Application

Geomorphology: Changing
Paradigms
INTRODUCTION
Geomorphology is the study of landforms landforms, and the consideration of factors
along with the processes, which create them. that may allow the landforms to remain intact,
Geomorphologists study not only the or to lose its shape or to get degraded, and
landforms above the surface but also the thus suggest set of policies that will lead to
submarine features. By only studying the the sustainability of the landform. This insight
landforms and the processes currently acting brought about a new group of
on them does not provide the entire causal geomorphologists who, while having a central
explanation. Therefore, for the interest in landforms, contributed significantly
geomorphologists it is imperative to consider towards its applied part and how it affects
the past events that may have helped shape the allied disciplines.

Table 30.1: Relationship between geomorphology and allied disciplines.

Discipline Example of contribution to Example of contribution from
Geomorphology Geomorphology
Geophysics Mechanisms and rates of uplift Erosional response of land -surface to
uplift
Sedimentology Reconstruction of past erosional events Form of alluvial channels in interpretation
from a sedimentary sequence of fluvial sediments.
Geochemistry Rate and nature of chemical reaction in Mobilization of elements in earth surface
rock weathering environment
Hydrology Frequency and intensity of flooding Sediment concentration in streams
Climatology Effect of climatic elements on rate and Effect of surface deposit s and morphology
nature of geomorphic processes on climatic variables
Pedology Effect of soil properties on slope Topographic control over soil -forming
stability processes
Biology Role of vegetation cover in affecting Topographic control over micro -
rates of erosion environments of indicative
Engineering Techniques for analysis of slope Identification of morphological features
instability indicative of slope instability

The Earth’s Dynamic Surface 464

Space science Context for understanding special
characteristics of landform -creating
environment on the Earth
Applied Geomorphology has come up as a
very important branch of earth sciences
particularly with the advancement in its
techniques to evaluate and tackle problems
associated with man’s occupancy of earth
space.
In recent years there has been an increasing
recognition of the practical applications of
geomorphic principles and the findings of
geomorphological research to the
understanding and solution of the problems
facing mankind in his use of the natural
environment. The 1960s and 1970s saw a major
reorientation of geomorphology in different
parts of the world. These were based not only
on a much improved knowledge of geomorphic
processes but also because of the awareness
that earth's surface processes and natural
hazards pose significant challenges to society,
development and construction. Application of
new techniques provided the opportunity to
look at the geomorphologic problems from a
different and global perspective thus, the term
'applied geomorphology' was developed to
evaluate the opportunity and risks to
infrastructure, people and the environment
contributing to sustainable development and
the mitigation of significant geohazards and
risks.
THE CHALLENGES OF THE NEW
ERA
The Geomorphologists face new and
unexplored challenges related to the alteration
of the landforms, and new problems the
landforms face from an ever -increasing number
of its inhabitants who are always interfering
and who are capable of altering the landscape
to an unknown and unimaginable degree. The
source of impact includes:
 Rapid and expanding population.
 Urban growth and expansion and its
attendant issues that emerge and are/or
likely to be deleterious.
Applied Geomorphology
Interpretation of planetary landscapes by
analogy with terrestrial landforms
 Increase in industrial and transport
infrastructure.
 Old and new forms of mining and its
environmental impact.
 New type of resources, new exploration
techniques and new forms of extraction, to
what extent they can be eased and to what
extent they can be made cost effective.
 New and innovative forms of transportation
and its attendant problems.
 Impact of tourists and tourism related
activities that are known and sometimes
unknown.
Rapid growth of population especially in
the developing world has led to increasing
pressure on land resources, and large scale
deforestation and extension of agriculture to
hilly and marginal lands have resulted in
widespread and recurring man-induced
catastrophies like soil erosion, sedimentation,
landslides and floods such as the one that
happened in Uttarakhand (India) in 2013. In
many areas, massive urban growth and various
kinds of constructional and developmental
projects have given rise to a ll kinds of
environmental problems. Geomorphology can
help in the identification and solution of many
of these problems.
SIGNIFICANCE AND ROLE
The practical applications of geomorphic
principles and research aims to assist the
efficient discovery, assessm ent and wise
management of the earth's finite resources, to
prevent environmental deterioration and to
avoid or prevent natural hazards. With the
expanding role of geomorphologists in decision
making, particularly in the methodology and
implementation of E nvironmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), the role of applied
geomorphology has gained much importance.
The study concerns with slopes and landslides,
sediment transfer dynamics, hazards and risks
associated with coasts, and therefore the role of
465
applied geomorphology relates mainly to the
problems of environmental resource
management and include principally the
analysis and monitoring of landscape forming
processes in relation to surface materials and
evaluating landscape changes that may arise
from human interference.
The study of the interactions between
geomorphology and human activity involves
diverse applications. Thus, applied
geomorphology plays significant role in:
1. The field of earth sciences, including
topographic and thematic mapping of
natural resources, which involve the
specialized mapping of landforms, such as,
slope elements, which affect or may be
affected by human activities, and which are
not mapped by other disciplines. Also it is
crucial for the interpretation of features
shown on aerial photographs or by remote
sensing methods.
2. The monitoring of changes in the
environment, especially when these changes
bring risks to society and are thus, applied
to the field of environmental studies,
especially in the survey of natural hazards,
landslides, avalanches, earthquakes,
volcanism, land subsidence, flooding and
drought. The assessment of the causes of
these changes, notably of those, which
develop as hazards to man and the remedies
to such hazards.
3. The recognition of the consequences of
human activity in geomorphology are
therefore applied to the field of rural
development and planning emphasizing
land utilization, erosion control,
conservation and river basin development.
4. Understanding the field of urban
development for urban extension, site
selection or mining.
5. Applications in engineering including site
selection for dams, bridges, tunnels and
assessments for communication networks,
river and coastal engineering.
APPLICATIONS
One of the most interesting aspects
involved in the study of geomorphic principle
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
is to know how geomorphology is used to solve
everyday problems and how geomorphological
evidence can help in effective land utilisation
and hazard risk assessment. From a diverse
range of applications available, the following
exemplify the important applications of
geomorphological principles.
1. Geomorphological mapping including
Terrain mapping, Remote Sensing and
Geographical Information System (GIS).
2. Geomorphology and Mineral Exploration.
3. Geomorphology and Petroleum Exploration.
4. Application of Geomorphology to
Hydrology.
5. Geomorphology and Coastal zone
management.
6. Environmental Management.
Applied Geomorphology is able to translate
the prediction of global and regional
temperature rises as well as predictions of
critical boundary changes, such as the poleward
shift of the permafrost line and the tree -line,
which can then guide decisions about
determining economic activation to minimize
the effects of global environmental change.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING
In present times the main research method
of geomorphology in many countries is the
geomorphological mapping with the help of
sophisticated tools and techniques. These
techniques help the geomorphologists to focus
on the spatial component of landforms and
geomorphological processes. It leads the
recognition of area -specific details.
Geomorphological mapping serves as a
valuable aid in planning and economic
development. It is a comprehensive scheme of
mapping landforms, materials and processes to
provide an integrated analysis of the physical
properties of an area with a view to assessing
its potentials and limitations for development.
Geomorphological maps contain information of
considerable potential value in land -use
planning, reclamation and conservation, hydro -
engineering, civil engineering, planning of
settlements and mining, etc. The most useful
geomorphological maps are purpose -oriented
466
maps compiled in the context of a specified
problem.
Geomorphological maps are one of most
important end products of investigations ma de
by geomorphologists on the territory. It helps
to investigate surface and sub-surface deposits.
Furthermore they are of great usefulness to
many other professionals dealing with the
landscape and landforms like engineers, urban
planners, soil and forest scientists,
agronomists, land conservationists, etc.
With the development of digital analysis of
remotely sensed imagery on the one side, and
the widespread application of GIS, Digital
Terrain Analysis, DEM (Digital Elevation
Model) analysis (geomorphome try) and of
modern lab techniques on the other, now the
geomorphological mapping can integrate
classical field surveys and add values also to a
map.
The latest development of 3 -D terrain
visualization, many countries have started
making thoroughly new edi tions of atlas based
on in depth analysis, e.g., Atlas of Switzerland -
Interactive. It incorporates a dual concept with
a printed portion and multimedia portion. The
multimedia portion of the CD -Rom is for
explorative and interactive handling of the
presented theme. Remote sensing techniques
have been used by satellite and aerial
photographs specially for terrain analysis and
for evaluation of natural resources.
Maps can be thought as a frontier or a
meeting point at which geomorphologists,
geologists and other professionals share their
different knowledge of the territory and plan
together a sustainable use of the environment.
Geomorphological Survey and Mapping may be
directed to different aims. Thus there can be
following types of geomorphological surveys
and maps:-
(a) General Geomorphological Survey and
Mapping concerned with the sculptures,
genesis, dynamics and age of the relief
forms and conditions of modeling.
(b) Special Geomorphological Map concerned
only with particular aspect of information
about relief forms i.e. morphology, genesis,
relief forming processes, age and value
added information.
Applied Geomorphology
(c) Applied Geomorphological Survey and
Mapping provide basic information about
the relief (information mostly detailed in
General Geomorphological Maps) plus
value-added information to achieve
different goals.
(d) Regional Geological Survey and Mapping
concerned with regional differentiation of
relief (with respect to lithology, structure,
forms and age) for both General and
Applied Geomorphological Mapping.
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND
MINERAL EXPLORATION
The knowledge of Geomorphology may be
profitably utilized in the exploration of
minerals. Geomorphic features may serve in
three ways as guides in the search for mineral
deposits:
1. Some mineral deposits have a direct
topographic expression as outcrops of ore,
gossan, faults and zones of breccia; (see
Chapter-29, Economic Geology ).
2. The topography of an area may give a clue
to the geological structure which has
favoured accumulation of the minerals; and
3. An understanding of the geomorphic history
of an area may make possible a better
appreciation of the physical conditions
under which the minerals were accumulated
or were enriched.
Surface expression of minerals has
immense importance in identifying and
exploring minerals, such as:
 The lead-zinc lode at Broken Hill, Australia
is marked by a conspicuous ridge.
 Massive outcrops of haematite and
magnetite occur as whole hills in the rocks
of the Dharwar system in the Indian
Peninsula.
 The iron-bearing haematite-quartzites iron
ore series (upper Dharwar) in the
Singhbhum-Maharajganj region of
Jharkhand and Odisha, one of the richest
and largest iron-ore deposits of the world,
467
 stand out as sharply inclined hills about
three thousand feet high.
 The Pre-Cambrian iron-ore deposits of the
Lake Superior region in USA, are so much
associated with hills and ridges that they
are commonly referred to as the Iron -ore
Range.
 The rich deposit of high grade iron ore at
Cerro Bolivar, Venezuela was discovered
by field investigation of two small
mountains depicted on the aerial
photograph.
Weathering process leads to accumulation
of mineral deposits which are of great
economic importance, thereby aiding in mineral
explorations. Several economic mineral
deposits, such as iron ore, bauxite, the clay
minerals and some manganese and nickel ores
are essentially weathering residues, the more
mobile elements being leached away in
solution. Weathering and erosion which are
constantly at work on the earth’s surface leave
behind certain products which may form
economic deposits. The distinctive banded iron
formation of Pre-Cambrian age which supply
much of the world’s iron ore are residual iron
deposits resulting from long periods of
weathering which has leached the silica,
leaving an enriched iron bearing deposit. Thus,
old erosion and weathering surfaces are
particularly favourable sites for such deposits.
When the higher grade Pre-Cambrian ores have
been exhausted, the lateritic iron deposits of
tropical and sub-tropical regions which are
products of Tertiary weathering may become
important and search for them will require
knowledge of ancient geomorphology and
climates.
Bauxite, the ore of aluminium is a
weathering residue which forms primarily
through intense leaching in regions and
removal of all other materials including silica
and iron oxides. Bauxite is widely found in the
laterite cap of the Indian Peninsula which have
been formed by weathering on the summit of
the basaltic hills and plateaus. Eocene appears
to be the most im portant period of bauxite
formation. Some of the richest deposits lie in
the high-level laterite of the Pat region of
Ranchi and in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashtra, where the weathering of the
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
Deccan basalt under humid tropical conditions
has resulted in hydrated oxides of aluminium
and iron with small percentage of manganese,
the other minerals of basalt having been
leached out. The aluminium and iron oxides
often mutually exclude each other. When
aluminium oxide is dominant, the ore is known
as bauxite. The pat level at which bauxite
occurs is an Eocene erosion surface and
detailed geomorphic study is essential for
assessment of bauxite reserves in this region as
well as in other parts of the Indian Peninsula.
Weathering processes may also lead to the
formation of enriched ore deposits. When ore
deposits become exposed by erosion they are
also weathered with the enclosing rocks. The
valuable minerals are transported down the
weathering profile where they may be
redeposited. In this way rich ores may be made
richer, lean ores more valuable and non
commercial primary material may be improved
to commercial grade. This process is called
supergene enrichment (See Chapter-29,
Economic Geology). Many important ore bodies
have been formed in this way including the
world’s great copper deposits. A deep water -
table, especially if slowly falling, is conducive
to a thick supergene sulphide zone. The most
favourable condition for sulphide enrichment is
active erosion with progressive depression of
the water-table at such a rate that enrichment
can keep pace with it. The enrichment profile
of an ore body can be forecast by observing the
landform under which it has been discovered.
Deposits located bene ath older landscapes
should yield enriched ore at depth, whereas the
deposits on the Atacama pediplain in Chile
have their enriched ore close to the surface.
Geomorphic principles have been applied to
the location of placer deposits more than to
any other phase of economic geology. Placer
concentrations of minerals, resulting from
definite geomorphic processes, are found in
specific topographic positions, and many have
a distinctive topographic expression. As many
as nine type of placer deposits have been
recognised. They are residual, colluvial,
aeolian, bajada, beach, glacial including those
in end moraines and valley terrains, and buried
under ancient placers. Alluvial placers are the
most important.
468
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
All geomorphological phenomena are
considered when the search for subsurface
deposits like petroleum are concerned. Buried
relief features with a marked three -dimensional
geometry are of importance to the petroleum
geologist whenever they search the trapping of
hydrocarbons. Palaeogeomorphic traps are
studied, which ranks in importance with
stratigraphic and structural traps as a major
mechanism for localizing hydrocarbon
occurrences. Normally palaeogeomorphic traps
cannot be analyzed, nor ca n their occurrence be
predicted by stratigraphic or structural methods
of study, but must be treated as a part of
geomorphological application.
The traps may occur below or above the
morphological surface. Hydrocarbon traps
occur below the highs on erosional surfaces as
well as in sandstone bodies deposited in the
lows on these surfaces. The rules , which
govern the formation of ancient landscape
forms, are worked out in detail, with particular
emphasis on the application of quantitative
geomorphology to the pattern of the ancient
drainage system and on such features as
summit levels and the influence of geological
factors (erosion-resistant levels, influence of
faults and fractures, etc.). Weathering and
underground solution also plays a role in
providing both reservoirs and buried traps for
oil and gas.
Petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of
marine organic origin. Most of the world’s
petroleum deposits are located in marine
sediments of Mesozoic and Tertiary ages,
generally along the flanks and in the less
folded portions of orogenic belts, although
some may occur also in Palaeozoic sediments
(e.g. in Russia and North America) or in the
uplifted beds around salt domes. The oil pool is
found in reservoir rocks as distinct from
source rocks or sediments in which petroleum
had its origin. The source beds such as clay and
shale which are now compact and impervious
were still unconsolidated with high proportion
of seawater carrying dispersed globules of oil.
As the source beds are compacted in response
to pressure differences caused by earth
movements, the fluids are squeezed out into
Applied Geomorphology
more coarse and porous formations such as
sands. In these permeable beds, the oil can
migrate for long distances but cannot escape
unless the overlying rocks are fissured. In
general, oil migrates outwa rds and upwards
from the source beds, passes into porous or
fissured reservoir beds and collects into an oil
pool wherever the structure provides a trap
which impedes further migration. A dome or
anticline of alternating permeable and
impervious sediments makes a good trap for
oil migrating towards it. Isolated open
anticlines surrounded by extensive gathering
ground provide much more favourable traps
than more closely packed folds. The anticlinal
structures’ are reflected in the topography and
many oilfields have been discovered because of
their striking topographic expression.
Topographic highs are likely to be also
structurally high. This is particularly true of
late Tertiary and later earth movements where
deformation has taken place so recently that
subaerial denudation did not have enough time
to destroy the effects of diastrophism. In areas
of dense tropical forest, the topography may
not show, but aerial -photographs through tonal
differences in the vegetation can easily outline
an anticlinal or domal structure.
Probably most of the domes and anticlines
which have striking topographic expression
have already been discovered and more subtle
methods of identifying structures favourable to
oil accumulation must be found. One such
method is the detailed drainage analysis of a
terrain as shown on aerial photographs. This
involves detailed examination of the drainage
pattern, drainage texture and stream pattern and
identification of drainage anomalies or local
departures from the normal drainage
relationships.
These and other anomalies cannot be taken
as positive evidence of the influence of local
structures but they provide a basis for detailed
field examination to prove or disprove the
existence of a local structure.
In Russia, recent folding and upwarping has
been detected by geomorphological means
including the recognition and mapping of
upwarped planation surfaces and depositional
downwarped basins. The upwarped structures
provide favourable locations for the
development of oil and natural gas.
469
 The study of buried landscapes is important
for oil exploration as most stratigraphic traps
are associated with unconformities or ancient
erosion surfaces. Three types of stratigraphic
traps may be particularly noted —ancient
erosion surfaces which truncate permeabl e beds
and are later sealed by impermeable deposits,
buried karst topography and buried elongate
sandy deposits. There are many examples of a
stratigraphic trap produced by the sealing of
an old erosion surface.
Sometimes oil pools occupy the upper ends
of tilted reservoir beds. The tilted bed may
pass laterally into shale or it may be abruptly
cut off by an impervious barrier, such as a fault
throwing an impervious bed against the
reservoir bed or a hill belonging to an ancient
land surface which was unco nformably buried
by a later series of petroliferous strata or a salt
dome which has ascended through the
sedimentary strata.
APPLICATION OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY IN SAND
AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS
Sand and gravel are required mainly for use
in the construction and buil ding industry.
Industrial and commercial demands have been
rising rapidly and there is a trend towards more
specific and rigorous requirements for
particular purposes. Increased demand has led
in many areas to depletion of the best and most
suitably located reserves. One of the most
important requirements, and one which the
geomorphologist can help to meet, is for
precise knowledge of the nature and
distribution of available reserves. There are
many examples of surveys of sand and gravel
resources in which geomophohologists have
made valuable contribution.
Suitable sand and gravel sources occur in
five major geomorphological contexts:
(a) river terraces, channels, flood plains and
alluvial cones and fans,
(b) fluvio-glacial environments in which a wide
variety of materials may be laid down or
carried in meltwater,
(c) coastal zone,
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
(d) on slopes where suitable materials may be
found in talus or scree, and
(e) wind-blown and residual deposits in arid
and semi-arid areas.
All these have distinctive topographic
relationships and vary in quality and
possibilities of development. Identification of
the type of deposit is essential for proper
evaluation of its potentialities , as sand and
gravel are bulky commodity of low value and
expensive to transport, proximity of supplies to
markets especially the major urban areas and
major constructional projects is of utmost
value. It is, however, near urban areas that the
conflict of interest is most pronounced.
Urban development and airport construction
may themselves cover potentially workable
deposits. Further, many river terrace and gravel
deposits on urban fringes provide optimum
location for market gardening which also
benefits from proximity to urban markets. On
the other hand, extraction of sand and gravel
near urban areas may be objectionable on
several environmental grounds, though the old
sand and gravel workings may be used as
suitable receptacles (a receptacle is a container
that is used for holding or storing things ) for
urban garbage and debris and filled up pits can
be used subsequently for forestry, recreation,
building or agriculture.
The appraisal of sand and gravel deposits
with a view to their possible exploitation
normally involves preliminary survey of
possible source areas from available geological
and topographical maps and air photographs,
field survey of deposits and mapping of their
areal extent and determination of depth and
volume, sampling of deposits from available
exposures, boreholes or trial pits and
laboratory analysis of samples to determine
grain size and shape characteristics, weathering
characteristics, abradibility and shrinkage
values.
When exploitation of raw materials (sand
and gravel) is done it is most important to
assess its consequences, especially in terms of
environmental impact. Geomorphologists are
able to explain with their slope analyses, how
the quarrying activities of slope deposits can
cause mass movements in the adjacent slopes.
The heaps of waste material if cleared, creates
470
artificial scarps with negative consequences no t
only for the landscape and its stability.
The irreversible environmental damage is
done by the consequences of quarrying along
and within riverbeds. The removal of gravel
and sand from riverbeds can trigger a series of
different consequences both in long as well as
short term. The lowering of the riverbed due to
excavation causes an increase of the water
course's profile acclivity (an ascending slope of
a hill) upstream of the excavation area,
changing (increasing) the flow velocity and the
erosive power of the water. The removal of
alluvial deposits from the riverbeds exposes the
substratum to erosion, especially if it is made
up of cohesionless or pelitic rocks, and causes
a deepening of the runoff channels. With its
increased velocity the riverbed is wi dened as
well as deepened affecting the aquifers and
disturbing the under-drainage flow. This may
not be visible immediately in the quarrying
territory, but it may have negative repercussion
not only in that territory but even in areas far
from the quarry after a considerable length of
time has elapsed. Continued extraction may
also cause the entire streambed to degrade to
the depth of excavation.
Mining-induced bed degradation and other
channel changes may not develop for several
years until major channel-adjustment flows
occur, and adjustments may continue long after
extraction has ended.
Sand mining, apart from threatening
bridges, transforms the riverbeds into large and
deep pits; as a result, the groundwater table
drops leaving the drinking water wells on the
embankments of these rivers dry. Bed
degradation from instream mining lowers the
elevation of streamflow and the floodplain
water table which in turn can eliminate water
table-dependent woody vegetation in riparian
areas, and decrease wetted period s in riparian
wetlands. For locations close to the sea, saline
water may intrude into the fresh waterbody.
Instream sand mining activities will have
an impact upon the river's water quality.
Impacts include increased short -term turbidity
at the mining site due to resuspension of
sediment, sedimentation due to stockpiling and
dumping of excess mining materials and
organic particulate matter, and oil spills or
leakage from excavation machinery and
transportation vehicles.
Applied Geomorphology
IMPACT OF SAND MINING
Sand mining in India has been both legal and
illegal, economically paying and ecologically
degrading; a major source of sand for
construction and equally devastating source of
riverbed degradation. Sand mining has been
one of the culprits of Uttarakhand fl oods, the
floods that were unprecedented in their
impact and intensity. Impacts of sand mining
can be broadly cla ssified into three categories:
Physical
The large-scale extraction of streambed
materials, mining and dredging below the
existing streambed, and the alteration of
channel-bed form and shape leads to several
impacts such as erosion of channel bed and
banks, increase in channel slope, and change in
channel morphology. These impacts may cause:
(1) the undercutting and collapse of river
banks, (2) the loss of adjacent land and/or
structures, (3) upstream erosion as a result of
an increase in channel slope and changes in
flow velocity, and (4) downstream erosion due
to increased carrying capacity of the stream,
downstream changes in patterns of deposit ion,
and changes in channel bed and habitat type.
Water Quality
Mining and dredging activities, poorly planned
stockpiling and uncontrolled dumping of
overburden, and chemical/fuel spills will cause
reduced water quality for downstream users,
increased cost for downstream water
treatment plants and poisoning of aquatic life.
Ecological
Mining, which leads to the removal of channel
substrate, resuspension of streambed
sediment, clearance of vegetation, and
stockpiling on the streambed, will have
ecological impacts. These impacts may have an
effect on the direct loss of stream reserve
habitat, disturbances of species attached to
streambed deposits, reduced light penetration,
reduced primary production, and reduced
feeding opportunities.
APPLICATION OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY TO
GROUNDWATER STUDIES
The study of geomorphology helps in
understanding groundwater problems as well as
in locating water resources. Geomorphological
471
knowledge can be fruitfully employed to study
some of hydrological problems of fluvial
regions.
The hydrological problems of limestone
regions are intimately related to solutional
erosion processes and landforms studied by the
geomorphologist. Limestone varies greatly in
its permeability characteristics.
Much of the ground water in karst regions
is confined to solution channels and caverns
lying underground. Sometimes where mining
operations have inadvertently touched and
opened, a large underground karst system, the
mines have been suddenly flooded and karst
springs dependent on it several kilometres
away have been found to become dry. Such
unexpected flooding occurred in a gypsum
mine in Indiana, U.S.A. Solutional openings
with their increased permeability are of
significance not only in present day karst
terrains but also in buried karst landscapes
concealed beneath later deposits.
Generally, dam and reservoir construction
is not preferred by geomorphologists on
limestone terrain because of the underground
leakage that may occur, and where it becomes
dire essential, the reservoirs are constructed on
carbonate rock with adequate but expensive
engineering precautions.
Geomorphological studies are helpful in
groundwater assessment. In different continents
groundwater occurs under different conditions
and obtained from different rock formations. In
India, groundwater is mainly found in the vast
and extensive alluvial formations.
APPLICATION TO ENGINEERING
PROJECTS
Most of the engineering projects involve
evaluation of geologic and geomorphic factors
of one type or another. Terrain characteristics
are among the most common factors in the
location of engineering projects. An
appreciation of the geomorphic history of the
area may greatly aid the proper evaluation of
surficial materials and the configuration of the
bedrock profile.
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
Road Construction
Topography obviously plays an important
role in determining the most feasible highway
route, although sometimes other factors may
dominate. A route over Karst plain necessitates
repeated cut and fill, otherwise the road will be
flooded after heavy rains as sinkholes fill with
surface runoffs.
Glacial terrain presents many type s of
engineering problems. A flat till plain is
topographically ideal for road construction, but
in areas where end moraines, eskers, kames, or
drumlins exist, there is need to cut and fill to
avoid circuitous routes. Landslides and other
types of mass-wasting present problems not
only in highway construction but also in
various other phases of engineering. In
highway construction, designed to carry heavy
traffic, the nature of the soil beneath a road
surface, or what is called subgrade, has become
increasingly significant because of its control
over the drainage beneath a highway.
STREAM CHANNELISATION
Realignment and channelization of rivers is
sometimes practised to red uce flood damage
and to drain floodplain areas. Channelization
steepens the channel as sinuosity is reduced,
and this in turn increases the velocity of flow
and the potential for bed and bank erosion.
Channel incision not only causes vertical
instability in the channel bed, but also causes
lateral instability in the form of accelerated
stream bank erosion and channel widening.
Incision increases stream bank heights,
resulting in bank failure when the mechanical
properties of the bank material cannot sustai n
the material weight. Channel widening causes
shallowing of the streambed as deep pools fill
with gravel and other sediments. Thus,
shallowing and widening of the channel
increases channel instability as well as
increases transport of sediments downstream .
The long-term perspective of the
geomorphologists can be extremely valuable in
evaluating the environmental consequences of
channelization, channel incision, channel
widening or upstream modification of hydraulic
regimen and other supposedly beneficial
changes. This is an area in which geomorphic
expertise can prove extremely valuable in the
472
preparation of environmental impact reports on 2. A narrow outlet of the basin with a
the long-term effect of river stabilization, foundation that will permit economical
channelization, and flow regulation, etc. construction of a dam (Fig. 30.2, 30.3, 30.4
and 30.5);
Similarly construction of canal s to
transport water from surplus to deficit areas
and groundwater planning and management for
transfer of water from underground to the
surface involves many geomorphic
considerations. While regulating the rivers, it
is important to remember that the rive rs are not
static but constantly changing as a result of
hydraulic forces acting on its bed and banks.
These changes may result from natural
environmental changes or from changes
introduced by man’s activities.
Figure 30.1: Role of an influent river. Dotted
Multi Purpose Projects line represents the water table, which lies at a
great depth. After construction of the dam and
accumulation of water in the reservoir, water
In planning a multi -purpose river valley will leak out from the reservoir. This is not a
project, many major factors have to be suitable location for a reservoir.
considered including the geomorphology and
geology of the area, its hydrological 3. Opportunity to build an adequate and safe
characteristics, ways of integration and co - spillway to carry surplus water;
ordination of all the various uses of water, such 4. Availability of materials needed for dam
as, irrigation and flood control, hydroelectric construction; and
power, navigation, domestic and industrial
water supply, recreation, fish and wildlife. 5. Assurance that the life of the reservoir will
High altitude sites can be used for reservoirs not be too short as a result of seepage of
and dams, with large falls available for hydro - water, and /or excessive deposition of mud
electric power generation. Larger storage can and silt (Fig. 31.1).
be provided downstream in flatter terrain but
above the more populated valleys. If physical
conditions allow, more electric power can be
generated downstream. At any stage in the
system, controls can be included to deal with
flood conditions or the maintenan ce of
adequate water supplies for the highly
populated lowlands. In such projects the river
catchment forms the natural unit for planning
and the physical system is directly involved.
And all this maintenance and planning cannot
be adequately done without the knowledge of
Geomorphology.

Dam-site selection
Application of geomorphology to dam-site
selection involves a synthesis of knowledge
concerning the geomorphology, lithology, and
Figure 30.2: Location of dams on sedimentary
geologic structure of terrain. There are at least
beds of different orientation. A − Beds exhibit
five requirements of good reservoir sites that steep upstream slope. B − Vertical beds.
depend upon geological conditions: C − Beds exhibit steep downstream slope.
1. A water-tight basin of adequate size; D − Beds with gentle downstream slope. W −

Applied Geomorphology 473

Weight of the dam. T − Thrust of water in the
reservoir. R − Resultant. The small arrowheads
indicate the direction along which water may
seep out from the reservoir.
Figure 30.3: A dam resting on hor izontal beds.
Here the weight of the dam is acting at right
angles to the bedding planes of the country -
rocks. Arrows indicate the direction along
which water may seep out from the reservoir
and flow downstream.
Drainage basins form natural
geomorphological units displaying organized
relations between landforms and drainage and
biotic life, and man’s interference with the
fluvial system requires a careful and rigorous
assessment of the possible repercussions
throughout the basin. For example, when new
ground is considered for development,
vegetation is removed and the ground is
disturbed by construction equipments. The
loose soil and lack of vegetation causes the
run-off and stream flow to increase, resulting
in accelerated land erosion and the sediment
load of the stream is often markedly increased.
Excessive amounts of sediment induce the
building up of channel bars, erosion of channel
banks as a result of deposition within the
channel, obstruction of flow and increased
flooding, shifting configuration of t he channel
bottom, covering of bottom dwelling flora and
fauna and alterations in these due to changes in
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
light transmission and abrasive effects of
sediment, as well as alteration of species of
fish due to changes produced in the flora and
fauna upon which the fish depend.
Figure 30.4: A dam resting on rock -beds which
exhibit a gentle upstream slope. W -is the
weight of the dam. T -is the thrust of water in
the reservoir. R -is the resultant of the two and
slopes downstream. R -lies more or less at
right angles to the bedding planes and
therefore, finds adequate support. The small
arrow show that the percolating water from the
reservoir moves upstream and is not likely to
be lost from the reservoir.
Geomorphologists, while studying the dam
and surrounding environments, have found that
below dams sediment s are trapped and this
causes the release of forceful water
downstream, where channel incision usually
ensues. Instream mineral (sand/ clay)
excavation downstream of dams compounds
this problem.
Dam construction, for example, in the
upstream reduces the quantity of bed -material
load and decreases the peak discharge of water
moved through the channel. This produces
scour below the dam. The river downstream
may also reduce its width in response to
decrease in flood peaks.
474
Figure 30.5, 30.6: Taking into consideration the fold structures and lithology (alternation of
permeable and impervious horizons) the sites of dams are chosen. Since uplift action of the water
that manages to get under the dam through seepage is the most potent of all destabilizing forces, the
infiltration of water has to be stopped or made minimum by lacing the dam in such a way that an
impervious bed forms an apron at the heel.

Bridge Construction
Geomorphology helps in site identification
for bridges. The favourable geologic
conditions, which contribute towards the
successful construction and ultimate stability
of a bridge are as follows:
1. The sound rock profile underneath the floor
Figure 30.7: Diagrammatic section along the
and walls of the natural depression (on
alignment of a bridge. The sedimentary rock -
which the bridge is to be constructed) beds exhibit a gentle slop e towards the right -
should not lie at a great depth. hand side. The abutment B rests on a stable
slope while the abutment A lies on an unstable
2. The foundation and abutment rocks should slope since the unsupported portions of the
be strong enough to support the load. beds may tend to slide down into the river -
3. The geological structure of the country - valley. Therefore the location of the bridge is
not good.
rocks should not endanger the stability of
the piers and abutments of the bridge.

Applied Geomorphology 475

4. If the bridge lies across a river-channel, the
erosive action of running water should not
be so conspicuous as to cause any
remarkable wear and tear of the piers or of
the foundation rocks, on which they stand.
At any bridge site, therefore, detailed
Geomorphological investigations should be
carried out with a view to determining
accurately the nature, strength, structure and
durability of the country-rocks and the depth at
which they are likely to occur underneath the Figure 30.8: Tunnelling through igneous rocks.
floor and walls of the valley. The res ults of A - The rocks are massive and have been
such studies are scheduled to offer a clear traversed by very few joints (J). Tunneling is
safe. B - The rocks have been traversed by
indication of the prevalence or otherwise, at
joints (J) and a shear-zone (sh). Tunneling is
the proposed bridge site, of any or all of the rather unsafe. Tunnel requires protective inner
desirable conditions noted above. The adverse lining at the weak zones.
geological conditions, if any, and their bearing
on the stability of the proposed bridge should
be analysed scrutinisingly and if necessary,
suitable provisions may be made in the design
of the bridge in order that it may be in a
position to overcome the anticipated
difficulties.

Tunnel Construction
Geomorphology aids i n identification of
site, where a tunnel can be constructed. The
geologic factors, which govern the extent to
which tunneling conditions may be favourable
or adverse, and, thus, determine the cost and
stability of tunnels, may be summarized as
follows:
1. The nature of the country-rocks occurring
along the alignment of the tunnel.
2. The geological structure of the region (Fig.
30.8).
3. The position of the water -table within the
country-rocks and the prevailing ground
water condition along the length of the
tunnel (Fig. 30.10).
Figure 30.9: A - Tunnel through
unconsolidated materials. B - Tunnel through
crushed and fragmented rocks. In both cases
tunneling is unsafe and the tunnels require
lining for their safety and st ability.
Figure 30.10: Ground water conditions at
tunnel sites. A – The tunnel runs along the
direction of dip of the beds X, Y and Z. Ground
water condition is, therefore, variable from
point to point within the tunnel, depending
upon the nature of the bed through which it is
penetrating. B – The Tunnel is running through
massive igneous rock traversed by a shear-
zone (sh). Ground water condition may be
adverse where the tunnel is passing through
the shear-zone.

The Earth’s Dynamic Surface 476

Hill Slope Stability
Frequent occurrence of landslides is
obviously detrimental to the stability of hill -
slopes and cuttings. The possibility and
frequency of occurrence of landslides along
any slope are, however, dependent on the
geological characteristics of its constituent
materials. It is, thus, apparent that geological
studies should estimate the extent, to which a Figure 30.13: A –Vertical slope through
natural or artificial slope is likely to be stable. horizontal beds that are stable. B – Horizontal
The geologic factors, which govern the beds traversed by joints (i) The slope has been
possibility and frequency of landslides and stabilized and proper drainage facilities have
been provided. a, b, c, and d are the four
hence determine the safety and stability of hi ll- horizontal sedimentary beds involved in the
slopes and cuttings, are as follows: diagrams.
1. The nature of the rocks occurring along the
slope or cutting-wall.
2. The geological structure of the country -
rocks.
3. The prevailing ground water conditions
along the slope or cutting-wall.

Figure 30.14: Slopes along the strike of the

sedimentary beds. A –Slope, where the beds
dip towards the cutting -wall at an angle less
than the slope of the cutting -wall. These are
unstable. B – Stable slope, where the cutting -
wall and the beds have the same slope
towards the same direction. C – Stable slope,
with the beds dipping away from the cutting
wall.

Figure 30.11: Slopes made up of

unconsolidated materials. A – Vertical cutting
will make the slope unstable. B – Slopes
stabilized with proper drainage. R – Road. S –
Slope.

Figure 30.15: R1 and R2 are two road levels.

Figure 30.12: A – Vertical slope made up of
massive igneous rock. This slope is stable. B –
Stabilized slope in igneous rocks traversed by
joints (j) and shearzone (sh). The slope has
been protected by reinforced concrete slabs
and proper drainage facilities have been
provided.
S1 and S2 are the two corresponding
cuttings. W. T. – Water table. P – Perched
water table. Both the cuttings. are, therefore,
likely to exhibit se epage of water and may
become unstable.

Applied Geomorphology 477

Construction of air strips 1. extensive flat terrain surface with resistant
geomaterials (including unconsolidated
Construction of air strips for landing and surficial deposits) is available so that safe
takeoff of aeroplanes require high engineering and suitable runway may be built,
skill and thus engineers, while selecting the
2. ground surface has almost level slope,
sites for the construction of air strips
(aerodrome) may be benefitted from 3. the area is free from flood,
geomorphologists because the landscape
4. there is absence or low frequency and
characteristics determine the sites for air strips
intensity of fog,
Air strips are generally constructed where ⎯
5. there is maximum visibility, etc.

Figure 30.16: Four ways in which the stability of a slope can be destroyed and landslides initiated.
of past volcanic eruptions are used as warning
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND signs of impending eruptions. Regular
measurement of seismic event s and earth
HAZARD MANAGEMENT tremors by seismic methods; regular
measurement of ground surface mainly tilt
Geomorphic knowledge helps in the
measurement by tilt meters; constant
identification, prediction, and assessment of
measurement of temperature of crater lakes, hot
probable effects and management of natural
springs, geysers, fumaroles; monitoring of
geomorphic hazards.
gases coming out of craters, hot sprin gs,
Volcanoes geysers; monitoring of changes in the
configuration of dormant or extinct volcanoes
A few characteristic features of volcanoes by lasers; measurement of local gravity and
and their eruptions based on close observations magnetic fields and their trends, etc. help in
making predictions of possible eruptions in the

The Earth’s Dynamic Surface 478

areas having past case histor ies of volcanism.
The path of lava flow known as lahar can be
better predicted on the basis of detailed
analysis of topography and identification of
possible eruption poi nts.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are both natural as well as man
induced geomorphic hazard s. The geomorphic
knowledge of the stability of terrain and
probable impacts of man-made structures on
crustal stability such as construction of dams
and reservoirs is of paramount significance in
identifying weaker zones which are likely to be
affected by seismic events. Similarly, the
geomorphic study of the nature of hillslopes
and their associated lithologies enable us to
know the stability or instability of hill slope
and possible slope failures through landslides
of various sorts. This knowledge would help in
identifying and mapping of unstable hillslopes,
which may be avoided for human settlements
and road construction.
Floods
The geomorphic knowledge of behaviour of
river system and its morphological
characteristics, viz., channel geometry, channel
morphology and channel pattern, river
metamorphosis, bank morphology, etc. may
help in controlling ri ver floods through several
flood control measures which include a series
of steps to tame the menacing rivers , such as,
(i) To delay the return of runoff resul ting
from torrential rainfall to the rivers,
(ii) To hasten the discharge of water (by
straightening the meandering channels),
(iii) To divert the flow of water (through
diversion channels),
(iv) To reduce the impact of floods (through
construction of protective embankments),
and
(v) To forewarn the occurrence of floods.
It may be mentioned that without the
knowledge of nature of erosion in the upper
catchment area and sediment load
characteristics of the river the construction of
levees to confine the flood water within the
valley may prove disaster. This is because, if
Applied Geomorphology
the rate of erosion is very high in the upper
catchment area, resulting in high sediment load
then there would be more sedimentation in the
valley causing gradual rise in the river bed.
This may lead to sudden flash flood whenever
the levee is breached.
TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION
AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Terrain classification is based on the
principle that all landscapes can be divided
into smaller units having common physical
attributes (or repeated landforms) t hat are
different from those of adjacent areas, and the
landforms, in turn, will consist of assemblages
of still smaller landscape units such as ridge
tops, mid-slope, valley floor, etc. This way it is
possible to build up an inventory of landscapes
and landforms in the form of maps, diagrams
and descriptive material which can be easily
understood and communicated. If the landscape
units have a high correlation with some
economic aspects of land or landuse, the
inventory of terrain information can be used a s
a predictive tool.
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND
LAND USE
Land systems mapping has been applied
more in agriculture and engineering project
than in any other field of activity. The genesis
and distribution of soils are dependent very
much upon the factors, which control
landforms. Thus, terrain classification usually
provides a good basis for soil mapping. Two
factors of soil formation − parent material and
topography are the basis of terrain
classification. Variations in soil type caused by
climate, organisms or time may not always
show in the terrain map, but usually there is a
good correlation between landform and soil .
Soil maps provide the physical basis for
agriculture, and agriculture tends to follow the
same patterns as the soil on the terrain maps.
The terrain maps are extremely useful in
opening up new land for agriculture, in
planning new plantations, introduction of new
crops or resettlement of displaced people.
Terrain classification serves a dual purpose
in forestry. Firstly, it depicts the presence or
479
absence of forest and delineates different types
of forest, and secondly, it helps in forest
planning and afforestation.
"Land-use capability is generally assessed
by placing each type of land in a land class
which not only indicates the nature and
seriousness of the limitations to agricultural
land use, but also passes some sort of
judgement on what would be the best type of
land use with regard to these limitation. The
factors taken into account which characterize
the agricultural aspect of land units are
altitude, erodibility, stoniness, drainage, flood
hazard, inundation, permeability, soil depth,
available soil moisture, top -soil consistency,
soil reaction, salinity and nutrient status."
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND URBAN
AREAS
Geomorphic knowledge is of great
significance deciding the extent of urban
growth in geomorphologically fragile zones
such as unstable hillslopes with weak lithology
and frequent slope failures, alluvial riverine
zones affected by frequent floods, areas of
probable subsidence, coastal zones marked by
active cliff recession, tectonically and
seismically sensitive areas etc. The application
of geomorphic knowledge in urban
development comes under the domain of urban
geomorphology. 'Urban geomorphology, a
recent but more useful branch of applied
geomorphology, is the study of landforms, and
their related process, materials and hazards,
ways that are beneficial to planning,
development, and management of urbanized
areas or areas where urban growth is expect ed.
Various geomorphological problems , hitherto
not understood by the planners and engineers,
lead to destruction and damage to urban
settlements in varying environmental realms,
viz., settling of foundation materials in the dry
lands of oil-rich states and in the periglacial
regions; destruction of foundations by
weathering processes; damage of highways;
damage to buildings through inundation during
floods in the subtropical humid regions , etc.
Construction of houses and roads decreases
natural infiltration and lowers the water table.
Local interference with minor streams may
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
cause these to flood or to undermine their
banks. Untreated waste including sewage may
be discharged into streams, causi ng pollution,
which in turn may be lethal for aquatic life and
detrimental to the use of water downstream. All
these changes may be studied and their control
effected in the context of the physical
characteristics of the catchment and steps have
to be taken to constantly monitor the changes
in the basins threatened by urbanization.
All these and many other problems arise i s
part from mismanagement or misunderstanding
of geomorphological conditions. An urban
geomorphologist is supposed to provide
relevant information regarding the
geomorphological conditions (ground surface
conditions, sediment system in the river basin,
movement of sand particles in the desert,
weathering underlying rocks and geomaterials,
hydrology and palaeochannel conditions), the
nature of geomorphic processes,
mismanagement and faulty use of terrain \and
many more to the urban planners,
environmental managers and engineers. Very
little attention is paid towards understanding
the geomorphological conditions before the
development of urban centres mainly in the
developing countries.
REGIONAL PLANNING
The combination of soils, engineering and
topographic information included on terrain
maps makes them very suitable for regional
planning. The information can be used at
various levels of planning. At the broadest
scale, it may be used to delineate areas for
wilderness, forest, recreation and urban
development. In areas of intense development
it can be used for location of residential,
industrial, commercial, agricultural and
recreational areas, and for the location of
highways, green belts, waste disposal sites and
other uses. Terrain classification is not being
used so much in urban planning, but it can play
an important role.
Intimately related to regional planning is
urban and rural landsc ape planning. In urban
areas competition for use of land is severe.
Urban land includes mostly built -up areas-
residential, commercial, industrial and
transport, all of which generally require flat,
480
well-drained sites with bed-rock well below the
surface to avoid constructional and drainage
problems. Residential use, however, has some
preference for somewhat steeper gradients and
less compact blocks of land. Industrial and
commercial uses require larger expanses of flat
land. Land used for transport includin g airports
demands special treatment because of its
peculiar demands and interaction with
landscape imposed by moving traffic and the
dangers of accident, noise and pollution. Rural
or undeveloped terrain fulfills a variety of
recreational needs. Land for sports and
children's play is usually flat and level.
Individual areas may be small but are frequent
where population is dense. In humid climates it
has to be well drained so that it can be used
soon after heavy rain. Then there is rural land
suited to scientific and educational purposes −
nature reserves, botanical and zoological
gardens, field study and research and
demonstration centres of different kinds. For
these exceptional sites are most suitable,
representing one of the two extremes − either
representative of the area or else very
exceptional. Thirdly, there is terrain suited for
wide ranging forms of recreation − local and
national parks, public gardens and memorial
grounds. Recreational land should be dry and
well−drained so that it does not form poodles
or mud.
Sites should also be well placed in relation
to sun, wind and access routes. Under European
conditions this means sheltered southerly
orientation. Man-made modification of terrain
are often valuable. All these point to the need
for translating the information on terrain maps
into 'relative land use suitability: maps to help
guide urban and rural developments ’.
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
The rapid deterioration of the coastal
environment through increasing shoreline
erosion, loss of valuable areas of natural
beauty, pollution and extinction of species and
serious disturbance of the fragile coastal
ecosystem and natural processes has alarmed
nations throughout the world. UNESCO has
devoted a special section of its scientific
programmes to ‘Management of coastal and
Applied Geomorphology
island regions’ and has sponsored a number of
multidisciplinary studies and pilot projects
aimed at achieving a synthesis of knowledge on
the complex interactions between terrestrial
and marine environments and compre hensive
evaluation of the impacts of human activities.
Coastal zone management obviously
requires an integrated and pluri -disciplinary
approach. The geomorphologist can provide a
systematic framework for the collection and
evaluation of accurate and releva nt data on the
complex processes that interact with a wide
range of coastal materials to create diverse but
mutually interacting landforms and a wide
range of morphological units.
As the coastal processes are extremely
variable and have high level of activ ity, the
forms and materials within the coastal zone are
likely to change rapidly both in time and space
with the possible exception of the hard -rock
cliffed coasts where the changes may be slow
and imperceptible. In evaluating the coastal
process-response systems it is therefore
important to identify distinct stretches of the
coast along which specific responses to the
physical processes can be identified in terms of
morphology, material and processes.
Anthropogenic interference with the
dynamic coastal system may be intentionally or
unintentionally. Intentional interference
usually aims to prevent or reduce erosion, to
conserve the beach or to reclaim land from the
sea. Unintentional is the result of human use of
the coast, such as for recreational activities or
grazing. Measures designed for coast
protection include sea-defence structures such
as seawalls, breakwaters, jetties and groynes.
Sea walls (Groynes) are designed to protect the
backshore zone from direct erosion but since
they are impermeable they increase the
backwash and produce a destructive wage
effect.
In the context of coastal zone management
applied geomorphology must be concerned with
quantitative and not descriptive research in
order to obtain relevant and accurate data on:
1. Rates of natural erosion and deposition;
2. Rates and amount of sediment transport
from river catchments to the near shore
zone;
481
 3. Variations in sediment composition and
distribution offshore;
4. Sources of sand supply and shoreline
equilibrium;
5. The rate of sand interchange between
beaches and dune systems;
6. The effects of constructing sea
defenses;
7. Sediment dispersal offshore and the
effects of dredging on seabed
morphology, sediment transport a nd
wave refraction; and
8. Landform analysis including topography
of the near-shore zone, the form of the
continental shelf and of relict coast
lines, particularly in terms of rock
outcrops.
Such investigations provide not only the
relevant baseline data re quired for planning
systematic process studies and monitoring
programmes, but also for implementing
land-use schemes and establishing
management guidelines.
APPLICATION OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY TO
MILITARY USES
Research of the land is of utmost
importance in military operations. Various
kinds of terrain information may be required
urgently. Some times information may be
needed for cross-country mobility or going
conditions for tank, vehicles, troops, camels,
etc. i.e., the traversability of terrain. Military
engineers particularly need detailed map for
every possible mode of travel.
Then there are problems regarding visibility
and the amount of cover afforded. It is
important to know the distribution of potential
vantage points and areas of concealment , which
provide maximum visibility over an enemy
with minimum exposure to his oversight.
Thirdly, it is important to know reaction of
terrain to deliberate deformation, such as
fixing of tent pegs, digging of trenches, and
dugouts or the strength of founda tions for gun
emplacements or the construction of temporary
The Earth’s Dynamic Surface
airfields so that the ground will not cave in and
be resistant to the penetration of projectiles.
Finally, it is important to know the location
and nature of sources of construction materials,
such as gravel, sand and wood and the
availability of potable water in adequate
quantities without the danger of a high water -
table which may flood entrenchments and make
the surface soft and impassable.
RADAR APPLICATIONS
With scientific development and so phisticated
technology the military operations have been
highly facilitated. Imaging radar systems
(Radio Detection and Ranging) were developed
in the 1950s mainly by the armed forces. Radar
is an active remote sensing system, which
means that it provides its own source of
energy to produce an image. It , therefore, does
not require sunlight (as do optical systems)
and data can be acquired either by day or by
night. Furthermore, due to the specific
wavelength of radar, cloud cover can be
penetrated without a ny effect on the imagery.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a technique
for creating high-resolution images of the
earth's surface. Over the area of the surface
being observed, these images represent the
backscattered microwave energy, the
characteristics of which depend on the
properties of the surface, such as its slope,
roughness, humidity, textural inhomogeneities
and dielectric constant. These dependencies
allow SAR imagery to be used in conjunction
with models of the scattering mechanism to
measure various characteristics of the earth's
surface, such as topography. SAR has become a
valuable remote sensing tool for both military
and civilian users. Military SAR applications
include intelligence gathering, battlefield
reconnaissance and weapons guidance. Civilian
applications include topographic mapping,
geology and mining, oil spill monitoring, sea
ice monitoring, oceanography, agricultural
classification and assessment, land use
monitoring and planetary or celestial
investigations.
Another highly activ e research area in radar
remote sensing is repeat pass satellite SAR
interferometry (InSAR). InSAR provides a
means for measuring displacements of the
solid earth, glaciers, ice sheets, and fast sea
482
 ice to an accuracy of fractions of a radar
wavelength (a few cm) during the time
intervals between observations, using
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery. Since
the launch of the first European Remote
Sensing satellite (ERS-1) in 1991, this rapidly-
evolving technology has been employed to
measure, for example, coseismic
displacements; the motion of glaciers and ice
sheets in Alaska, Greenland, Antarctica and
elsewhere; retreat of the grounding line of a
major West Antarctic ice stream; deflation of a
European volcano following an eruption; and
crustal extension of potentially active volcanic
vents in SW Alaska. In addition, InSAR can be
employed to Derive Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs) of the Earth's surface. Other
applications of InSAR include prediction of
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, ice flow
mapping, forest mapping and land
classification.
OTHER APPLICATIONS OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY
The above mentioned areas represent some
of the more striking applications of geomorphic
principles, but there are other fields in which
geomorphic knowledge may be useful. Soil
maps are to a considerable degree, topographic
maps, and the differentiation of the various
members of the any soil series rests
fundamentally upon the different topographic
conditions under which each member of the
soil series is developed. Modern Beach
Engineering, to be successful, must be based
upon an appreciation of the processes of the
shoreline development. The problem of Soil
Erosion is essentially a problem involving
recognition and proper control of such
geomorphic processes as sheetwash erosion,
gullying, mass-wasting, and stream erosion.
CONCLUSION
The inferences drawn herein may prove to
be helpful to planners and users equally. It is
hoped that the scholars working in the field of
applied geomorphology, geology, settlement
and landuse planning, environmental
management, civil engineering and other allied
disciplines will benefit from this work and will
be quick to follow the methods and techniques
used therein to achieve their objectives.
Geomorphologists have worked on a variety of
problems in contrasting terrain and
morphoclimatic conditions and several mapping
systems have been set up. Nevertheless
attempts to produce a unified system do not
seem to have been widely a dopted so far.

IMPORTANT TERMS
Aeolian Environmental impact Pedology
assessment
Afforestation Pelitic rocks
Erodibility
Anthropogenic interference Permeability
Geochemistry
Bajada Reservoir rocks
Geophysics
Biology Sedimentology
Hydrology
Channel incision Source rocks
Instream mineral
Channel widening Space science
Instream mining
Climatology Stratigraphic trap
Morphoclimatic
Colluvial Tonal differences
Oil pools
Degradation Traversability
Orogenic belts
Engineering Unconformity

Applied Geomorphology 483