Sampling and Sampling

Distributions

Mrs. Kiranmayi Patel

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

 Understand the importance of sampling

 Differentiate between random and non-random
sampling
 Understand the concept of sampling and non-sampling
errors
 Understand the concept of sampling distribution and the
application of central limit theorem
 Understand sampling distribution of sample proportion
Sampling Distribution

We are moving from descriptive statistics to

inferential statistics.

Inferential statistics allow the researcher to come to

conclusions about a population on the basis of
descriptive statistics about a sample.
For example:

Your sample says that a candidate gets support

from 47%.

Inferential statistics allow you to say that the

candidate gets support from 47% of the
population with a margin of error of +/- 4%.

This means that the support in the population is

likely somewhere between 43% and 51%.
A Sampling Distribution

Margin of error is taken directly from a sampling

distribution.

It looks like this:

95% of Possible Sample Means

47%
43% 51% Your Sample Mean
Some Terms used in Sampling

 Sampled population – population from which sample drawn

Researcher should clearly define.
 Frame – list of elements that sample selected from Eg.
telephone book, city business directory. May be able to
construct a frame.
 Parameter – characteristics of a population Eg. total (annual
GDP or exports), proportion p of population that votes Liberal in
federal election. Also, µ or σ of a probability distribution are
termed parameters.
 Statistic – numerical characteristics of a sample. Eg. monthly
unemployment rate, pre-election polls.
 Sampling distribution of a statistic is the probability
distribution of the statistic.
Population & Sample
Population
 Population in statistics
means the whole of the
information that comes
under the purview of
statistical investigation.
 It is the totality of all the
observations of a
statistical inquiry.
 It is also known as
“UNIVERSE”
 A population may be finite
or infinite
Sample
 A part of the population
selected for study is called
a SAMPLE.
 Hence, Sample is nothing
but the selection of a group
of items from a population
in such a way that this
group represents the
population.
 The number of individuals
included in the finite sample
is called the SIZE OF THE
SAMPLE.
Parameter & Statistic

Parameter Statistic
 Any statistical  Any statistical measure
measure (such as computed from sample
data is known as
Mean, Mode , S.D.) STATISTIC.
computed from  STATISTIC computed
population data is from a sample drawn
known as from the parent
PARAMETER. population plays an
important role in
 A) The Theory of
Estimation
 B) Testing of Hypothesis
Notations used

Notations
Statistical Measure Population Sample
Mean µ X
Standard deviation σ S
Size N n
Selecting a sample

 N is the symbol given for the size of the population or the

number of elements in the population.
 n is the symbol given for the size of the sample or the
number of elements in the sample.
 Simple random sample is a sample of size n selected in
a manner that each possible sample of size n has the
same probability of being selected.
 In the case of a random sample of size n = 1, each
element has the same chance of being selected.
Sampling

A researcher generally takes a small portion of the

population for study, which is referred to as sample. The
process of selecting a sample from the population is called
sampling.
Why Is Sampling Essential?

 Sampling saves time.

 Sampling saves money.
 When the research process is destructive in nature,
sampling minimizes the destruction.
 Sampling broadens the scope of the study in light of the
scarcity of resources.
 It has been noticed that sampling provides more accurate
results, as compared to census because in sampling, non-
sampling errors can be controlled more easily.
 In most cases complete census is not possible and, hence,
sampling is the only option left.
Steps in the sampling design process
The Sampling Design Process

Step 1: Target population must be defined

 Target population is the collection of the objects which
possess the information required by the researcher and
about which an inference is to be made.
Step 2: Sampling frame must be determined
 A researcher takes a sample from a population list,
directory, map, city directory, or any other source used to
represent the population. This list possesses the
information about the subjects and is called the sampling
frame.
 Sampling is carried out from the sampling frame and not
from the target population.
The Sampling Design Process (Contd.)

Step 3: Appropriate sampling technique must be selected

 In sampling with replacement, an element is selected from the
frame, required information is obtained, and then the element is
placed back in the frame. This way, there is a possibility of the
element being selected again in the sample.
 As compared to this, in sampling without replacement, an
element is selected from the frame and not replaced in the
frame. This way, the possibility of further inclusion of the
element in the sample is eliminated.

Step 4: Sample size must be determined

 Sample size refers to the number of elements to be included in
the study.
Step 5: Sampling process must be executed
Random Versus Non-random Sampling

 In random sampling, each unit of the population has the

same probability (chance) of being selected as part of the
sample.

 In non-random sampling, members of the sample are not

selected by chance. Some other factors like familiarity of
the researcher with the subject, convenience, etc. are the
basis of selection
Random and non-random sampling methods
Random Sampling Methods

 Simple Random Sampling

 In simple random sampling, each member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling
 In stratified random sampling, elements in the population
are divided into homogeneous groups called strata.
 Then, researchers use the simple random sampling
method to select a sample from each of the strata. Each
group is called stratum.
 In stratified random sampling, stratum should be
relatively homogenous and the strata should contrast
with each other.
Stratified Sample: Example

 Divide population into two or more subgroups (called

strata) according to some common characteristic
 A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup,
with sample sizes proportional to strata sizes
 Samples from subgroups are combined into one
 This is a common technique when sampling population of
voters, stratifying across racial or socio-economic lines.

Population
Divided
into 4
strata
Stratified Sampling

 It is one of the restricted random methods which by using

available information concerning the data attempts to
design a more efficient sample than that obtained by the
simple random procedure;

 The process of stratification requires that the

populationmay be divided into homogeneous groups or
classes called strata
 then a sample may be taken from each group by simple
random method
 And the resulting sample is called a stratified sample
Contd..

 A stratified sample may be either proportional or

disproportionate.
 In a proportional stratified sampling plan, the number of
items drawn from each stratum is proportional to the size
of the strata.
 For example, if the population is divided into 4 strata,
their respective sizes being 15, 10,20 ,55 % of the
population and a sample of 1000 is to be drawn, the
desired proportional sample may be obtained in the
following manner:
Contd..

From stratum one 1000 (0.15) 150 items

From stratum two 1000 (0.10) 100
From stratum three 1000 (0.20) 200
From stratum four 1000 (0.55) 550
Sample Size 1000

Disproportionate Stratified sampling includes

procedures of taking an equal number of items from
each stratum irrespective of its size.
 Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)

 In cases where the percentage

of sample taken from each
stratum is proportionate to the
actual percentage of the
stratum within the whole
population, stratified sampling
is termed as proportionate
stratified sampling.

 In cases where the sample

taken from each stratum is
disproportionate to the actual
percentage of the stratum
within the whole population,
disproportionate stratified Stratified random sampling based on
educational levels
random sampling occurs.
Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)
 Cluster (or Area) Sampling
 In cluster sampling, we divide the population into non-
overlapping areas or clusters.
 In stratified sampling, strata happen to be homogenous but in
cluster sampling, clusters are internally heterogeneous.
 A cluster contains a wide range of elements and is a good
representative of the population.

Diagram for cluster sampling

Systematic (or Quasi-random) Sampling

 In systematic sampling, sample elements are selected from the

population at uniform intervals in terms of time, order, or
space.
 A researcher wants to take a sample of size 30 from a
population of size 900 and he has decided to use systematic
sampling for this purpose.

 For obtaining the sample, the first member can be selected

randomly and after that every 30th member of the population is
included in the sample. Suppose the first element 3 is selected
randomly and after this, every 30th element, that is, 33rd,
63rd, … element up to a sample size of 30 are included in the
sample.
Systematic Sample: Example

 Decide on sample size: n

 Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k
individuals: k=N/n
 Randomly select one individual from the 1st
group
 Select every kth individual thereafter

N = 40 First
n=4 Group
k = 10
Multi-Stage Sampling

 As the name indicates, multistage sampling involves

the selection of units in more than one stage.

Multi-stage (four stages) sampling

Comparing Sampling Methods

 Simple random sample and Systematic sample

 Simple to use
 May not be a good representation of the population’s
underlying characteristics
 Stratified sample
 Ensures representation of individuals across the entire
population
 Cluster sample
 More cost effective
 Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the same
level of precision)
Non-Random Sampling

Sampling techniques where selection of the sampling units

is not based on a random selection process are called
nonrandom sampling techniques.
 Quota Sampling
 In quota sampling, certain subclasses, such as age, gender,
income group, and education level are used as strata. Stratified
random sampling is based on the concept of randomly selecting
units from the stratum.
 However, in case of quota sampling, a researcher uses non-
random sampling methods to gather data from one stratum until
the required quota fixed by the researcher is fulfilled.
 Convenience Sampling
 In convenience sampling, sample elements are selected based on
the convenience of a researcher.
Non-Random Sampling (Contd.)

 Judgement Sampling
In judgement sampling, selection of the sampling units is
based on the judgement of a researcher.

 Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, survey respondents are selected on
the basis of referrals from other survey respondents.
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Sampling Error
Sampling error occurs when the sample is not a true
representative of the population. In complete enumeration,
sampling errors are not present.

Sampling errors can occur due to some specific reasons:

 Faulty selection of the sample.
 Sometimes due to the difficulty in selection a particular sampling
unit, researchers try to substitute that sampling unit with
another sampling unit which is easy to be surveyed.
 Sometimes researchers demarcate sampling units wrongly and
hence, provide scope for committing sampling errors.
Sampling and Non-sampling Errors (Contd.)

Non-Sampling Errors
All errors other than sampling can be included in the
category of non-sampling errors.

The following are some common non-sampling errors:

 Faulty designing and planning of survey
 Response errors
 Non-response bias
 Errors in coverage
 Compiling error and publication error
Point Estimation

 In point estimation we use the data from the sample to

compute a value of a sample statistic that serves as an
estimate of a population parameter.
 We refer to x as the point estimator of the population
mean .
 s is the point estimator of the population standard
deviation .
 p is the point estimator of the population proportion
p.
Point Estimation

 When the expected value of a point estimator is equal to

the population parameter, the point estimator is said to be
unbiased.

S a m p le P o p u la tio n

S t a tis tic s P a ra m e te r s
(x , s , s 2, p , n ) (, , 2, p , N )

E s tim a te
Sampling Error

 The absolute difference between an unbiased point

estimate and the corresponding population parameter
is called the sampling error.
 Sampling error is the result of using a subset of the
population (the sample), and not the entire population
to develop estimates.
 The sampling errors are:
|x  | for sample mean

|s   |
for sample standard deviation
| p  p|
for sample proportion