STATISTICS APPLIED

TO RESEARCH
“How many participants
should be chosen for a
survey”?
Sample Size Determination

The sample size is typically

denoted by n and it is always a
positive integer.
Sample Size Determination

The choosing of sample size depends on:

✦ Non-statistical considerations
✦ Statistical considerations
 Criteria Need to be Specified to
Determine the Appropriate Sample Size

1. Level of Precision
2. Confidence Interval
3. Degree of Variability
 Criteria Need to be Specified to
Determine the Appropriate Sample Size

Level of Precision
Also called sampling error, the level of
precision, is the range in which the true
value of the population is estimated to
be.
 Criteria Needed to be Specified to
Determine the Appropriate Sample Size

Confidence Interval
It is a statistical measure of the number of
times out of 100 that results can be expected
to be within a specified range.
 Criteria Need to be Specified to
Determine the Appropriate Sample Size

Degree of Variability
Depending upon the target population
and attributes under consideration, the
degree of variability varies considerably.
 Methods in Determining the
Sample Size
Estimating the Mean or Average
The sample size required to estimate the
population mean µ to with a level of confidence
with specified margin of error e, given by

( e )
2
Zσ
n≥
Where:
Z is the z-score corresponding to level of confidence
e is the level of precision.
Reminders:
If When σ is unknown, it is common practice
to conduct a preliminary survey to determine
s and use it as an estimate of σ or use results
from previous studies to obtain an estimate of
σ. When using this approach, the size of the
sample should be at least 30. The formula for
the sample standard deviation s is
2
∑ (x − x̄)
s=
n−1
 Example:
A soft drink machine is regulated so
that the amount of drink dispensed is
approximately normally distributed
with a standard deviation equal to 0.5
ounce. Determine the sample size
needed if we wish to be 95% confident
that our sample mean will be within +.
03 ounce from the true mean.
 Solution:
A soft drink machine is regulated so that the amount of
drink dispensed is approximately normally distributed with
a standard deviation equal to 0.5 ounce. Determine the
sample size needed if we wish to be 95% confident that our
sample mean will be within +.03 ounce from the true mean.

The z – score for confidence level 95% in the z – table is 1.96.

( 0.03 )
2
1.96(0.5)
n≥ = 10,671.11

We need a 10,672 sample for our study.

 Methods in Determining the
Sample Size
Estimating Proportion (Infinite Population)
The sample size required to obtain a confidence
interval for p with specified margin of error e is
given by

(e)
2
Z
n≥ p(1 − p)
Where:
Z is the z-score corresponding to level of confidence
e is the level of precision.
P is population proportion
 Example:
Suppose we are doing a study on the
inhabitants of a large town, and want to find
out how many households serve breakfast in
the mornings. We don’t have much
information on the subject to begin with, so
we’re going to assume that half of the
families serve breakfast: this gives us
maximum variability. So p = 0.5. We want
99% confidence and at least 1% precision.
 Solution:
Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large
town, and want to find out how many households serve
breakfast in the mornings. We don’t have much information on
the subject to begin with, so we’re going to assume that half of
the families serve breakfast: this gives us maximum variability.
So p = 0.5. We want 99% confidence and at least 1% precision.
The z – score for confidence level 99% in the z – table is 2.58.

( 0.01 )
2
2.58
n≥ 0.5(1 − 0.5) = 16,641
We need a 16,641 sample for our study.
 Methods in Determining the
Sample Size
Slovin’s Formula (Simplified form of Proportions for
finite population)

Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the

sample size n given the population size and
error. It is computed as
N
n≥
1 + Ne 2
Where:
N is the total population
e is the level of precision.
 Example:

A researcher plans to conduct a survey

about food preference of BS Stat
students. If the population of students is
1000, find the sample size if the error is
5%.
 Solution:
A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food
preference of BS Stat students. If the population of
students is 1000, find the sample size if the margin
of error is 5%.

1000
n≥ = 285.71
1 + 1000(0.05) 2

The researcher need to survey 286 BS stat students.

Infinite Population Correction

The conservative formula using the strong

law of large number.

4 (e)
2
1 Z
n= ≈ 385

Where:
Confidence level is 95%
The level of precision is 0.05
Finite Population Correction
If the population is small then the sample size
can be reduced slightly.
n0
n=
no − 1
1+
N
Where:
no is Cochran’s sample size recommendation
N is the population size
Exercises:
Determine the sample size of the following
problems.
1. A dermatologist wishes to estimate the
proportion of young adults who apply
sunscreen regularly before going out in
the sun in the summer. Find the minimum
sample size required to estimate the
proportion with precision of 3%, and 90%
confidence.
Exercises:
Determine the sample size of the following
problems.
2.The administration at a college wishes
to estimate, the proportion of all its
entering freshmen who graduate within
four years, with 95% confidence.
Estimate the minimum size sample
required. Assume that the population
standard deviation is σ = 1.3 and precision
level is 0.05.
 SAMPLING DESIGN: Basic
Concepts and Procedure

The goal in sampling is to obtain

individuals for a study in such a way that
accurate information about the
population can be obtained.
 Two Type of Samples

1. Probability Sample
2. Non - Probability Sample
 Probability Samples

• Samples are obtained using some

objective chance mechanism, thus
involving randomization.
• They require the use of a complete
listing of the elements of the universe
called the sampling frame.
 Probability Samples
• The probabilities of selection are known.
• They are generally referred to as
random samples.
• They allow drawing of valid
generalizations about the universe/
population.
 Non-Probability Samples

• Samples are obtained haphazardly,

selected purposively or are taken as
volunteers.
• The probabilities of selection are
unknown.
 Non-Probability Samples

• They should not be used for statistical

inference.
• The result from the use of judgment
sampling, accidental sampling,
purposively sampling, and the like.
 Basic Sampling Technique of
Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Multi-stage Sampling
Simple Random Sampling

• Most basic method of drawing a

probability sample
• Assigns equal probabilities of selection
to each possible sample
• Results to a simple random sample
Simple Random Sampling
 Obtaining a Simple Random
Sample

1. Assign a number to each item in the lot.

2. Consult the table of random numbers.
3. Preplan how to select a sequence of
digits from the table so that no bias enters
into the selection process.
 Obtaining a Simple Random
Sample
4. Select a random number in the
preplanned pattern.
5. Arrange the random numbers
consecutively in numerical order.
6. Select as samples those items in the lot
corresponding to the random numbers.
 An Example of a Table of
Random Numbers
10097 85017 84532 13618 23517 86952 02438 76520
37542 16719 82789 69041 05545 44109 05403 64894
08422 65842 27672 82186 14871 22115 86529 19645
99019 76875 20684 39187 38976 94324 43204 09376
12807 93640 39160 41453 97312 41548 93137 80517
66065 99478 70086 71265 11742 18226 29004 34072
31060 65119 26486 47353 43361 99436 42753 45571
85269 70322 21592 48233 93806 32584 21828 02051
63573 51833 41278 11697 49540 61777 67954 05325
73796 44655 81255 31133 36768 60452 74294 87517
Systematic Random Sampling

• It is obtained by selecting every kth

individual from the population.
• T h e fi r s t i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t e d
corresponds to a random number
between 1 to k.
Systematic Random Sampling
Obtaining a Systematic Random
Sample
1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial
number, from 1 to N, to each one of the elements in the
population.
N PopulationSize
2. Compute for the sampling interval k= =
n SampleSize

3. Select a number, from 1 to k, using a randomization

mechanism. The element in the population assigned to
this number is the first element of the sample. The other
elements of the sample are those assigned to the
numbers and so on until you get a sample of size.
 Example:

We want to select a sample of 50

students from 500 students under this
method kth item and picked up from the
sampling frame.
 Solution:

500
k= = 10
50
We start to get a sample starting form i and
for every kth unit subsequently. Suppose the
random number i is 5, then we select 5, 15, 5,
35, .. .
Stratified Random Sampling

• It is obtained by separating the

population into non-overlapping groups
called strata and then obtaining a simple
random sample from each stratum.
• The individuals within each stratum
should be homogeneous (or similar) in
some way.
Stratified Random Sampling
 Example:
A sample of 50 students is to be drawn
from a population consisting of 500
students belonging to two institutions A
and B. The number of students in the
institution A is 200 and the institution B
is 300. How will you draw the sample
using proportional allocation?
 Solution:
There are two strata in this case.
Given: N1 = 200 N2 = 300 N = 500 n = 50
If n1 and n2 are the sample size,

(N) ( 500 )
n 50
n1 = N1 = 200 = 20

(N) ( 500 )
n 50
n2 = N2 = 300 = 30

The sample sizes are 20 from A and 30 from B. Then the units
from each institution are to be selected by simple random
sampling.
 Cluster Sampling
• It is a way to randomly select
participants from a list that is too large
for simple random sampling.
• The clusters are constructed such that
the sampling units are heterogeneous
within the cluster and homogeneous
among the clusters.
Cluster Sampling
Obtaining a Cluster Sample
1. Divide the population into non-overlapping
clusters.
2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N.
3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a
randomization mechanism. The selected clusters are
the clusters associated with the selected numbers.
4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the
selected clusters.
 Example:

If you wanted to choose 1000 participants

from the entire population of the
Philippines, it is likely impossible to get a
complete list of everyone. Instead, the
researcher randomly selects areas (i.e.
cities or province) and randomly selects
from within those boundaries.
 Example:

The list of all the agricultural farms in a

village or district may not be easily
available but the list of village or district is
generally available. In this case, every
farm in sampling unit and every village or
district is the cluster.
 Multi - Stage Sampling

Selection of the sample is done in two or

more steps or stages, with sampling units
varying in each stage.
Multi - Stage Sampling
 Obtaining a Multi-Stage
Sampling
1. Organize the sampling process into
stages where the unit of analysis is
systematically grouped.
2. Select a sampling technique for each
stage.
3. Systematically apply the sampling
technique to each stage until the unit of
analysis has been selected
 Obtaining a Multi-Stage
Sampling
Second, a Third, a
First, divide random sample random sample
into smaller of smaller areas of even smaller
regions (such (such as areas (such as
as states), and counties) is neighborhood)
a random taken from is taken from
sample of within each of within each of
these regions the regions the areas
is collected. chosen in the chosen in the
first stage. second stage.
 Basic Sampling Technique of
Non-Probability Sampling
• Accidental Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Judgement Sampling
Cases wherein Non-Probability
Sampling is Useful

✦ Only few are willing to be interviewed

✦ Extreme difficulties in locating or
identifying subjects
✦ Probability sampling is more expensive
to implement
Exercises:
Identify the sample selection procedure used in
each of the following cases:

1. A tax auditor selects every 1000th

income tax return that is received.
2. 12 people are randomly selected to
serve as jurors from a jury pool of 150
people.
Exercises:
Identify the sample selection procedure used in
each of the following cases:
3. To select a sample of households in a
province, a sample of provinces were
selected, then a sample of municipalities
were chosen from each of the selected
provinces, then a sample of barangays
were chosen from each of the selected
municipality, and all households in the
selected barangays were included.
Exercises:
Identify the sample selection procedure used in
each of the following cases:
4. For a survey, a sample of municipalities
was selected from every province in the
country and included all child laborers in
the selected municipalities.
5. In the game of lotto, 6 balls are selected
from a container with 42 balls
Sources of Errors in Sampling

1. Non-sampling Error are errors that

result from the survey process
2. Sampling Error is the error that
results from using sampling to estimate
information regarding a population.
Sources of Non-Sampling Error

1. Non-responses
2. Interviewer Error
3. Misrepresented Answers
4. Data entry errors
Sources of Non-Sampling Error

5. Questionnaire Design
6. Wording of Questions
7. The order of the questions, words, and
responses