ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
1. Transports escaped fluids from the
cardiovascular system back to the
blood.
2. Plays essential roles in body
defense and resistance to disease.

The Lymphatic System is consist of two

semi-independent parts:
• Lymphatic Vessels
• Lymphoid Tissues and Organs

LYMPHATIC COLLECTING VESSELS

• Collect lymph from lymph

capillaries.
• Carry lymph to and away from
lymph nodes.
• Return fluid to circulatory veins near
the heart.
• The right lymphatic duct drains the
lymph from the right arm and the
right side of the head and thorax.
• Thoracic duct drains lymph from the
rest of body.
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
• Form a one-way system.
• Lymph flows only towards the heart.

LYMPH CAPILLARIES
• Weave between tissue cells and
blood capillaries.
• Walls overlap to form flaplike mini
valves.
• Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries.
• Capillaries are anchored to
connective tissue by filaments.
Higher pressure on the inside
closes mini valves. Lymphatic vessels are similar to the
• Fluid is forced along the vessel. veins of the cardiovascular system as it
is

• Thin walled
• Larger vessels have valves
• Low-pressure, pumpless system.

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

Lymph transport is aided by: LYMPHATIC TISSUE

• Milking action of skeletal muscles. • consists of many lymphocytes and

• Pressure changes in thorax during other cells, such as macrophages;
breathing. found within lymphatic organs
• Smooth muscle in the walls of
TONSILS
lymphatics.
1. PALATINE TONSILS – located on
LYMPH NODES
each side of the posterior opening
- It filters lymph before it is returned of the oral cavity. Usually referred to
to the blood. as “the tonsils”
- Harmful materials that are filtered: 2. PHARYNGEAL TONSILS –
Bacteria, Viruses, Cancer Cells, located near the internal opening of
Cell Debris. the nasal cavity. (Adenoid –
enlarged pharyngeal tonsil.)
DEFENSE CELLS WITHIN LYMPH 3. LINGUAL TONSIL – on the
NODES posterior surface of the tongue.
• Macrophages – engulf and destroy LYMPH NODES
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
substances in lymph. • Rounded structures, varying from
• Lymphocytes – respond to foreign the size of a small seed to that of a
substances in lymph. shelled almond

Most lymph nodes are kidney- CAPSULE – dense CT that surrounds

shaped, less than 1 inch long, and each lymph node
buried in connective tissue.
TRABECULAE – extensions of the
• It is surrounded by a capsule. capsule
• Divided into compartments by LYMPHATIC NODULES – dense
trabeculae. aggregations of tissue
CORTEX (Outer Part of Lymph Nodes) form from lymphocytes and other cells
• Contains follicles – collection of LYMPHATIC SINUSES
lymphocytes.
• Germinal centers enlarge when • spaces between the lymphatic
antibodies are released by plasma tissues that contain macrophages
cells. on a network of fibers.

MEDULLA (Inner Part of Lymph Nodes) GERMINAL CENTERS

• Contains phagocytic macrophages. • lymphatic nodules containing the

rapidly dividing lymphocytes.
OTHER LYMPHOID ORGANS
SPLEEN

• Roughly the size of a clenched fist

and is located in the left, superior
corner of the abdominal cavity

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

• Has an outer capsule of dense CT BODY DEFENSES

and a small amount of smooth
muscle
TRABECULAE – divide the spleen into
small, interconnected compartments
containing 2 specialized types of lymphatic
tissue
WHITE PULP – surrounds the arteries
within the spleen
RED PULP – associated with the veins

INTERNAL DEFENSES: CELLS AND

CHEMICALS

Cells and chemicals provide a second

line of defense
• Natural killer cells and phagocytes
• Inflammatory response
• Chemicals that kill pathogens
• Fever

NATURAL KILLER (NK) CELLS

• Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells,
THYMUS virus-infected cells
• Release chemicals called perforin
• The bilobed gland is roughly and granzymes to
triangular in shape. • degrade target cell contents
• Site for maturation of lymphocytes.
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
CAPSULE – thin CT that surrounds each • Triggered when body tissues are
lobe. injured
TRABECULAE – divide each lobe into • The four most common indicators
lobules. (cardinal signs) of acute
inflammation
CORTEX – dark-staining areas where 1. Redness
lymphocytes are numerous 2. Heat
3. Pain
MEDULLA – lighter-staining, central 4. Swelling (edema)
portion of the lobules; has fewer
lymphocytes.

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

chemotaxis) and consume any

foreign material present.

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE PHAGOCYTES

• Damaged cells release inflammatory • Cells such as neutrophils and
chemicals macrophages engulf foreign
▪ Histamine material by phagocytosis
▪ Kinin • The phagocytic vesicle is fused
• These chemicals cause: with a lysosome, and enzymes
▪ Blood vessels to digest the cell’s contents
dilate
▪ Capillaries to
become leaky
▪ Phagocytes and
white blood cells
move into the area
(called positive
chemotaxis)

FUNCTIONS OF THE INFLAMMATORY

ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
RESPONSE
Enhance innate defenses by:
• Prevents spread of damaging
▪ Attacking
agents
microorganisms
• Disposes of cell debris and
directly
pathogens through phagocytosis
▪ Hindering
• Sets the stage for repair
reproduction of
microorganisms
PROCESS OF THE INFLAMMATORY MOST IMPORTANT TYPES
RESPONSE • Complement proteins
1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of • Interferon
inflammation by rolling along the
vessel wall (following the scent of
ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
chemicals from inflammation).
2. Neutrophils squeeze through the
COMPLEMENT PROTEINS
capillary walls by diapedesis to
• Complement refers to a group of at
sites of inflammation.
least 20 plasma proteins that
3. Neutrophils gather at the precise
circulate in the plasma
site of tissue injury (positive

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

• Complement is activated when • Immune response is the

these plasma proteins encounter immune system’s response
and attach to cells (known as to a threat.
complement fixation) • Antigens are targeted and
• Membrane attack complexes destroyed by antibodies.
(MACs), one result of complement Three aspects of adaptive defense
fixation, produce holes or pores in • Antigen specific—the
cells adaptive defense system
• Pores allow water to rush into the recognizes and acts against
cell particular foreign
• Cell bursts (lyses) substances.
• Systemic immunity is not
restricted to the initial
infection site
• Memory—the adaptive
defense system recognizes
and mounts a stronger
attack on previously
encountered pathogens
Two arms of the adaptive defense system
• Humoral immunity =
ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS: antibody-mediated
INTERFERONS immunity
• Interferons are small proteins • Provided by
secreted by virus-infected cells antibodies present
• Interferons bind to membrane in body fluids
receptors on healthy cell surfaces • Cellular immunity = cell-
to interfere with the ability of mediated immunity
viruses to multiply • Targets virus-
infected cells,
FEVER cancer cells, and
• Abnormally high body temperature cells of foreign grafts
is a systemic response to invasion Antigens
• Antigens are any substance
by microorganisms
capable of exciting the immune
• Hypothalamus regulates body
system and provoking an immune
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
response
• The hypothalamus thermostat can
• Examples of
be reset higher by pyrogens
common nonself antigens
(secreted by white blood cells)
• Foreign proteins
• High temperatures inhibit the provoke the
release of iron and zinc (needed strongest response
by bacteria) from the liver and • Nucleic acids
spleen • Large
• Fever also increases the speed of carbohydrates
repair processes • Some lipids
• Pollen grains
Adaptive Body Defenses • Microorganisms
• Adaptive body defenses are the (bacteria, fungi,
body’s specific defense system, or viruses)
the third line of defense. • Self-antigens

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

• Human cells have many • Lymphocytes (continued)

proteins and carbohydrate • T cells develop
molecules. immunocompetence in
• Self-antigens do not trigger the thymus and oversee
an immune response in us. cell-mediated immunity
• The presence of our cells in • Identify foreign
another person’s body can antigens
trigger an immune response • Those that bind self-
because they are foreign. antigens are
• Restricts donors for destroyed
transplants. • Self-tolerance is
important part of
• Haptens, or incomplete antigens, lymphocyte
are not antigenic by themselves "education"
• When they link up with our • B cells develop
own proteins, the immune immunocompetence in the
system may recognize the bone marrow and provide
combination as foreign and humoral immunity
respond with an attack • Immunocompetent T and B
• Found in poison ivy, animal lymphocytes migrate to the lymph
dander, detergents, hair nodes and spleen, where
dyes, cosmetics encounters with antigens occur
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: • Differentiation from naïve cells into
An Overview mature lymphocytes is complete
• Crucial cells of the adaptive system when they bind with recognized
1. Lymphocytes—respond to specific antigens
antigens • Mature lymphocytes (especially T
• B lymphocytes (B cells) cells) circulate continuously
produce antibodies and throughout the body
oversee humoral immunity
• T lymphocytes (T cells)
constitute the cell-mediated
arm of the adaptive
defenses; do not make
antibodies
1. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)—
help the lymphocytes but do not
respond to specific antigens
• Lymphocytes
• Arise from hemocytoblasts
of bone marrow
• Whether a lymphocyte
matures into a B cell or T • Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
cell depends on where it • Engulf antigens and then
becomes present fragments of them
immunocompetent on their own surfaces,
• Immunocompetence where they can be
• The capability to respond to recognized by T cells
a specific antigen by binding • Major types of cells
to it with antigen-specific behaving as APCs
receptors that appear on the • Dendritic cells
lymphocyte’s surface • Macrophages

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

• B lymphocytes of a B cell to an antigen

• When they present
antigens, dendritic cells and PLASMA CELLS – produce antibodies
macrophages activate T MEMORY B CELLS – responsible of the
cells, which release
secondary response
chemicals
SECONDARY RESPONSE / MEMORY
LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION RESPONSE – occurs when the immune
INTERLEUKIN-2 – binds to interleukin-2 system is exposed to an antigen against
receptors and stimulates the helper T cells which it has already produced a primary
to divide response.

B CELL PROLIFERATION – when helper CELL – MEDIATED IMMUNITY

T cells stimulate B cells to divide and • A function of cytotoxic T cells and is
differentiate into cells that produce most effective against
antibodies microorganisms inside body cells

ANTIBODY - MEDIATED IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

ACTIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY

STRUCTURES OF ANTIBODIES • Results from natural exposure to an

antigen
ANTIBODIES – proteins produced in
response to an antigen ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY

VARIABLE REGION – part of the antibody • An antigen is deliberately

that combines with the antigen introduced into an individual to
stimulate the immune system
CONSTANT REGION – the rest of the • Vaccination // Vaccine (antigen
antibody introduced)
GAMMA GLOBULINS – other name for PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
antibodies
• Results hen antibodies are
IMMUNOGLOBULINS (Ig) – part of the transferred from a mother to a child
plasma where antibodies and found across the placenta before birth
PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES • Transfer of antibodies from an
animal to a person
• Directly inactivate antigens or
cause them to clump together OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE
• Indirectly destroy antigens by INTERACTIONS
promoting phagocytosis and
inflammation • Innate immunity, antibody-
mediated immunity, and cell-
mediated immunity can function
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION together to eliminate an antigen.
PRIMARY RESPONSE – results from the
first exposure

J. TAGACAY
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1ST SEMESTER – FINALS REVIEWER

IMMUNOTHERAPY
• Treats disease by altering immune
system function or by directly
attacking harmful cells.

J. TAGACAY