LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
o Lymphatic Capillaries – are tiny, close-
FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
o Fluid Balance - The lymphatic vessels
transport back to the blood fluids that
have escaped from the blood vascular
system. About 30 liters (L) of fluid pass
from the blood capillaries into the
interstitial spaces each day, whereas only
27 L pass from the interstitial spaces back
into the blood capillaries. If the extra 3 L
of interstitial fluid remained in the
interstitial spaces, edema would result,
causing tissue damage and eventually
death. The remaining fluid enters the
lymphatic capillaries, where the fluid is
called lymph.
o Lipid Absorption - The lymphatic system
absorbs fats and other substances from
the digestive tract. Lacteals are special
lymphatic vessels located in the lining of
the small intestine. Fats enter the lacteals
and pass through the lymphatic vessels to
the venous circulation.
o Defense - The lymphoid tissues and
organs house phagocytic cells and
lymphocytes, which play essential roles in
body defense and resistance to disease.
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM
o Lymphatic system includes lymph,
lymphocytes, lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, the tonsils, the spleen, and the
thymus.
o Lymphatic Vessels - Small lymphatic
o Lymphatic system carries fluid in one
direction, from tissues to the circulatory
system.
ended vessels consisting of simple
squamous epithelium
 located in spaces between cells.
 The lymphatic capillaries are more
permeable than blood capillaries
because they lack a basement
membrane, and fluid moves easily
into them.
 Overlapping squamous cells of the
lymphatic capillary walls act as
valves that prevent the backflow of
fluid. After fluid enters lymphatic
capillaries, it flows through them.
 Lymphatic capillaries are present
in most tissues of the body.
Exceptions are the central nervous
system, bone marrow, and tissues
lacking blood vessels, such as the
epidermis and cartilage
 A superficial group of lymphatic
capillaries collects excess
interstitial fluids from the dermis
and subcutaneous tissue, and a
deep group collects excess fluid
from muscle, the viscera, and other
deep structures.
 Lacteals - are specialized lymph
capillaries in the villi of the small
intestine; they absorb the dietary
lipids & lipid-soluble vitamins.
vessels have a beaded appearance
because they have one-way valves that
are similar to the valves of veins.
 receive the lymph passed on by the
lymphatic capillaries & carry it
away from the tissues.
 When a lymphatic vessel is
compressed, the valves prevent
backward movement of lymph.
Consequently, compression of the
lymphatic vessels causes lymph to
move forward through them.
 Three factors cause compression
of the lymphatic vessels:
 (1) contraction of surrounding
skeletal muscle during activity
– Skeletal muscle pump
(2) periodic contraction of smooth
muscle in the lymphatic vessel
wall
(3) pressure changes in the thorax
during breathing – Respiratory
pump
 The lymphatic vessels converge and
eventually empty into the blood at
two locations in the body
o Right lymphatic duct - the right
lymphatic duct drains the lymph from the
right arm and the right side of the head
and thorax.
o Thoracic duct - the large thoracic duct
o Lymphatic tissue - is characterized by
receives lymph from the rest of the body;
housing many lymphocytes and other
both ducts empty the lymph into the
defense cells, such as macrophage
subclavian vein on their own side of the
 Lymphatic tissue is found within
body.
lymphatic organs as well as other
organs. Consists of the red bone
marrow, lymph nodes, thymus,
spleen & lymphatic nodules
o Lymph nodes – are bean-shaped,
encapsulated masses of lymphatic tissue
located along lymphatic vessels

 FUNCTION. The lymph nodes

destroy any foreign substance that
enters lymphatic circulation,
before it could enter the blood and
spread.
 AFFERENT LYMPH VESSELS -
carry lymph from lymphatic
capillaries to the lymph nodes for
“cleansing”
 EFFERENT LYMPH VESSELS -
carry the “cleansed” lymph from
 the lymph nodes to the lymphatic
ducts where they enter the blood.
 There are 600 lymph nodes
scattered throughout the body,
both superficially & deep, and
usually occur in groups or chains.
 Lymphadenopathy – refers to any
disorder of the lymph nodes.
THREE LARGE GROUPS OF SUPERFICIAL LYPMH
NODES:
o Cervical nodes - located along jugular
veins & carotid arteries; filter lymph from PEYER’S PATCHES
the head & neck
o Axillary nodes – located in the armpit; o Lymphatic nodules
filter lymph from the upper limbs o are clusters or aggregations of lymphatic
o Inguinal nodes – located in superior thig; nodules
filter lymph from the lower limbs o LOCATION. found in the distal half of the
small intestine & the appendix

LYMPHATIC ORGANS

TONSILS
o Lymphatic nodules
o Are small masses of lymphoid tissue that SPLEEN
ring the pharynx (the throat), where they
are found in the mucosa. o Largest lymphatic organ
o FUNCTION. Their job is to trap and o is a soft, blood-rich organ that filters
remove any bacteria or other foreign blood. An oval-shaped organ
pathogens entering the throat. o LOCATION. located in the left
o Palatine tonsils – are located on each hypochondriac region between the
side of the posterior opening of the oral stomach & diaphragm
cavity; these are the ones usually referred o The spleen has an outer capsule of dense
to as “the tonsils.” connective tissue and a small amount of
o Pharyngeal tonsils - is located near the smooth muscle.
internal opening of the nasal cavity.
 Adenoid/ Adenoids – when
pharyngeal tonsil is enlarged – can
interfere normal breathing.
 Removal of this tonsil is called
tonsillectomy.
o Lingual tonsils - is on the posterior
surface of the tongue.

o Trabeculae from the capsule divide the

spleen into small, interconnected
compartments containing two specialized
types of lymphatic tissue:
  White pulp - is lymphatic tissue travel to other lymphatic tissues,
surrounding the arteries within where they help protect against
the spleen. pathogens. Production of T cells
 Red pulp - consists of a fibrous declines later in life due to
network, filled with macrophages decreased function of the thymus.
and red blood cells, and enlarged
capillaries that connect to the
veins.
o FUNCTION. Instead of filtering lymph, the
spleen filters and cleanses the blood of
bacteria, viruses, and other debris; it
provides a site for lymphocyte
proliferation and immune surveillance,
but its most important function is to
destroy worn-out red blood cells and
return some of their breakdown products
to the liver.
o FUNCTION. The spleen also functions as a
blood reservoir, holding a small volume of
blood. In emergency situations, such as
hemorrhage, smooth muscle in splenic
blood vessels and in the splenic capsule RED BONE MARROW
can contract, allowing a small amount of o LOCATION. In spongy bone tissue
blood to move out of the spleen into the o FUNCTION. the site where
general circulation. hemocytoblasts differentiate to become
o In the fetus, the spleen produces RBCs, a lymphoid stem cells which give rise to the
function assumed by the red bone lymphocytes
marrow after birth o FUNCTION. The site of maturation of B
o Splenectomy – is the removal of the lymphocytes, however, immature T
spleen. lymphocytes need to migrate to the
THYMUS thymus for their maturation

o is a bilobed gland roughly triangular in

shape.
o LOCATION. located in the superior
mediastinum the partition dividing the
thoracic cavity into left and right parts.
o Each lobe of the thymus is surrounded by
a thin connective tissue capsule.
o Trabeculae from the capsule divide each
lobe into lobules.
 Near the capsule and trabeculae,
lymphocytes are numerous and
form dark-staining areas called the
cortex.
 A lighter-staining, central portion
of the lobules, called the medulla,
has fewer lymphocytes.
o FUNCTION. site for the maturation of a
class of lymphocytes called T cells. The
thymus gland produces thymosin and
others, that function in the programming
of certain lymphocytes so they can carry
out their protective roles in the body.
 Large numbers of T cells are
produced in the thymus, but most
degenerate. The T cells that
survive the maturation process are
capable of reacting to pathogens.
The mature T cells migrate to the
medulla, enter the blood, and
IMMUNITY
o Resistance
o The ability to ward off damage or disease
through our defenses
o The ability to destroy pathogens or other
foreign material and to prevent further
cases of certain infectious diseases
TERMS RELATED
o SUSCEPTIBILITY - refers to a
vulnerability or lack of resistance
o ANTIGENS - are membrane
proteins w/c are cell markers that
identify cells
 Non-self-antigens – bacteria,
viruses, fungi, transplanted tissue,
cancer cells
MAIN COMPONENTS OF IMMUNITY
INNATE IMMUNITY
 or non-specific immunity. It refers to
defenses that are present at birth
 does not involve specific recognition of a
foreign antigen
 does not create memory, and its responses
are always the same regardless of the target
 makes up our 1st & 2nd lines of defense
 it reduces the workload of the adaptive
immunity defenses
 primarily involves intact skin & mucous
membranes, the inflammatory response & a
number of chemicals & defensive cells
FIRST-LINE DEFENSE - a system of physical
& chemical barriers that prevent pathogens
from entering the body
 Physical barriers
(a) Skin – epidermis, shedding, and
sweat glands
(b) Nose and mouth – nasal hairs,
mucus, saliva
(c) Eyes – lacrimal apparatus
(d) Digestive system – vomiting and
defecation
(e) Vagina – vaginal secretions
(f) Urethra – urine flow
 Chemical barriers
(a) Skin - sebaceous glands, lysozymes
(b) Mouth - lysozomes
(c) Eyes - lysozomes
(d) Digestive system – acidic
gastric juice
(e) Vagina – vaginal acidity
(f) Urine – acidic pH
SECOND-LINE DEFENSE - several internal
mechanisms which provide defense when
pathogens penetrate the barriers that make up
the first line of defense
 Antimicrobial substances
(a) Complement – Cytolysis - when
activated by a series of reactions, these
complement proteins form holes in
microbial membranes, thereby causing
them to burst. Chemotaxis - activated
complement proteins also attract
phagocytes to a site
(b) Interferons - are proteins produced by
cells infected w/ viruses & by T
lymphocytes. Blocks the replication or
reproduction of viruses, preventing
them from infecting unaffected cells
 Phagocytosis - the ingestion of microbes
or other particles such as cellular
debris. Phagocytes - are specialized
cells, primarily neutrophils &
macrophages, that perform
phagocytosis.
(a) Chemotaxis - refers to the migration of
phagocytes to the site of damage due to
attraction by chemicals that come from
invading microbes, WBCs, damaged
tissue cells, or activated complement
proteins
(b) Adherence - the attachment of the
phagocyte to the microbe or other
foreign material, enhanced by activated
complement proteins
(c) Ingestion - the plasma membrane of the
phagocyte engulfs the microbe to form a
sac called a phagosome
(d) Digestion - the phagosome enters the
cytoplasm of the phagocyte & merges w/
lysosomes to form a single, larger
structure called a phagolysosome
(e) Killing - the digestive enzymes in the
lysosome quickly kills the microbe
 Other Defensive Cells
(a) Langerhans cells - cells on the skin’s
epidermis w/c also phagocytize foreign
material, not merely to destroy it, but
to take it to a lymph node where the
adaptive immunity defenses are then
activated
(b) Natural killer cells - are lymphocytes
w/c circulate in the blood & lymph.
Their response is non-specific (unlike
the T & B cells) & can act
spontaneously against any target. They
are non-phagocytic & act by making
direct contact w/ foreign substances
(e.g. pathogens), & kill them by
rupturing their cell membranes (w/
chemicals called perforins) or by
inflicting some other kind of chemical
damage.
(c) Mast cells - are cells found throughout
areolar connective tissue. Produce the
substances, histamine & leukotrienes,
in response to tissue damage.
a. Histamine - = causes vasodilation
& makes capillaries more
permeable or “leaky”
b. Leukotrienes - also increases
capillary permeability & attract
phagocytes to the area of tissue
damage
(d) Basophils - WBCs w/c also release
histamine in response to tissue damage
 Inflammation - is a nonspecific,
defensive response of the body to
tissue damage of any kind: microbial,
chemical, or physical. Its main purpose
is to try to contain the damage, keep it
from spreading, eliminate the cause, &
permit repair of the tissue to begin.
(a) has 4 cardinal signs & symptoms:
redness (‘rubor’), pain (‘dolor’), heat
(‘calor’), and edema/swelling (‘tumor’)
(b) 3 basic stages: (1) Vasodilation &
increased permeability of blood
vessels, (2) Phagocyte migration (3)
Tissue repair
  Fever - is an abnormally high body
temperature. In response to microbial
toxins, neutrophils, macrophages, &
other cells release pyrogens, w/c are
chemicals that affect the body’s
thermoregulatory center in the
hypothalamus. As a result of the
release of pyrogens, heat is conserved
& body temperature increases. Fever
enhances the effects of interferons,
inhibits growth of microbes, & h
metabolic rate of tissues to speed up
repair reactions
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
 Specific immunity
 refers to defenses that involve specific
recognition of a foreign antigen
 3rd line of defense but works hand in-hand
with our innate immunity defenses
 very specific as to its target, may involve
antibodies, does create memory, & may
become more efficient
 primarily involves the T & B lymphocytes
and macrophages
 PROPERTIES:
 SPECIFICITY - adaptive immunity
defenses are antigen-specific. They only
recognize & act against particular
pathogens or foreign substances
 MEMORY - adaptive immunity defenses
recognize & mount even stronger attacks
on previously encountered pathogens &
foreign substances. The second encounter
with an antigen prompts an even more
rapid & vigorous response
CELLS INVOLVED IN ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
LYPMHOCYTES
o originate from lymphoid stem cells w/c
differentiate from the hemocytoblasts of red
bone marrow
o circulate in both blood & lymph & are
located in lymphatic tissues (e.g., spleen,
lymph nodes & nodules)
Two types:
o T Lymphocytes
 simply called “T cells”
 comprise 70-80% of all lymphocytes
 they are released as immature T cells
from the red bone marrow
 are named such because they mature in
the thymus
 only immunocompetent or mature T cells
are capable of responding to a specific
antigen by binding to it
 have specialized groups (e.g., helper T
cells, cytotoxic T cells) w/c play specific
roles in adaptive immunity
 provides cell-mediated immunity in w/c T
cells, once activated, directly interact with
antigen bearing cells/agents to destroy
them (involves cells attacking cells)
o B Lymphocytes
 simply called “B cells”
 comprise 20-30% of all lymphocytes
 are named such because they both arise &
mature in the bone marrow
 provides antibody-mediated immunity in
w/c B cells, once activated, indirectly
interact with antigen-bearing cells/agents
to destroy them by producing antibodies
MACROPHAGES
o are phagocytes w/c are involved in both
innate & adaptive immunity
o play a role in adaptive immunity, by acting as
“antigen presenters”
o this means that they not only engulf foreign
material, but also present fragments of the
foreign materials’ antigens, on their own
surfaces where they can be recognized by
immunocompetent T cells
GENERAL PHASES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
RECOGNITION OF AN ANTIGEN AS FOREIGN
1. The foreign antigen is first phagocytized by a
macrophage
2. Parts of the foreign antigen are “presented”
on the macrophage’s cell membrane (note
that also on the macrophage membrane are
“self” antigens that are representative of the
antigens found on all of the cells of the
individual)
3. An inactive helper T cell (also called CD4 T
cell) binds to both the foreign antigen
presented on the macrophage’s surface and
with the “self” antigens for comparison.
4. The foreign antigen is now recognized as
“non-self” and the helper T cell becomes
sensitized or active
5. The macrophage, in addition, releases ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
monokines, which enhance the activation of
o this mechanism of immunity involves the
helper T cells
production of antibodies
ACTIVATION OF CELL-MEDIATED AND o is effective against extracellular pathogens
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi in blood
and body fluids
1. Activated helper T cells release their
o primarily involves the B cells
cytokines
2. These cytokines stimulate proliferation & o the following responses take place:
activity of other helper T cells and help  An inactive B cell encounters the invading
activate other T cell groups which provide antigen that fits its antigen receptors
for cell-mediated immunity & B cells which  In conjunction with the cytokines released
provide for antibody-mediated immunity by active helper T cells, the B cell is
activated
 The active B cell specific to the invading
TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY antigen proliferates & differentiates into
the following:
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY  memory B cells w/c will remember
o this mechanism of immunity does not result the specific antigen & initiate a rapid
in the production of antibodies response upon a second exposure
o is effective against intracellular pathogens  plasma cells that synthesize &
such as viruses, bacteria, & fungi located secrete a protein called
inside cells; and also, against some cancer immunoglobulin (Ig) or antibody
cells & foreign tissue transplants. specific for the invading antigen
o primarily involves the T cells  The antibodies released by the plasma
cells bind w/ the specific antigen, forming
o commences when activated helper T cells
an antigen-antibody complex
release their cytokines shortly after the
 The antigen-antibody complex can do any
invading antigen is presented by the
of the following:
macrophages
 immobilize bacteria
o the released cytokines bring about the
 neutralize antigen (toxins) or
following responses:
prevent attachment to cells
 the activated helper T cells divide or
(viruses)
proliferate & differentiate into:
 clump antigens together
 more active helper T cells specific to
(agglutination) for subsequent
the invading antigen
phagocytosis
 cytotoxic T cells (or CD8 T cells) w/c
 activate complement
chemically destroy the membranes
 attract phagocytes & enhance
of cells/agents containing the
phagocytosis
invading antigen
 memory T cells w/c will remember
the specific foreign antigen &
become active if it enters the body
again; they quickly initiate the cell-
mediated immune response should
there be a future exposure to the
antigen.
 the cytotoxic T cells also produce their
cytokines w/c attract macrophages to the
area & activate them to phagocytize the
foreign antigen & cellular debris
 CLASSES OF ANTOBODIES
IgG
o location: blood & lymph
o most abundant (80%) of all antibodies in the
blood
o the only class of antibody to cross the placenta
o FUNCTIONS. provides passive immunity for
newborns
o provides long-term immunity following
recovery from infection or administration of a
vaccine
IgA
o location: secretions of all mucous membranes
(sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, GI secretions) &
breast milk
o FUNCTIONS. provides passive immunity for
breast-fed newborns
o provides localized protection of mucous
membranes against bacteria & viruses
IgM
o location: blood
o first antibody to be secreted by plasma cells
after an initial exposure to any antigen
o FUNCTIONS. produced first during an
infection (IgG follows)
o are the anti-A & anti-B antibodies of ABO
blood group w/c bind w/ antigens to cause
agglutination during transfusion reactions
IgD
o location: blood & lymph, particularly on the B
lymphocytes
o FUNTION. serve as antigen receptors on the
surfaces of B cells w/c are involved in its
activation
IgE
o location: blood, mast cells & basophils
o FUNCTION. involved in allergic &
hypersensitivity reactions
o provides protection against parasitic worms
ANTIBODY RESPONSES
PRIMARY RESPONSE
o occurs during initial exposure to the antigen
o B cells are activated to proliferate & begin
producing antibody
o however, on a person’s first exposure to the
antigen, antibody production is usually too
slow
o In the case of an antigen of a pathogen (e.g.,
measles virus), antibody production during
the primary response is unable to prevent the
disease itself, and therefore disease (e.g.,
clinical measles) ensues
SECONDARY RESPONSE
o occurs during subsequent exposure to the
antigen
o memory cells formed during the primary
response stimulate the production of plasma
cells & an almost immediate rise in antibody
levels occur
o In the case of previously-acquired disease
(e.g., previous measles), on second exposure
to the pathogen, the large amounts of
antibodies are enough to prevent a second
case of the disease
o this is the reason why we develop immunity
to certain diseases, & this is also the basis for
the protection given by vaccines
SOURCES OF IMMUNITY
GENETIC IMMUNITY
o is conferred by our DNA
o does not involve antibodies or the immune
defenses but is the result of our genetic
makeup
o results in certain pathogens incapable of
causing disease in all human species
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
o involves antibodies
o Active Immunity = means that the individual
produces his or her own antibodies; the type
of immunity that stays with you for long
periods (usually for life), as the memory cells
& long-lasting antibodies remain with you
 Naturally-acquired active immunity
 mechanism: exposure to live
pathogens with which you are not
immune
 examples: getting sick w/
chickenpox & measles
 result: stimulation of an immune
response w/ symptoms of a disease;
there is recovery from the disease,
w/ production of antibodies &
memory cells
 Artificially-acquired active immunity
 result: stimulation of an immune
response without the severe
symptoms of a disease
o Passive Immunity = means that antibodies
are from another source (from another
person or animal) therefore “pre-made”;
however, the immunity it provides is
fleeting; once the antibodies degrade, so
does the immunity because there are no
immune cells to produce new antibodies
 Artificially-acquired passive immunity
 mechanism: injection of preformed
antibodies (gamma globulin or
immune globulin) after presumed
exposure
 examples: tetanus immune globulin
(TIg), rabies immune globulin (RIg)
 result: short-term immunity without
stimulating an immune response
 Naturally-acquired passive immunity
 mechanism & examples: placental
transmission of antibodies (IgG)
from mother to fetus;
transmission of antibodies in
breast milk (IgA) [the pregnant &
breastfeeding mother has active
immunity to certain diseases]
 result: short-term immunity for
newborn without stimulating an
immune response

ANTIBODY TITER
o is a laboratory test that measures the level
of certain antibodies in a blood sample
o positive values indicate specific immunity
to a previously-acquired disease or to
previous vaccination
o example: anti-HbSAg titer

ANTIBODY ASSAY
o is a laboratory test that measures the level
of a specific antigen in a blood sample
o positive values indicate active infection or
presence of antigen in the body
o example: HbSAg assay