Assessment of Extreme Thermo-Mechanical States of

Engineering Systems under Operating Loading Conditions

1
Nikolay A. Makhutov , Mikhail M. Gadenin, Dmitry O. Reznikov

Abstract The paper presents basic approaches to assessment of strength, service life and survivability of
structural components of technical systems subjected to various types of operating loading regimes. These
include: (i) thermo-mechanical loading regimes of normal operation inducing the states of stress and strain that
can be considered using traditional stress-based methods and criteria; (ii) extreme design basis loading regimes
related to design basis emergency situations that require a transition to design according to strain-based
fracture criteria with accounting for temperature, force and frequency factors, and (iii) loading regimes induced
by beyond design basis (accident and catastrophic) situations that should be analyzed using equations and
criteria of nonlinear deformation mechanics in its most complex thermally coupled formulation

1 Assessment of strength under regular impacts

A huge volume of design and experimental studies allows obtaining basic laws of damage accumulation and
fracture for widely used metallic structural materials as well as developing structural design codes and
standards [1-4]. These studies were mainly focused on mechanical Qm and thermo-mechanical QT loads (axial
and lateral forces, bending and torque moments) of a regular technological and operational character. The loads
cause relatively small nominal stresses σ and strains ε whose magnitudes are comparable with the
corresponding values of yield stress σy and strain εy (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 The initial section of the stress strain curve

In traditional engineering standard-based methods of design for static strength the following four key tasks
are being solved [1-7]:
- determination of the stress-strain response {σmax-εmax} of the structural component in stress concentration
zones:
* + * + { }; (1)
- analysis of constitutive laws that determine the resistance of a material to deformation in the elastic and
inelastic regions:

Nikolay Andreevich Makhutov

Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the RAS
Mikhail Matveevich Gadenin
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the RAS
Dmitry Olegovich Reznikov
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the RAS, email: mibsts@mail.ru

1
 * + { }; (2)
- validation of stress based σf and strain based εf fracture criteria;
- formation of local strength conditions:

* +*, - , -+ { } 2 3 (3)

In the expressions (1) - (3): E is the modulus of elasticity; n is strain hardening exponent; ν is the Poisson's
ratio; Kt is the theoretical stress concentration factor; and [σ], [ε] are allowable stresses and strains; γσ , γε, γG
are safety factor expressed in terms of stresses σ , strains ε, energy G; A is a characteristic of the dangerous
cross section (area, moment of inertia, etc.); FQ{·} is a functional; σd and εd are dangerous stresses and strains
that correspond to the occurrence of yielding: these states include the occurrence of plastic yielding (σd=σy,
εd=εy) or fracture (σd= σf, εd= εf).
For normal operating conditions of the facilities of thermal and hydraulic power engineering, petrochemical
industry, metallurgy, civil engineering and transport the following design parameters are used:

* + { }; ; ; ; ( ) (4)
where σu is the ultimate strength of the material determined by the results of standard tests.
Temperature T, duration of loading τ, and the number of loading cycles N are considered as characteristics
of regular operational impacts:
* + * +. (5)
Maximum temperatures Tmax are usually chosen within the range of 0.1–0.4 of the melting temperature Tm,
the time τmax is up to 3∙106 hours, the number of cycles N is up to 106÷107. In accordance with the results of
studies [1–7], the states of stresses and strains as well as limit states can be characterized by exponential or
power law functions of the above parameters T, τ, and N:
{( )( )( )} * +. (6)
The experimentally obtained dependencies of strength σf and ductility εf versus temperature (T), time (τ),
and number of loading cycles (N) are used in engineering design (Fig. 2). These curves allow assessment of the
durability in terms of duration of loading τc or number of cycles Nk. Here subscripts f0 and f refer to the
moments of crack initiation and fracture. The allowable values of durability are estimated by means of safety
factors:

*, - , -+ 2 3. (7)

Fig. 2 The influence of operational factors on strength σf and ductility εf

Modern methods of technical diagnostics allow detecting various types of defects in hazardous areas. The
greatest influence on strength and durability is exerted by crack like defects characterized by their linear size l.
In the domain of classical linear fracture mechanics [5-9]:

{ √ } , -; , - 2 3; { √ }; , - (8)

where KI is the stress intensity factor; KIc is the critical stress intensity factor; lf – is the critical crack size; γK, γl
are safety factors expressed in terms of stress intensity factor and crack size.
The values of safety factors in the equations (3) and (8) are related by the inequality γT≤γK <γl.
The crack growth over time τ and the number of cycles N is described by power law equations:
* + * ( ) ( )+ , (9)

2
where dl/dτ, dl/dN are the crack growth rates; KI(τ) and ∆KI(τ), KI(N) and ∆KI(N) are the maximum values and
ranges of the stress intensity factor; mk is the material constant.

2 Parameters of extreme states of stresses under isothermal impacts

When the system is transferred into extreme modes of operation, a significant increase in operational,
technological and external impacts occurs. This refers to the unique power engineering, aviation, and space
technology facilities [6, 10-15]. Such effects may occur when the system works in forced operation conditions
or is driven into a resonance, when it is passing some forbidden areas of operation or subjected to the impacts
of earthquakes (these include: acceleration of turbines, flutter, emergency start-ups and shutdowns). In such
cases mechanical, thermal, aerohydrodynamic, seismic loads Qm and QT in expression (1) may increase by
factor of 1.1÷1.8 [6], temperatures t in expressions (5), (6) may rise by 50 ÷ 200 0С. In combination with stress
concentration Kt, maximum stresses σmax in hazardous zones and, especially, elastoplastic strains εmax can be
significantly larger than the allowable values [σ], [e] that correspond to normal design conditions (according
to equations (1), (3), and (6) [6]. In these cases the traditional engineering strength and durability analysis
described in [1-3] that uses stresses σ, σmax, [σ] becomes insufficient and insensitive to the growth of strains
according to Fig. 1 and to the decrease of durability according to Fig. 2. Therefore, when extreme (highly
loaded) operating modes are considered it is necessary to substitute the traditional stress-based analysis by
strain based design methods [4, 6, 7, 16-22]. It should be noted that in notch zones the strain concentration
factor Kε=εmax/εy sharply increases [6, 7, 15-18, 22] while the stress concentration factor Kσ= σmax/σy decreases
(Kσ≤Kt≤Kε).
An increase in the loads Qm and QT, nominal and local stresses σ, σmax and strains ε, εmax creates significant
local stresses in zones of extreme stress concentration caused by cracks. Under such conditions the stress
intensity factor KI used in linear fracture mechanics does not describe the kinetics of strain fields. In this case,
within the framework of nonlinear fracture mechanics, one can use the strain intensity factor KIε instead of KI,
and the critical value KIεс instead of the critical value KIс [6, 7, 10-15]. In turn, an increase in KIε causes an
increase in the crack growth rate by 1.5–2 times.
Under extreme beyond design basis conditions, when expressions (1)-(9) that were valid for the region of
limited elastoplastic deformations are not satisfied, the nominal and maximum local strains ε, εmax significantly
(by orders of magnitude) exceed the design and allowable strains [ε] in expression (3) [6]:

* + ; { } (10)

Fig. 3 Difference between true stress-strain (“σ-ε”) and engineering stress-strain (“σ0-ε0”) diagrams

For such strains it becomes necessary to use true stresses σ that account for the decrease of cross section area A
in the process of specimen deformation:
; ; . (11)
True strains ε also exceed engineering strains ε0:

; ∫ , (12)

where Δl is the elongation of the specimen, l0 is the initial length of the working part of the specimen, dl is the
increment of the actual length l of the specimen, ψ is the relative narrowing of the cross section area.
The true stress-true strain curve “σ-ε” goes higher than the engineering stress - engineering strain curve “σ0-
ε0” (Fig.3).
In engineering analysis of design bases situations two basic characteristics (yield strength σy and ultimate
strength σu) are used as stress-based failure criteria:

{ }, (13)

3
and as strain-based criterion

{ }. (14)
Engineering σf0 and true Sf fracture stresses are estimated as

; (15)
where Pf is the load at fracture "f"; Af is the area of the cross section of the specimen in the neck.
At the moment of fracture the true strain εf and the true fracture stress Sf are:

; ( ) ; ( ). (16)

For structural steels the value of σy lies in the range of 200÷1200MPa, σu is in the range of 400÷1500MPa;
εf0 is within 15÷25%; ψf is within 30÷70%; εf is within 35 ÷130%; Sf is within 600÷1800MPa.
In the elastic and elastoplastic regions the relationships between the true stresses and strains are described
by the linear and power law functions [6, 7, 22]:

for ; (17)
( ) for . (18)
The stress-strain diagram (Fig. 3) shows three characteristic areas:
I - the region of elastic deformation, widely used in basic engineering calculations of strength for
determining the main dimensions of the cross sections A0;
II - the region of subcritical plastic deformation used for verification calculations of strength and durability
under design basis conditions of structures;
III - the area of extreme supercritical plastic deformation for verification calculations beyond design basis
conditions (emergency and catastrophic).
The following assumptions are used for conducting calculations in regions I - III:
for the region I:

; ; ; ; (19)
for the region II:

; ; ; ( ) ; ; ; (20)
for the region III:

; ; ; ( ) ; ; . (21)
For the regions II and III in accordance with Fig. 3 and equations (18), (20) and (21):

( )
; . (22)
( )

According to expression (22) for a perfectly elastic material n = 1 and for a perfectly plastic material n=0.
For structural steels the value of n varies within the range of 0.05≤n≤0.3.
For the considered regions of elastoplastic deformation when estimating the stress Kσ and strain Kε
concentration factors the well-known Neuber expression was modified in the form [6, 7, 15, 22]:

* +. (23)

According to the analytical solution of Neuber for the region II of limited inelastic deformations the
functional F = 1; in a modified form (24) of Neuber equation for regions II and III the following form of
functional form was proposed that fits well to available experimental data and results of numerical
investigations in a wide range of strains:
( )[ ( )]
[ ] (24)
Expression (24) at high levels of loads and plastic strains allows accounting for the changes in the geometry
of the deformable zones of the structure and the size of the cross sections that occur up to final fracture using
strain and stress based fracture criteria:

; . (25)

4
 In the region I (according to Fig. 3) for σ/σy≤1/Kt: Kσ = Kε=Kt; in the region II for 1/Kt <σ/σy≤1: Kσ <Kt
Kε>Kt; in the region III for σ/σy≥1: Kσ → 1; Kε ≥ Kt2 (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Relationship between Kt, Kσ and Kε for various nominal stresses σ/σy

Equations (23) - (25) were used as basic equations for regions I – III (in Fig. 3, 4) to describe the state of
stresses and strains in the zones of extremely high stress concentration created by cracks of size l [6, 7, 22, 26].
In region I under elastic strains, based on expression (8), for the theoretical stress concentration factor Kt at a
distance r from the crack tip in the plate at, we can write.
Using the equations (8) of linear fracture mechanics for the point of a plate located at the distance r from
the crack tip for Ff=1 one may white down the following equation:
̅
(26)
√

where K I  ( /  y ) l. (27)

The joint solution of equations (18), (23), (24) for extensive elastoplastic strains (ε/εy 1) makes it possible
to estimate the values of strain and stresses concentration factors Kε and Kσ at the crack tip. Then comparing
the obtained Kε and Kσ and using equation (26) and (27), one may get the normalized strain and stress intensity
factors K I  and K I  for extensive elastoplastic deformations [6, 7, 22]:

̅ ̅ ; ̅ ̅ ; (28)
( )( )
; . (29)

For the elastic material when n=1 the quantities K I  K I   K I .

Equations (26), (28) and (29) allow one to get the distribution of elastoplastic strains εmax and stresses σmax
at the crack tip using design methods. The results of measurements of the normalized strains εmax/εy that were
obtained using the method of grids with a step of 0.1 mm [6] fit well to the designed values of normalized
strains that were to estimated according to equations (28) for very high nominal stresses (1<σ/σ y<1.5) when
local strains were within the region of 10≤εmax/εy≤200. In this case, the law of distribution of strains along the
radius r at the crack tip varies from “-0.5” in equation (26) to “-0.5pfε” according to equation (29).
If we assume that the crack propagation by the value of dl occurs in zone the rf at its apex, then for
εmax/εy≥εf for a plane stress state, we can obtain a crack growth curve l under static loading for regions I-III [6].

( ) ̅
[ ( )] (30)
( ) ̅
[ 4̅ 5 ]

where l0 is the initial crack size.

The size of the developing crack with increasing loads (stresses) will be:

. (31)

5
 With increasing temperatures T to 0.4Tm (Tm is the melting temperature) in normal and abnormal conditions
(regions I and II), the basic characteristics of the mechanical properties of the material change [6, 7, 23]. This
change can be described by an exponential dependence [6, 10- 16]:

{ } { } 0( ). /1. (32)

For the region III when 0.4 Tm ≤T≤ Tm the term . / in equation (32) is replaced by . /.

The subscript “0” in expression (32) designates mechanical properties at room temperature (T0=293K); βy,
βu - material characteristics determined by experiment.
The parameter βy decreases monotonically from 140 to 40 with an increase of σ yo from 250 to 900 MPa.
The value βu <βy and is equal to [6]:
( )
. (33)
( )

The ductility ψf is related to the parameters of strength of the material as [6]:

6 ( ) 7. (34)

If the values of σy, σu, ψf, Sf are known, one may use equations (16), (22) depending on T to determine the
strain hardening exponent n and calculate the strength in the stress concentration zones according to equations
(19), (20) and estimate the crack growth according to equation (28).
Under conditions of extreme high-temperature (T T0) long-term (τ τ0) loading, with accounting for
equations (5), (16) and Fig. 2 for true stresses σ according to (11) and true strains according to (12), the curves
of long-term strength have the form a power-law dependence on time τ [6, 10-15, 22]:
( )
; ( ) (35)

where σu0, ψf0 is the ultimate strength and relative narrowing of cross section area under short-term standard
tensile test with time τ0; nσ, nψ - material characteristics determined by experiment.
With increasing temperature the strain hardening exponent nσ increases exponentially similar to equation
(32).
( ) (36)
-3
where nσ0 is a characteristic that is slightly dependent on the material (nσ0 1∙10 ).
For low alloyed (Cr–Mo–V) steels βσ = 6.1∙10- 3, for austenitic stainless steels βσ=5.1∙10- 3.
The exponent nψ in equation (35) [6]:
. (37)
For the above steels kψ lies in the ranges -(0.1÷0.15) and +(1.15÷0.6) respectively.
Equations (22), (35–37) allow us to calculate the hardening exponent n for a given temperature T and time τ.
Using the obtained value of n for these T and τ and equations (23), (24) one can determine Kσ and Kε. Then
from equation (25) the conditions of fracture in stress concentration zones can be determined and crack growth
diagram can be obtain using equation (30).

3 Coupled thermo-mechanical analysis of strength under extreme loading

As noted in paragraphs 1 and 2, in most cases engineering calculations for normal impacts QT that refer to the
areas I and II (Fig. 3 and Fig.4) of design basis decisions, elevated temperatures T are caused mainly by
working processes in structures. They affect stress-strain states according to equations (1), (2), (4), (5), (6), and
designed characteristics of mechanical properties according to expressions (32) and (35).
Taking into account the combined influence of the factors time τ and temperature T, the corresponding
solutions could be extended to all the analyzed regions I, II, III when strength and durability assessment is
carried out using expressions (13), (11) - (16), (23), (35 ) and the kinetics of crack development is being
investigated according to expressions (8), (9), (28) - (30). At the same time special theoretical and
experimental studies [6, 13, 19] show that under static and cyclic elastic and elastoplastic deformations a
change in temperature ΔTε occurs associated with the development of strain ε.
Figure 5 shows the results of an experimental measurements of the temperature increase ∆Tε by 10–140°C
with an increase in the strain ε up to 10–12% (with its slight decrease in the elastic region) under conditions of
thermally insulated static tension of the specimens at the temperature of T0 =20°C in vacuum for two reactor
steels [19 ]: 1 is the low-alloyed heat-resistant steel (Cr-M–W) and 2 is the austenitic stainless steel (Cr–Ni–
Ti).
6
 Fig. 5 The relationship between elastoplastic strain ε and specimen heating ∆Tε

In the first approximation for extensive plastic strains εp the dependence may assume to be linear:
(38)
where kT is a characteristic of the material.
According to the experiment when strains are calculated in normalized units kT=1.12·102deg·m/m (for steel
1) and kT=0.82·102 deg·m/m (for steel 2). For small elastoplastic deformations a complex dependence of ΔT on
ε takes place.
If in experiments at T0=200C a cyclic elastoplastic deformation is carried out at a constant stress range
(∆σ=const) then for structural high-strength steels (500≤σy≤1000 MPa; 0.65≤σy/σu≤0.85) a cyclic softening
occurs (Fig.6):
- an increase in the range of plastic strains in the cycle ∆εp(N);
- a unilateral accumulation of plastic strains εp(N) with the number of loading cycles N.

Fig. 6 Kinetics of diagrams of cyclic elastoplastic deformation

According to equation (38) the integral strain εp(N) for the cycle N, can be estimated as:
( ) ∑ ( ). (39)
Dangerous cyclic elastoplastic deformations in the regions I and II (Figs. 3, 4) can occur at high loading
frequencies fh with a rapid increase of εp (according to (39) due to the appearance of resonance phenomena,
increasing vibrations, pressure pulsations and temperatures. This leads to an intensive increase in temperatures
ΔTε according to expression (38) under self-heating conditions that are close to the adiabatic process. For steel
at T0=200C, ∆ε (N) at the level of 0.5–0.6%, and the loading frequency fh=70–80 Hz, the temperature increment
∆Tε of the smooth specimen in the experiments reached up to 500–6000С and for the specimen with a central
hole (Kt=3) the increase in the local temperature in the zone of the developing crack [6] was even higher (up to
800–1000°C).
For the regions II, III in Fig. 3 and 4, such an increase in temperatures in accordance with expressions (35)
- (37) leads to a deterioration in the mechanical properties of the material and, subsequently, to a further
increase in strains Δεp(N) and Δε0(N) in expression (39) which, in turn, according to (38) leads to the increases
in ΔTε. In view of the foregoing, the task of analyzing cyclic deformation under extreme conditions becomes

7
thermally coupled both under a uniform state of stresses (Kt=1) and in the zones of stress concentration (Kt>1)
and the zones of crack propagation (l> 0).
The results of measurements of the temperature increment ∆Tε at the crack tip in a flat specimen made of
low alloy steel with the initial crack are shown in Fig. 7 for two ranges of stresses of a symmetric cycle
∆σ=1140MPa (curve 1) and ∆σ=1020 MPa (curve 2) at a loading frequency fh=10 Hz.

Fig. 7 An increase in temperature at the crack tip with an increase in the number of loading cycles

An increase in temperature is accompanied by an acceleration of crack growth dl/dN. Fig. 8 presents the
strain fields ε calculated with the help of the finite element method for the regime along the curve 1 (Fig.7) and
the temperature fields Tε at the crack tip for the number of cycles N=100 measured by infrared imager.

Fig. 8 Coupled fields (contour lines) of local temperatures and strains at the crack tip of length l under cyclic loading

Under isothermal cyclic elastoplastic deformation in regions I – II (according to Fig. 3 and 4), fracture is
determined by the accumulation of damage d from three components of cyclic deformations [6, 15-22]:
- the range of elastic strains ∆εe(N) = ∆σ/E;
- the range of plastic strains ∆εp(N);
- unilateral accumulated strain ∆εp0(N).
The durability (the number of cycles to failure, Fig. 2) under the considered extreme loading conditions is
determined using the classical power-law equations of Weller–Coffin–Langer fatigue curves that account for
[6, 22] the changes in the mechanical properties of materials according to the equations (35) for the curves of
long-term strength and strain-based criteria of cyclic fracture:
( ) ( ) (40)
where mp, me, Cp , Ce are material characteristics determined experimentally. For structural steels mp≈0.5÷0.6;
Ce=0.08÷0.12; Cp=0.5εk; Ce =0.5(Sf/E).
Equations (40) characterize fatigue failure with the formation of cracks.
Damage accumulation due to the shift of the diagram of elastoplastic deformation (unilateral accumulation
of plastic deformation) Δεp(N) can lead to quasistatic fracture [7, 22, 24] with the formation of a neck in the
region of a small number of cycles (1≤N≤103):
∑ [ ( )] . (41)
8
In a wide range of N (from 100 to 1012) failure is determined by the linear summation of damages from each
cycle expressed in terms of fatigue df =1/Nf and quasistatic dS = 1/Ns parameters of damage [6, 22].

∑ ( ) . (42)
For the regions II and III ( Fig. 3 and Fig.4) it is necessary to introduce into expressions (39) - (42)
parameters εf, Sf that depend on temperature that varies at each stage of cyclic loading N:
. (43)
Parameters of strength and durability that were determined with accounting for the operating temperature Tε
are lower and the crack growth rate dl/dN is higher than these parameters that were calculated for the
temperature T0.
New types of limit states are added to the traditional limit states of the material fracture characterized by
the process of damage accumulation under operational loading regimes [6, 19, 21, 25]. These new types of
limit states are associated with local heating of the material up to the temperatures of the material melting and
ignition which may occur during the operation of the facilities of nuclear, missile and space industries.

4 Conclusions

1) Regulatory and verification calculations for determination of strength, service life and survivability of
modern critical high-load structures of nuclear power engineering [10, 11], aviation [14] and missile and space
technology [12, 13] subjected to extreme impacts that are related the design-basis region I (see Fig.3 and 4) can
be carried out using traditional stress-and strain-based criteria. In this case the nominal stresses σ at the
accepted safety factors γσ lie in the range 0.5÷0.9 of the yield strength σ Y and are below the ultimate strength
σu. In this case local strains εmax in the zones of stress concentration and thermal loading may reach up to 3–5
of the yield strain εY.
2) Design basis extreme mechanical, thermal, seismic, aerohydrodynamic impacts in the region II cause an
increase in local strains εmax up to 10εY. This requires a transition to design according to strain-based criteria of
fracture with accounting for temperature, force and frequency factors.
3) Calculations for extreme beyond design bases impacts that belong to the region III (when local strains
may reach up to 100÷500εY and initiate fractures and sharp increase in the crack growth rates dl/dN, dl/dτ)
should be based on equations and criteria of nonlinear deformation mechanics in its most complex thermally
coupled formulation. These problems may be solved by means of probabilistic modeling of the processes of
damage accumulation and occurrence of limit states under these conditions [27].

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation (grant no. 20-19-00769).

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