Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

College of Arts and Sciences

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

Psy 102: Psychological Statistics

Lecture prepared by: JAYNELLE G. DOMINGO, MSc. MathEd

 LESSON OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

ü Differentiate sample from population;

ü Distinguish the different types of sampling methods;

ü Determine sample size from a given population

ü Compare different methods of data collection

 Introduction

In research, practicality is very important – that is

we have to economize on time, money and effort. We do
not need to study all the members of the population to
gather information about them. Instead, we only study a
portion of that population, and make inference or
conclusions.
 Introduction

In statistics, population refers to the set of all

observations made on all objects under study,
designated by N. If the population is so large that it is
almost impossible or impractical to study all its
elements, then we study a sample from the given
population, designated by n.
 Sampling Technique

Sampling - the process of choosing a sample.

Sample - a subset of the population. With the

assumption that the sample mimics the behavior of the
population, we make estimates of the characteristics of
the populations from the conclusions that we generate
from the sample.
 Sampling Techniques

We only study the samples instead of the population

because of the following reasons:

1. reduced cost;
2. greater efficiency and accuracy;
3. greater speed;
4. greater scope; and
5. convenience.
 Sampling Techniques

To compute for the sample size, there are different statistical

formulas that can be used. One formula commonly used in
computing for the sample size, n, is the Slovin’s formula

𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 !
where: 𝑁 = 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
n = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
 Sampling Techniques

Slovin’s formula is used:

a. in the event of complete ignorance to the behavior of the

population, that is whether the population is normally distributed or
not.
b. when we want to estimate the population proportion P, where P is
the proportion of units in the population, exhibiting the
characteristics which are of interest to the researcher. The margin of
error, say 0.05 means we want our estimate of P do not differ from
the true value of P by not more than 0.05.
 Sampling Techniques

Example: Find the sample size required for a population of size N = 5,000

a. if 𝑒 = 0.05 is tolerated
!"""
𝑛= ≈ 370
#$!""" "."! !

b. If 𝑒 = 0.01 is tolerated
!"""
𝑛= ≈ 3,333
#$!""" "."# !

Take note that if the margin of error is smaller, the sample size required is
larger.
 Sampling Techniques

Other methods of determining the sample size involves Heuristics-

rules of thumb

a. Lunenburg & Irby (2008)

Survey – 800 participants
Correlational – 100 to 200 participants
Ex post facto – 30+ participants
Experimental - 30 + participants
 Sampling Techniques

b. Green (1991)

n = sample size
§ n ≥ 50 + 8m, for multiple correlations
§ n ≥ 104 + m, for testing individual predictors
where m is the number of independent variables testing
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

After you identify the number of sample (n), using either formula or
rules of thumb method, the next thing to decide is how are you
going to select them from the population of interest.

In order for us to make valid inference or conclusion about the entire

population using the sample, we have to draw the sample units
systematically or at random. Basically, there are two broad
classifications of sampling- non- probability sampling and
probability sampling.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

1. Non-probability Sampling

The element of the population is taken depending

to a large extent on the personal feelings of the
researcher without regard for some mechanism for
choosing an element.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Non-probability Sampling

a. Haphazard /accidental sampling – unsystematic selection of

samples (i.e. archaeology, history)

b. Convenience sampling – units practical or beneficial to the sampler

are taken

c. Volunteer sampling – sample units are volunteers

 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

d. Purposive sampling – expert select a representative sample based on his

own subjective judgment

e. Quota sampling – samples are picked for convenience but certain number
of persons/objects are given to the interviewers

f. Snowball sampling – additional people are identified by asking previously

picked sample units for people they know who can be added to the
sample.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

2. Probability Sampling

Every element belonging to the population has a

known non-zero probability of being included in the
sample.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

a. Simple random sampling - is the method of selecting a sample size

(n) from a population (N) such that each member of the population
has an equal chance of being included in the sample and all possible
combinations of size (n) has an equal chance of being selected as
the sample. For example: If 300 respondents (n) will be selected in
random, the names of all the participants (N) will be listed on a
piece of paper, placed on a box and 300 pieces of paper will be
picked.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

b. Systematic sampling – when sample units are obtained by drawing

every, say, 4th or 5th or 10th item on the list. N are numbered 1 to
N in some order: taking a sample size of n such that N/n = k. A
systematic sample consists of an element selected randomly from
the first k elements and every kth subsequent element. For
example: If 300 (n) will be chosen from the total population of 1200
(N), then k = 1200/300 = 4. From the list of participants numbered
from 1 to 1200, the researcher will pick every 4th name on the list
(i.e. 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th, and so on).
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

c. Stratified random sampling – a random sampling technique in which the

population of size N is divided into non-overlapping subpopulations called
strata. Stratification (or the procedure of grouping ) depends on the size of
the sample size to be taken from the strata. It could be:
1. equal allocation – equal-sized samples are drawn from each stratum
Example: Suppose N = 1000 and using Slovin’s formula, n=286, and your
stratum is sex (male and female). Using equal allocation, you will be
needing 143 males and 143 females.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

2. proportional allocation – the stratum sample size is proportional to the

respective stratum subpopulation.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

Example: Suppose N = 1000 and using Slovin’s formula, n=286 and your stratum
is year level. How many freshmen students will be taken as samples if there are
119 freshmen students in the population? n (freshmen) = (119/1000 ) x 286 =
34. Similarly, if there are 210 sophomore students in the population, then n
(sophomore) = (210/1000 ) x 286 = 60 Moreover, if there are 305 juniors in the
population, then n (juniors) = (305/1000 ) x 286 = 87. Lastly, if there are 366
seniors, then n (seniors) = (366/1000 ) x 286 = 105. The total sample will be 34
+ 60 + 87 + 105 = 286. In other words, there are more samples to be drawn
from a stratum with more members in the population.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

Moreover, if the 34 freshmen , 60 sophomores, 87 junior and 105

seniors are drawn using random sampling, it is called stratified random
sampling, because you performed stratification based on year level, then
samples are drawn in complete random. Similarly, if the samples are drawn
using systematic sampling, then it is called stratified systematic sampling,
because you performed stratification based on year level, then samples are
drawn systematically.
 Classifications of Sampling Procedures

Types of Probability Sampling

d. Cluster sampling – it is variation of the stratified sampling where

the strata correspond to clusters. Information is obtained from
individual units, called clusters that may have heterogeneous
characteristics. For example, a college unit may be considered as
one cluster.
 Data Collection

Once a researcher identifies all the study variables and the

sampling technique and samples of the study, then he is ready to
collect the data or information. There are several methods of
collecting data. Nevertheless, there is no best method to get the
necessary information as it depends largely on factors such as the
nature of the problem, the population under investigation and time
needed to gather all information. At any rate, the primary
consideration in data gathering is to obtain the necessary accurate
data, at minimum cost at the least possible time.
 Data Collection

1. Direct or Interview method – this involves person-to-person

exchange of information, and is considered as one of the most
effective methods of collecting original data (known as primary
data). To obtain accurate responses, well-trained interviewers
may do the interview. This is an effective method because
clarifications may be given by the interviewee, and the
interviewer can repeat or modify questions whenever necessary.
Nevertheless, this may be time consuming, expensive and has a
limited field coverage.
 Data Collection

2. Indirect or Questionnaire method – this is one of the easiest methods of

data gathering where information are gathered by means of written
responses. Questionnaires must be attractive to encourage respondents to
answer the questions. Directions must be precise, clear and self-
explanatory. Preparing the questionnaire may take a longer time but it is
relatively inexpensive and can cover a wider area, with more respondents in
a shorter period of time. Unlike interview method, responses on the
questionnaires are free from any influence from the interviewer and
respondents. They can answer the questions privately making responses
confidential. Nevertheless, there is a high probability that respondents may
not answer some of the questions or may not return the questionnaire,
especially when it is mailed.
 Data Collection

3. Registration method – In this method, respondents provide information in

compliance with certain laws, policies, rules and regulations. Examples of
data that can be collected are as follows: marriage contracts, birth
certificates, vehicle registration, license of firearms, real estates, etc. This is
an efficient data collection method because data are kept systematic and
readily available to all because of the requirement of the law.
4. Telephone interview method – If questions to be asked are brief and few,
this method is more appropriate. Example, a researcher is interested what
TV or radio program people are usually tuned in at a particular time/s of the
day, or that an appliance store is interested to determine what brand of
washing machine do most households own.
 Data Collection

5. Observation method – this method is utilized if the purpose is to gather

data about the attitude, behavior, values and cultural patterns of persons or
organizations. The researcher in this method can either participate in the
group (participant observation), or outside of the group while doing the
observations.

6. Experiment method – If the investigator aims to investigate the possible

cause and effect relationship between variables, and he can control other
factors affecting the variable under study, then experimental method is
more appropriate. This method is usually employed in laboratory
experiments or field experiments.
 References

Dela Rosa, E. D. (2019). Learning Module in Statistics with SPSS

Applications. Philippine Copyright 2019.