood glucose levels.
 The pineal gland produces melatonin, a hormone involved in
regulating sleep-wake cycles.
 True. The pineal gland is responsible for the production of
melatonin.
 The thymus gland is more active in adulthood than during
childhood.
 False. The thymus gland is more active during childhood
and tends to atrophy with age.
 The ovaries produce testosterone in females.
 False. While the ovaries do produce small amounts of
testosterone, they primarily produce estrogen and
progesterone.
 The testes produce estrogen in males.
 True. The testes do produce small amounts of estrogen, in
addition to testosterone.
The primary female sex hormones are estrogen and progesterone,
which means men's primary sex hormone is testosterone. However,
women do produce small amounts of this as well. Similarly, men also
produce small amounts of estrogen and progesterone.
INTRODUCTION
The Endocrine System
 Accessory structures and tissues within the body releases
hormones including placenta, kidneys, digestive system, and
adipose tissue.
 There are several other organs in the body that secrete hormones
although they are not generally thought of as being part of the
endocrine system.
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS
Organs
 Besides the major endocrine organs, pockets of hormone-
producing cells are found in the walls of the small intestines,
stomach, kidneys, and heart – organs whose chief functions have
little to do with hormone production.
1. Placenta
 Remarkable organ formed temporarily in the uterus of
pregnant women.
 Its primarily endocrine role is to produce estrogen and
progesterone, which maintain pregnancy and ready , breast
for lactation
2. Stomach
 Gastrin is peptide derivatives in the stomach that stimulate
glands to release HCL
3. Duodenum of the small intestines
 Intestinal gastrin that inhibits HCL secretion and
gastrointestinal tract mobility
4. Duodenum
 Secretin stimulates release of bicarbonate-rich juice and in
the liver it increases the release of bile stomach
5. Bone marrow
 Erythropoietin the bone marrow that stimulates production
of red blood cells
6. Kidney
 The Active vitamin D3 stimulates active transport of dietary
calcium across intestinal cell membranes.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
The Embryonic Development
 The embryonic development of the endocrine glands varies.
 The pituitary gland is derived from epithelium of the oral cavity
and a neural tissue projection of the hypothalamus.
 The pineal gland is composed entirely of neural tissue.
 Develop as little saclike out pocketing of the epithelial lining of
the digestive tract.
 The formation of the gonads and the adrenal and parathyroid
gland is much more complex.
 Excluding pathological excesses and lack of hormones, efficiency
of the endocrine system remains high until old age.
 Decreasing function of female ovaries at menopause leads to
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart disease, and possible
mood changes.
 Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually decreases with aging,
which leads to a generalized increase in incidence of diabetes
mellitus, immune system depression, and lower metabolic rate.
Body Systems Working Together to Maintain Homeostasis
Integumentary System
 Melanocyte production in the skin is caused by melanocyte-
stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary gland.
 Melanocytes produce melanin causing a darker pigmentation to
skin for protection against the harmful rays of the sun.
 Androgens activate sebaceous glands; estrogen increases
hydration of the skin
Skeletal System
 Calcium concentration in bone is controlled by the hormones
Calcitonin and Parathyroid hormone.
 Nerve cells of the hypothalamus function properly due to proper
calcium ion concentration.
 Bones protect the endocrine glands in the brain, pelvis, and chest.
Muscular System
 Hormones caused increase heartbeat rates, which help to increase
the amount of blood carrying oxygen and nutrients to exercising
muscle cells.
 Growth hormones cause muscular development.
Nervous System
 Nerve cells of the hypothalamus control the secretions of the
pituitary gland.
 Through negative feedback, hormonal levels control the
secretions of the hypothalamus.
Cardiovascular System
ANA101 ( L E C ) |6
 The blood carries hormones to their target organs.
 Heartbeat rates and the diameter of blood vessels are controlled
by hormones.
Lymphatic System
 Hormones stimulate the production of T-Lymphocytes.
 Hormones are involved in the development of the immune system
in children.
 Lymph can be a route for hormone transport.
Digestive System
 Glucose levels in the blood are controlled by hormones.
 Excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen and is made
available to cells between meals by the combined actions of
insulin and glucagon.
 Hormones also affect digestive activities such as increased
appetite during puberty caused by higher rates of metabolism.
Respiratory System
 Low levels of oxygen in the blood stimulate hormonal production
of red blood cell formation in bone marrow.
 Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to body cells and
carbon dioxide waste from the cells to the lungs.
Urinary System
 Hormones control kidney function.
 Kidneys control body water levels and balances of the
electrolytes in the blood.
Reproductive System
 The sex hormones cause the development of the reproductive
structures.
 Sex hormones also cause the development of secondary male and
female sexual characteristics.
 Sex hormones cause the development of egg cells and sperm
cells.

LESSON: THE BLOOD
Topic 1: functions of the blood
Topic 2: the classification of Blood cells and the composition of plasma
Topic 3: blood cell anatomy and clotting mechanism
Topic objectives:
 name major functions of the blood
 describe the functions of blood performs in the body
 identify the different blood components
INTRODUCTION
The Human Blood
 Blood is uniquely specialized connective tissue in that it consists
of two components: the formed elements of the blood, or the
blood cells, and the fluid part of the blood or plasma.
 The formed elements of the blood are the red blood cells (RBCs)
or erythrocytes, the white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes, and
the platelets or thrombocytes. Plasma, a viscous fluid, accounts
for about 55% of the blood; formed elements make up about 45%
of the total volume of blood
FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BLOOD
The functions:
Pumped by the heart and carried by blood vessels throughout the body,
blood is a complex liquid that performs a number of critical functions.
These functions relate to maintaining homeostasis
1. Blood transports oxygen from the lungs, where it enters the
RBCs, to all cells of the body. Oxygen is needed by the cells for
cellular metabolism.
2. Blood also transports carbon dioxide from the cells, where it
produced as a waste product of cellular metabolism, to the lungs
to be expelled from the body
3. Blood carries nutrients, ions, and water from the digestive tract to
all cells of the body.
4. It also transports waste products from the body’s cells to the sweat
glands and kidneys for excretion.
5. Blood transports hormones from endocrine glands to target
organs in the body.
6. It also transports enzymes to body cells to regulate chemical
processes and chemical reactions.
7. Helps to regulate the water content of cells through its dissolved
sodium ions; thus it plays a role in the process of osmosis.
8. Finally, plays a vital role in protecting the body against foreign
microorganisms and toxins through its special combat unit cells,
the leukocytes.
OTHER CRITICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD:
 Blood performs many functions critical for sustaining metabolic
physiologic processes in complex organisms.
 It is involved in everything from gas exchange to nutrient
transport to immune system and homeostatic functions.
A. Oxygen and glucose transport
 Blood primary function is to transport ,molecules around
the body to support critical metabolic processes.
 All cells require oxygen and glucose to undergo cellular
respiration.
 Tissue cannot survive very long without these two
molecules.
 Disruption of this process is most dangerous to the brain,
which can survive only about two (2) minutes without
oxygen and glucose
Terms to describe oxygen or blood deficiency to tissues in the
body
1. Ischemia
 A reversible condition in which a tissue does not
receive adequate blood supply, usually from an
obstructed or ruptured blood vessel
2. Hypoxia
 A state in which the tissue do not receive adequate
oxygen supply, generally due to decreased oxygen
intake
3. Infraction
 A usually irreversible condition in which tissues die
as a result of prolonged loss of oxygen or blood
supply.
 Note: Most tissues can survive in a hypoxic or
ischemic state for few hours before infarction sets in
 Heart infarction, which often occurs during heart attack,
will cause infarction in other tissues as blood is no longer
pumped.
 In addition, to oxygen and glucose, the blood transport
several other important molecules.
 Carbon dioxide, which travels through the blood mostly as
bicarbonate is transported from tissue as waste product of
cellular respiration to the lungs during gas exchange.
 Many hormones (chemical messenger) also travel through
the blood as a form of communication between interrelated
organs, which are involved in homeostatic control.
B. Immune system functions
 White blood cells and antibodies circulate through the blood
and destroy any foreign invaders (pathogens) that they
encounter.
 Inflammation occurs in blood vessels due to the release of
inflammatory mediators in the blood.
 This causes vasodilation and redness as other white blood
cells are drawn to the region through the bloodstream to
destroy infectious pathogens
 They may also find molecular markers of pathogens called
antigens and take them to lymphatic organs to stimulate
powerful adaptive immune system responses.
 The blood also has the ability to undergo clotting in
response to vascular injury such as bleeding.
 Normally a series of clotting and anti-clotting factors are
kept in balance through the blood so that no clotting occurs.
ANA101 ( L E C ) |7
 When endothelial cells are injured, the clotting factors are
increased and cause blood to clot.
 Circulating platelets in the blood arrive at the injury site and
form a mesh and plug to coagulate the blood and stop
bleeding
 Wound healing can only begin after this clotting response
occurs
C. Homeostatic functions
Blood is involved in maintaining homeostasis through several ways:
1. Temperature regulation
 Occur in part as a result of dilation and constriction of
vessels in the blood
2. Blood pH
 It is regulated variable of the respiratory system because the
pH of blood is directly proportional to the amount of carbon
dioxide dissolved in blood.
 This makes blood pH an indicator of respiratory
homeostasis
3. Blood glucose levels
 These are regulated by insulin and glucagon secretion
4. Blood Volume and Blood pressure
 Directly proportional, regulated variables that are tied to the
activity of the heart and fluid retention of the kidney
Note:
If any of these variables are too high or too low, severe problems can
occur. For that reason, a number of complex negative feedback
mechanisms exist to keep all variables within homeostatic range,
despite influences from the internal and external environments.
LESSON: THE BLOOD
Topic 1: functions of the blood
Topic 2: the classification of Blood cells and the composition of
plasma
Topic 3: blood cell anatomy and clotting mechanism
Topic objectives:
 Differentiate among the blood components of erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and thrombocytes
 Describe the physical characteristics and volume of blood in
adults
 Describe the specific function of the different classifications of
blood cells and the plasma
INTRODUCTION
The Blood Components
 Blood contains plasms and blood cells, some of which have
hemoglobin that makes blood red.
 The average blood volume in adult is five liters.
 Blood is a fluid technically considered a connective tissue.
 Blood contains red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells
(WBCs), platelets, and other cell fragments, molecules and debris
 Albumin is the main protein found in plasma, and it functions to
regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.

What are the composition of blood cells? The composition of plasma?
THE BLOOD COMPONENTS
The most common classifications of the formed elements or cells of
blood are:
a. Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs)
b. Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBCs)
c. Thrombocytes or platelets
A. Erythrocytes (RBCs)
 Makes up about 95% of the volume of blood cells
 These are discs measuring about seven to eight (7 to 8)
micrometers in diameter.
 Contain hemoglobin molecules which bind to oxygen so it
can be transported to tissues.
 Mature RBCs lack a nucleus and organelles and have no
nuclear DNA
 RBCs, endothelial vessel cells, and other blood cells are
also marked by glycoproteins that defines the different
blood types.
 The ratio of RBCs to blood is referred to as the hematocrit,
and is normally about 45%
 The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the
human blood would be roughly 2000 times greater than the
body’s exterior surface.
B. Leukocytes (WBCs)
 these formed elements of the blood is divided into two
subcategories: The granular leukocytes and The
agranular or Non-granular leukocyte
1) The Granular Leukocytes have granules in their cytoplasm
when stained with Wright’s stain. There are three types:
a) Neutrophils – Which make up 60% to 70% of white blood
cells
b) Eosinophils – Makes up 2% to 4% of white blood cells
c) Basophils – Makes up 0.5% to 1% of white blood cell
2) The Agranular or non-granular leukocytes do not show granules
in their cytoplasm when stained with Wright’s stain. There are
two types:
a) Monocytes – Makes up about 3% to 8% of white blood
cells.
b) Lymphocytes – They are main in the bone marrow and
found in the blood and lymph tissue. 18% to 42% of
circulating leukocyte.
C. Thrombocytes (Platelets)
 They form in your bone marrow, a sponge-like tissue in
your bones.
 Play a major role in blood clotting.
 Normally when one of your blood vessels is injured, you
start to bleed.
Functions:
 Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels, causing
vascular spasms in broken blood vessels.
 Form temporary platelet plugs to stop bleeding
 Secrete procoagulants (clotting factors) to promote blood
clotting.
 Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed
THE PLASMA COMPONENTS
 Is the fluid component of blood, 91% of plasma is water.
 About 7% are the proteins albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.
a) Alubumin
 This component of plasma plays a role in maintaining
osmotic pressure and water balance between blood and
tissues
b) Globulins
 Some example of globulin are antibodies and complement,
which are important in the immune response of the body
 Other globulins act as transport molecules for hormones and
carry them to target organs
c) Fibrinogen
 This component plays a vital role in the clotting mechanism
 The remaining 2% of plasma consists of solutes such as
ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, enzymes, and
hormones.
Dr. Charles Drew an African American scientist that developed the
blood storage techniques.
 He is best known for his research pn blood plasma.
 His blood preservation discoveries led to the formation of
blood blanks in the Unites States of American and Great
Britain during world war II.
 He was director of the first American Red Cross Blood
Bank.
Formation of blood cells: hematopoiesis
1. Hematopoiesis
The blood cell formation that occurs in the red bone marrow or
myeloid tissue.
2. Lymphocytes and monocytes are also produced by lymph nodes,
the spleen, and the tonsils.
3. Blood cells develop from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
called stem cells or hemocytoblasts.
 Makes up about 20% to 23% of white blood cells.
LESSON: THE BLOOD
Topic 1: functions of the blood
Topic 2: the classification of Blood cells and the composition of plasma
Topic 3: blood cell anatomy and clotting mechanism
Topic objectives
 diagram the anatomy of erythrocyte (red blood cells, or
RBC)
 discuss the primary functions of the red blood cells, white
blood cells, and thrombocytes
 discuss the roles played by platelets in the blood
ANA101 ( L E C ) |8
INTRODUCTION
The blood components
 Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which
blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot.
 The mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion and
aggregation of platelets, as well as deposition and maturation of
fibrin.
BLOOD CELL ANATOMY
A. Blood Cell Anatomy and Functions
1. Erythrocytes
 Appear as biconcave disks without a nucleus.
 They consist of a protein network or stroma and the red
pigment hemoglobin
2. Hemoglobin
 Made of the pigment heme, which has four iron atoms that
combine with oxygen gas in the lungs, and the protein
globin, which combines with carbon dioxide.
3. Leukocytes
 Have nuclei and do not have hemoglobin.
 The two categories of leukocytes are:
 Granular leukocytes
 Non-granular leukocytes
 They leave the blood and move into body tissues where they
combat infection and inflammation
4. Neutrophils
 Are the most common granular leukocytes.
 They respond to tissue destruction from bacteria by
phagocytizing foreign substances and destroying bacteria
via their lysozyme
5. Monocytes
 These are non-granular leukocytes that phagocytize bacteria
and cellular debris.
 In tissues, they are called macrophages because they
increase in size
6. Eosinophils
 These are granular leukocytes that combat irritants that
cause allergic reactions.
 They produce antihistamines
 Antihistamines these are used to relieve symptoms of
allergies, such as hay fever, hives, conjunctivitis and
reactions to insect bites or stings
7. Basophils
 These are granular leukocytes that are also involved in
allergic reactions.
 They produce heparin, histamine, and serotonin.
 Heparin also known as unfractionated heparin
(UFH), used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner).
 Used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable
angina
 Histamine an organic nitrogenous compound
involved in local immune responses, as well as
 ANA101 ( L E C ) |9

regulating physiological function in the gut and acting  It is the thrombin that catalyzes the reaction that fragments
as a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, and fibrinogen into fibrin.
uterus.  Fibrin forms the threads of the clot, which enmesh the blood
 Serotonin is the key hormone that stabilizes our cells and platelets seeping from the wound and the bleeding
mood, feelings of well-being, and happiness. stops
 This impacts your entire body.
 Enables brain cells and other nervous system cells to  Tightening of the clot (clot retraction) or syneresis occurs and
communicate with each other hemorrhaging ceases.
8. Lymphocytes  After the tissues are repaired, dissolution of the clot or
 These are non-granular leukocytes that produce antibodies fibrinolysis occurs.
and are involved in the immune response.  Thrombosis these are unwanted clotting caused by masses of
 The two common lymphocytes are the T-lymphocytes and cholesterol known as plaque in an unbroken blood vessel.
the B lymphocytes.  The clot is called thrombus.
 T Lymphocytes  Embolus is a piece of blood clot transported by the blood stream
 These are responsible for providing cellular can get lodge in a vessel and block off circulation.
immunity, which is effective against intracellular  This condition is known as embolism
viruses, fungi, parasites, cancer cells, and foreign
tissue implants.
 B Lymphocytes
 Produce antibodies and provide humoral immunity,
which is effective against circulating bacterial and
viral infections
9. Thrombocytes or Platelets
 These are very small disk-shaped, cellular fragments with a
nucleus.
 These are responsible for the clotting mechanism.

B. THE CLOTTING MECHANISM

The Clotting Mechanism
 A process that the body uses to stop the loss of blood.
 The smooth muscles in the vessel’s wall contract when the small
are damaged.
 This can stop blood loss.
 When larger vessels are damaged, the constriction of the smooth
muscles in the vessel walls only slows down blood loss and the
clotting mechanisms takes over.
 Clotting or coagulation is a complex process that proceeds in
three stages

Three Stages of Clotting

1. A ruptured blood vessel attracts thrombocytes to the site of injury.
 The damaged tissues release thromboplastin.
 Thromboplastin causes a series of reactions that results in
the production of prothrombin activator. There will be
vascular spasm
2. In the second stage, prothrombin, a plasma protein produced by
the liver, is converted into thrombin
 In the presence of the calcium ions, prothrombin activator
converts the prothrombin.
 Platelet plug formation at the site of vessel injury, platelets
stick together to create a plug, which is the beginning of
blood clot formation
3. In the third stage, another plasma protein, soluble fibrinogen, is
converted into soluble fibrin.