Chapter 14 other substances from the digestive tract

through lymphatic vessels called lacteals

Lymphatic System & Immunity located in the lining of the small intestine.
 The lymph passing through these
Pathogen lymphatic vessels appears white because
 any substance or microorganism that causes of its lipid content and is called chyle.
disease or damage to the tissues of the 3. Defense
body  Pathogens, such as microorganisms and
other foreign substances, are filtered from
Lymphatic System Functions: lymph by lymph nodes and from blood by
the spleen.
 In addition, lymphocytes and other cells
1. Fluid balance are capable of destroying pathogens.
 About 30 liters (L) of fluid pass from the
blood capillaries into the interstitial
spaces each day, Lymphatic System
whereas only 27 L pass from the  includes lymph, lymphocytes, lymphatic
interstitial spaces back into the blood vessels, lymph nodes, the tonsils, the spleen,
capillaries. and the thymus
 If the extra 3 L of interstitial fluid  carries fluid in one direction, from tissues to
remained in the interstitial spaces, edema the circulatory system
would result, causing tissue damage and
eventually death. Lymphatic Capillaries
 Instead, the 3 L of fluid enters the  are tiny, closed-ended vessels consisting
lymphatic capillaries,where it is called of simple squamous epithelium
lymph, and it passes through the  are more permeable than blood capillaries
lymphatic vessels to return to the blood. because they lack a basement membrane, and
 In addition to water, lymph contains fluid moves easily into them
solutes derived from two sources:
 (a) Substances in plasma, such
as ions, nutrients, gases, and Lymphatic tissue
some proteins, pass from blood  which consists of many lymphocytes and
capillaries into the interstitial other cells, such as macrophages, is found
spaces and become part of the within lymphatic organs
lymph;
 (b) Substances such as hormones, The lymphocytes originate from red bone
enzymes, and waste products, marrow and are carried by the blood to
derived from cells within the lymphatic organs.
tissues, are also part of the
lymph.
2. Liquid absorption
Three Groups of Tonsils:
1. Palatine tonsils
 present in most tissues of the body.  are located on each side of the posterior
 exceptions are the central nervous system, opening of the oral cavity
bone marrow, and tissues lacking blood  these are the ones usually referred to as
vessels, such as the epidermis and cartilage. “the tonsils.”
2. Pharyngeal tonsil
Lymphatic Vessels  is located near the internal opening
 larger; formed by joined lymphatic capillaries of the nasal cavity.
 resemble small veins  When the pharyngeal tonsil is
 have a beaded appearance because they enlarged, it I commonly called
have one-way valves that are similar to the the adenoid or adenoids.
valves of veins  An enlarged pharyngeal tonsil can
interfere with normal breathing.
3. Lingual tonsil
Three factors cause compression of the lymphatic  is on the posterior surface of the tongue
vessels:
1. Contraction of surrounding skeletal muscle
during activity
2. Periodic contraction of smooth muscle in
the lymphatic vessel wall
3. Pressure changes in the thorax during
breathing Tonsils
 form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue
Right lymphatic duct around the openings between the nasal
 Formed by lymphatic vessels from the right and oral cavities and the pharynx
upper limb and the right half of the head,  they protect against pathogens and other
neck, and chest potentially harmful material entering from
 empties into the right subclavian vein the nose and mouth
T&A
1. Tonsillectomy,
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 removal of the palatine tonsils
2. Adenoidectomy
Thoracic duct  is removal of the adenoid
 Where lymphatic vessels from the rest of the
body enter Lymph nodes
 are rounded structures, varying from the size
 empties into the left subclavian vein of a small seed to that of a shelled almond
 are distributed along the various lymphatic
Lymphatic organs vessels
 include the tonsils, the lymph nodes, the  most lymph passes through at least one
spleen, and the thymus lymph node before entering the blood

 The lymphatic system absorbs lipids and

 Although lymph nodes are found throughout the
body, there are three superficial aggregations of
lymph nodes on each side of the body: inguinal
nodes in the groin, axillary nodes
in the axilla (armpit), and cervical nodes in the neck.
Capsule
 Dense connective tissue that surrounds each
lymph node
Trabeculae
 Extensions of the capsule that subdivide a
lymph node into compartments containing
lymphatic tissue and lymphatic sinuses
Lymphatic nodules
 cells that can form dense aggregations of
tissue
Lymphatic sinuses
 are spaces between the lymphatic tissue
that contain macrophages on a network of
fibers
Germinal centers
 lymphatic nodules containing the
rapidly dividing lymphocytes
Spleen
 is roughly the size of a clenched fist and is
located in the left, superior corner of the
abdominal cavity
 has an outer capsule of dense connective
tissue and a small amount of smooth
muscle
 trabeculae from the capsule divide the spleen
into small, interconnected compartments
containing two specialized types of lymphatic
tissue.
 White pulp is lymphatic tissue
surrounding the arteries within the
spleen
 Red pulp is associated with the veins. It
consists of a fibrous network, filled with
macrophages and red blood cells,
and enlarged capillaries that connect to
the veins.
 Filters blood instead of lymph. Cells within the
spleen detect and respond to foreign
substances in the blood and destroy worn-out
red blood cells
 Also functions as a blood reservoir, holding a
small volume of blood
 In emergency situations, such as hemorrhage,
smooth muscle in splenic blood vessels and
in the splenic capsule can contract, allowing a
small amount of blood to move out of the
spleen into the general circulation
 Splenectomy- removal of the spleen
Thymus
 is a bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape
 located in the superior mediastinum, the
partition dividing the thoracic cavity into left
and right parts
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 each lobe of the thymus is
surrounded by a thin connective
tissue capsule
 Trabeculae from the capsule divide each lobe
into lobules
 Near the capsule and trabeculae, the
lymphocytes are numerous and form dark-
staining areas called the cortex
 A lighter-staining, central portion of the lobules,
called the
medulla, has fewer lymphocytes
 the site for the maturation of a class of
lymphocytes called T cells
Immunity
 Is the ability to resist damage from
pathogens, such as microorganisms; harmful
chemicals, such as toxins released by
microorganisms; and internal threats, such as
cancer cells
Categories of Immunity:
1. Innate immunity
a) the body recognizes and destroys certain
pathogens, but the response to them is
the same each time the body is exposed
b) In innate immunity, each time the body
is exposed to a substance, the response
is the same because specificity and
memory of previous encounters are not
present.
c) For example, each time a bacterial cell is
introduced into the body, it is
phagocytized with the same speed and
efficiency.
2. Adaptive immunity,
a) the body recognizes and destroys
pathogens, but the response to them
improves each time the pathogen is
encountered.
b) In adaptive immunity, the response
during the second exposure to the same
bacteria is faster and stronger than the
response to the first exposure because
the immune system exhibits memory for
the bacteria from the first exposure.
c) For example, following the first exposure
to the bacteria, the body can take many
days to destroy them. During this time,
the bacteria damage tissues, producing
the symptoms of disease. Following the
second exposure to the same bacteria,
the response
is rapid and effective. Bacteria are destroyed
before any symptoms develop, and the person is
said to be immune.
Specificity and memory are characteristics of
adaptive immunity, but not innate immunity.
Specificity
 is the ability of adaptive immunity to recognize
a particular substance.
 For example, innate immunity can act against
bacteria in general, whereas adaptive
immunity can distinguish among various kinds
of bacteria.
Memory
 is the ability of adaptive immunity to
“remember” previous encounters with a
particular substance.
 As a result, future responses are faster,
stronger, and longer-lasting.
Innate immunity is accomplished by physical
barriers, chemical mediators, white blood cells, and
the inflammatory response.
Physical barriers
 prevent pathogens and chemicals from
entering the body in two ways
1. The skin and mucous membranes form
barriers that prevent their entry
2. Tears, saliva, and urine wash these
substances from body surfaces.
 Pathogens cannot cause a disease if they
cannot get into the body
 Chemical mediators  Also protect lymph in lymph nodes and
blood in the spleen and liver
 are molecules responsible for many aspects
of innate immunity.
 For example, lysozyme in tears and saliva kills Mononuclear phagocytic system
certain bacteria, and mucus on the mucous  Formed by the monocytes and macrophages
membranes prevents the entry of some because they are phagocytes with a single
pathogens. (mono), unlobed nucleus

Complement
 is a group of more than 20 proteins found in
plasma Basophils
 circulate in the blood in an inactive form  which are derived from red bone marrow, are
 Certain complement proteins can be motile white blood cells that can leave the
activated by combining with foreign blood and enter infected tissues.
substances, such as parts of a bacterial cell,
or by combining with antibodies Mast cells
 Once activation begins, a series of reactions
results, in which each complement protein  which are also derived from red bone
activates the next. marrow, are nonmotile cells in
connective tissue, especially near
capillaries.
 are located at points where pathogens may
 Once activated, certain complement enter the body, such as the skin, lungs,
proteins promote inflammation and gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital tract
phagocytosis and can directly lyse (rupture)
bacterial cells.
Basophils and mast cells can be activated through
innate immunity (e.g., by complement) or through
Interferons adaptive immunity.
 are proteins that protect the body against viral
infections Eosinophils
 some interferons play a role in activating  Also participate in inflammation associated
immune cells, such as macrophages and with allergies and asthma
natural killer cells
White blood cells Natural killer (NK) cells
 and the cells derived from them are the mo  a type of lymphocyte produced in red
are produced in red bone marrow and bone marrow, account for up to 15% of
lymphatic tissue and released into the blood lymphocytes
Chemotaxis  recognize classes of cells, such as tumor cells or
 movement of white blood cells toward these virus-infected cells, in general, rather than
specific tumor cells or cells infected by a
chemicals specific virus
 For this reason, and because NK cells do
Phagocytosis not exhibit a memory response, they are
 is the ingestion and destruction of particles by classified as part of innate immunity.
 use a variety of methods to kill their target
cells called cells, including releasing chemicals that
phagocytes damage cell membranes and cause the cells
 The particles can be microorganisms or their to lyse
parts, foreign substances, or dead cells from
the body Inflammatory response
 The most important phagocytes are
neutrophils and macrophages, although  to injury involves many of the
other white chemicals and cells previously
discussed
 blood cells also have limited phagocytic ability
Bacteria enter the tissue, causing damage that
Neutrophils stimulates the release or activation of chemical
 are small phagocytic cells that are usually the mediators, such as histamine, prostaglandins,
first cells to enter infected tissues from the leukotrienes, complement, and kinins.
blood in large numbers
 release chemical signals that increase the
inflammatory response by recruiting and These chemicals produce several effects:
activating other immune cells (1) Vasodilation increases
 often die after phagocytizing a single blood flow and brings phagocytes and other white
blood cells to the area
microorganism (2) Phagocytes leave the blood and enter the tissue
(3) Increased vascular permeability allows
Pus fibrinogen and complement to enter the
 is an accumulation of fluid, dead tissue from the blood.
neutrophils, and other cells at a site of
infection
Local inflammation
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 is an inflammatory response confined to a
Macrophages specific area of the body.’
 are monocytes that leave the blood, enter
tissues, and enlarge about fivefold.
Systemic inflammation
 Sometimes macrophages are given specific
names, such as dust cells in the lungs,  is an inflammatory response that is generally
Kupffer cells in the liver, and microglia in the distributed throughout the body.
central nervous system.
 usually appear in infected tissues after
neutrophils do, and they are responsible for
most of the phagocytic activity in the late
stages of an infection, including cleaning up
dead neutrophils and other cellular debris
 also found in uninfected tissues
Pyrogens
  chemicals released by microorganisms,
neutrophils, and other cells, stimulate fever
production
 affect the body’s temperature regulating
mechanism in the hypothalamus in the brain
 As a consequence, heat production and
conservation increase, raising body
temperature.
 Fever promotes the activities of the immune
system, such as phagocytosis, and inhibits the
growth of some microorganisms.
Antigens
 are substances that stimulate adaptive immune
responses
 can be divided into two groups: foreign
antigens and self-antigens
Foreign antigens
 are introduced from outside the body
 Microorganisms, such as bacteria and
viruses, and chemicals released by
microorganisms are examples of foreign
antigens
Allergic reaction
 Can be caused by pollen, animal hairs,
foods, and drugs because they are foreign
antigens that produce an overreaction of
the immune system
Self-antigens
 are molecules the body produces to stimulate
an immune system response
 The response to self-antigens can be beneficial.
 For example, the recognition of tumor
antigens can result in destruction of the
tumor
Autoimmune disease
 results when self-antigens stimulate
unwanted destruction of normal tissue.
 An example is rheumatoid arthritis, which
destroys the tissue within joints.
Adaptive immunity can be divided into
antibody-mediated immunity and cell-
mediated immunity.
Antibody-mediated immunity
 involves a group of lymphocytes called B
cells and proteins called antibodies, which
are found in the plasma
Plasma cells
 produce antibodies which are derived from the
B cells
Cell-mediated immunity
 Involves the actions of a second type of
lymphocyte, called T cells.
Cytotoxic T cells
 produce the effects of cell-mediated immunity
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Helper T cells
 can promote or inhibit the activities of both
antibody-mediated immunity and cell mediated
immunity
Stem cells
 in red bone marrow are capable of giving
rise to all the blood cells
B cells are released from red bone marrow,
and T cells are released from the thymus.
Normally, there are about five T cells for every B cell
in the blood. When stimulated by an antigen, B cells
and T cells divide, producing cells that are
responsible for the destruction of antigens.
Clones
 Small groups of identical B cells or T cells
 form during embryonic development
 is derived froma single, unique B cell or T cell
The specialized B-cell or T-cell clones can respond
to antigens and produce an adaptive immune
response.
For the adaptive immune response to be effective,
two events must occur:
(1) antigen recognition by lymphocytes
(2) proliferation of the lymphocytes recognizing the
antigen
Antigen receptors
 Proteins of lymphocytes on their surfaces
 The antigen receptors on B cells are called B-
cell receptors, and those on T cells are called
T-cell receptors.
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
molecules
 Are glycoproteins that have binding sites for
antigens
 There are two classes of MHC molecules. MHC
class I molecules are found on the membranes
of most nucleated cells and MHC class II
molecules are found on the membranes of
antigen-presenting cells, B lymphocytes, and
other defense cells.
 function as “serving trays” that hold and
present a processed antigen on the
outer surface of the cell membrane
Costimulation
 can be achieved by cytokines, which are
proteins or peptides secreted by one cell as a
regulator of neighboring cells
 For example, interleukin-1 is a cytokine
released by macrophages that can
stimulate helper T cells
After the antigen is processed and presented to a
helper T cell by a macrophage, the helper T cell
responds by producing interleukin-2 and
interleukin-2 receptors.
Anti-Mediated Immunity
Variable region
 The end of each “arm” of the antibody
 The part of the antibody that combines with
the antigen
 can join only with a particular antigen
Constant region
 The rest of the antibody and it has several
functions
 For example, the constant region can activate
complement, or it can attach the antibody to
cells, such as macrophages, basophils, and
mast cells
 Gamma globulins transfer of antibodies occurs as part of everyday living
 What antibodies are sometimes called and is not deliberate.
because they are found mostly in the Artificial implies that deliberate introduction of an
gamma globulin part of plasma
antigen or antibody into
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
 What antibodies are sometimes calle Active natural immunity
because they are globulin proteins  results from natural exposure to an antigen,
involved in immunity. such as a disease-causing microorganism,
 The five general classes of antibodies are that stimulates the immune system to
denoted IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD respond against the antigen.
 Because the individual is not immune during
the first exposure, he or she usually develops
Primary response the symptoms of the disease.
 results from the first exposure of a B cell to an
antigen Active artificial immunity
 an antigen is deliberately introduced into an
Memory B cells individual to stimulate the immune system
 are responsible for the secondary  This process is called vaccination, and the
response, or memory response, which introduced antigen is a vaccine.
occurs when the immune system is
exposed to an antigen against which it has Passive natural immunity
already produced a primary response  results when antibodies are transferred from a
mother to her child across the placenta before
 The secondary response also includes the birth.
formation of new memory cells, which
provide protection against additional Passive artificial immunity
exposures to a specific antigen  begins with vaccinating an animal, such as a
horse.
The secondary response provides better  After the animal’s immune system responds to
protection than the primary response for two the antigen, antibodies are removed from the
reasons: animal and injected into the human requiring
(1) The time required to start producing antibodies immunity.
is less (hours to a few days)
(2) more plasma cells and antibodies are produced.

As a consequence, the antigen is quickly destroyed,

no disease symptoms develop, and the person is  Alternatively, a human who has developed
immune. immunity through natural exposure or
vaccination can serve as a source of
antibodies.
 Provides immediate protection because the
antibodies either directly or indirectly
destroy the antigen.
 preferred treatment when not enough time is
available for the individual to develop his or
her own active immunity

Antiserum
Monoclonal antibody  Antibodies that provide passive artificial
 is a pure antibody preparation that is specific immunity
for only one antigen  Named because the antibodies are found in
 are grown in laboratories and have many serum, which is plasma minus the clotting
factors
clinical uses

Memory T cells Knowledge of how the immune system operates has

produced two fundamental benefits:
 provide a secondary response and long- (1) an understanding of the cause and
lasting immunity in the same fashion as progression of many diseases
memory B cells (2) the development or proposed development of
methods to prevent, stop, or even reverse diseases
Acquired Immunity Immunotherapy
 treats disease by altering immune system
There are four ways to acquire adaptive immunity: function or by directly attacking harmful
1. Active natural cells.
2. Active artificial
3. Passive natural
4. Passive artificial
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Active immunity
 results when an individual is exposed to an
antigen (either naturally or artificially) and the
response of the individual’s own immune
system is the cause of the immunity
Passive immunity
 occurs when another person or an animal
develops immunity and the immunity is
transferred to a nonimmune individual.
Natural and artificial refer to the method of exposure
or antibody transfer.
Natural implies that contact with the antigen or