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Hardware and Network Servicing
Level IV
Unit of Competence: Build Internet Infrastructure
Module Title : Building Internet Infrastructure
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –
Identify and selected in line with business and end-user requirements, within budget limitations of
Internet infrastructure
Evaluated for satisfactory performance and confirmed that the service meets business and end-
user requirements of the internet service.
Ensured Hardware, software, network and security requirements in accordance with agreed
business and end-user specifications of the internet service.
Determined Internet protocol address allocation based on the number of addresses needed.
Learning Activities
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Read the information written in the “Information Sheets 1 - 3
3. Accomplish the “Self-check” in your Instructor will give you
Your teacher will evaluate your output either satisfactory or unsatisfactory. If unsatisfactory, your teacher
shall advice you on additional work. But if satisfactory you can proceed to the next topic.
The significance of the network infrastructure does not end when the construction of the
network is complete, however.
The personnel responsible for maintaining the network must have an intimate knowledge of
the network’s infrastructure to expand the network, perform upgrades, and troubleshoot
problems.
The Important things to consider include balancing security issues with the desire for easy access
to information; building redundancy into the network in anticipation of breakdowns; and
standardizing hardware and software to keep maintenance costs in check.
This includes where data is stored, either in-house or offsite with cloud-based solutions, what
types of information should be accessible, who should be able to access it, and which types
of devices should be included. Firewalls and access servers need to be secure without
slowing down operations.
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
If an organization hosts its own Web servers, or cannot be without Internet connectivity, a
second connection should be in place. Having an extra switch, wireless router, and a spare
laptop onsite is a good practice for ensuring that downtime is kept to a minimum.
A CEO or director may require special consideration, but if 90 percent of the employees use
the same notebooks, with the same word processing and email programs, a software or
hardware patch across the organization can be conducted much less expensively than if
everyone used a different computer model with different software installed on each.
In most cases, important data should be backed up daily. Many organizations do a full weekly
backup, with daily incremental backups that copy any files that have been modified since the
last weekly backup. Backup files should be stored in a secure location off-site in the event of
a building disaster, such as a fire.
example, Microsoft Small Business Server can be an excellent choice for many small
organizations. However, if your office already has sixty employees, Small Business Server
could soon be a wasted investment, as it has a limit of only 75 users. Network design should
factor in at least 20 percent growth per year, including everything from switch ports to data
backup systems.
1.4.1Requirement analysis
Requirements can come from many aspects of the network system
• User Requirements
• Application Requirements
• Device Requirements
• Network Requirements
• Other Requirements
A. User Requirements
User requirements are often qualitative and very high level
What is ‘fast enough’ for download? System response
(RTT)?
How good does video need to be?
What’s my budget?
B. Application Requirements
What types of apps are we using?
Mission-critical
Rate-critical
Real-time and/or interactive
How sensitive are apps to RMA (reliability, maintainability, availability)?
What capacity is needed? What delay time is acceptable?
What groups of apps are being used?
Telemetry/command and control remote Teleservice – VOIP, teleconference
devices Operations, admin, maintenance, and
Visualization and simulation provisioning (OAM&P) – DNS, SMTP,
Distributed computing SNMP
Web development, access, and use Client-server – ERP, SCM, CRM
Bulk data transport – FTP
Where are the apps located?
Are some only used in certain locations?
C. Device Requirements
What kinds of devices are on your network?
Generic computing devices include normal PCs, Macs, laptops, handheld computers,
workstations
Servers include all flavors of server – file, print, app/computation, and backup
Specialized devices include extreme servers (supercomputers, massively parallel servers),
data collection systems (POS terminals), industry-specific devices, networked devices
(cameras, tools), stoplights, ATMs, etc.
We want an understanding of the device’s performance – its ability to process data from the
network
Device I/O rates Delay time for performing a given app
function
Storage performance, that is, flash, Bus performance (bus capacity and
disk drive, or tape performance arbitration efficiency)
Processor (CPU) performance OS performance (effectiveness of
Memory performance (access times) the protocol stack and APIs)
Device driver performance
The device locations are also critical
Often generic devices can be grouped by their quantity
Servers and specialized stuff are shown individually
D. Network Requirements
Issues with network integration include
Scaling dependencies – how will the size of the existing network affect the new one?
i. Will the existing network change structure, or just add on a new wing/ extension?
Location dependencies – interaction between old and new networks could change the
location of key components
Performance constraints – existing network could limit performance of the new one
Network, system, and support service dependencies
i. Addressing, security, routing protocols and network management can all be affected by
the existing network
Interoperability dependencies
i. Changes in technology or media at the interfaces between networks need to be
accounted for, as well as QoS guarantees, if any
Network obsolescence – do protocols or technologies become obsolete during transition?
Network management and security issues need to be addressed throughout development
How will the network be monitored for events?
Monitoring for network performance?
i. What is the hierarchy for management data flow?
Network configuration?
Troubleshoot support?
Security analysis can include the severity (effect) of an attack, and its probability of
occurrence
E. Other Requirements
Requirements can come from other outside sources – your customer, legal requirements,
larger scale organization (enterprise) requirements, etc.
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
• Requirements Mapping can show graphically where stuff is, what kind of apps are used,
and existing connectivity
• So, how do we determine what the requirements are for our network?
• Collect requirements service metrics, and delays to help develop and
map requirements
To maintain the network properly, administrators must have an intimate knowledge of the
infrastructure and the technologies used to implement it.
Network infrastructure maintenance includes tasks such as updating operating systems
and applications, monitoring ongoing processes, and troubleshooting problems.
Keeping the network’s operating systems and applications updated is more complicated than
simply downloading the latest patch releases and installing them on all the computers.
For a large and complex network infrastructure, you must be careful to test each release
before deploying it on the production network.
Administrators must monitor many services that are essential to a large network at regular
intervals to ensure they are operating properly.
This monitoring can include regular examination of logs, function testing, and network traffic
analysis.
The network administrator must be capable of configuring these services to log the
appropriate information and of using Windows Server 2008 tools such as Network Monitor
and the Performance console.
Troubleshooting is one of the primary maintenance functions of a network administrator.
Although much of the infrastructure design and implementation process revolves around the
creation of a robust network, problems do occur, and in a large organization, network failures
can mean reduced productivity and loss of revenue.
2.4 Determining Internet protocol Addresses
What is an IP packet?
IP packets are created by adding an IP header to each packet of data before it is sent on its way.
An IP header is just a series of bits (ones and zeros), and it records several pieces of information
about the packet, including the sending and receiving IP address. IP headers also report:
Header length
Packet length
Time to Live (TTL), or the number of network hops a packet can make before it is discarded
Which transport protocol is being used (TCP, UDP, etc.)
In total there are 14 fields for information in IPv4 headers, although one of them is optional.
How does IP routing work?
The Internet is made up of interconnected large networks that are each responsible for certain
blocks of IP addresses; these large networks are known as autonomous systems (AS). A variety of
routing protocols, including BGP, help route packets across ASes based on their destination IP
addresses. Routers have routing tables that indicate which ASes the packets should travel through
in order to reach the desired destination as quickly as possible. Packets travel from AS to AS until
they reach one that claims responsibility for the targeted IP address. That AS then internally routes
the packets to the destination.
- Time to Live (TTL)- amount of time or “hops” that a packet is set to exist inside a network before being discarded by a router
- AS- The Internet is a network of networks*, and autonomous systems are the big networks that make up the Internet
- Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the postal service of the Internet. Similarly, when someone submits data across the Internet,
BGP is responsible for looking at all of the available paths that data could travel and picking the best route
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
Fig.1- Protocols attach packet headers at different layers of the OSI model:
Packets can take different routes to the same place if necessary, just as a group of people driving
to an agreed-upon destination can take different roads to get there.
What is TCP/IP?
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a transport protocol, meaning it dictates the way data
is sent and received. A TCP header is included in the data portion of each packet that uses TCP/IP.
Before transmitting data, TCP opens a connection with the recipient. TCP ensures that all packets
arrive in order once transmission begins. Via TCP, the recipient will acknowledge receiving each
packet that arrives. Missing packets will be sent again if receipt is not acknowledged.
TCP is designed for reliability, not speed. Because TCP has to make sure all packets arrive in order,
loading data via TCP/IP can take longer if some packets are missing.
TCP and IP were originally designed to be used together, and these are often referred to as the
TCP/IP suite. However, other transport protocols can be used with IP.
What is UDP/IP?
The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is another widely used transport protocol. It's faster than
TCP, but it is also less reliable. UDP does not make sure all packets are delivered and in order, and
it doesn't establish a connection before beginning or receiving transmissions.
2.4.2 Using IP address Version 4
• A unique identifier for a computer or device (host) on a TCP/IP network
• A 32-bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal numbers separated by a period
Example:
206 .40 .185. 73
11001110.00101000. 10111001.01001001
• Each address is 32 bits’ wide
• Valid addresses can range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
WHY?
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
Which part belongs to the network and which part belongs to the node/host?
Class A – XXXXXXXX.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy
Class B – XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy
Class C – XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.yyyyyyyy
Where: -
X = Network and
y = node
Or
IP Addresses*
Class 1st Octet Networks Ids Host IDs
Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires translation of the
private addresses to public addresses using Network Address Translation (NAT).
2.4.3 Sub-netting
…can be done for a variety of reasons
o To manage organization with different departments
o Use of different physical media
o Preservation of address space /no loss of ip address per network
o Security
o The most common reason is to control network traffic
In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all packets transmitted by other nodes on that
segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads. So, a router is used to
connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive. Applying a subnet
mask allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. A router will then determine
whether the address is local or remote.
In subnet masking: -
Network bits are masked as 1s
Node bits are masked as 0s
Example:
Class A – 255.0.0.0
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Class B – 255.255.0.0
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Class C – 255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Subnet masking
Performing a bitwise logical AND between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the
network address
Ex: Class - B 140.179.240.200
10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000
Network Address = 140.179.000.000
A Few Rules…
Each device on a node has a unique MAC address
Each device on a node needs a unique IP address
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
All devices on the same physical segment share a common network ID (subnet mask)
Each physical segment has a unique Network ID (subnet mask)
The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the
lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given
below:
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1- Physical layer
The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
2- Data-Link Layer
Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing
speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
3- Network Layer
It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
4- Transport Layer
The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission
control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
5- Session Layer
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can
be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
6- Presentation Layer
A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
It acts as a data translator for a network.
This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods,
the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting
the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over
the network.
Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.
7- Application Layer
An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
Summary
The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication which
is used by systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems
In OSI model, layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are
needed.
OSI layer helps you to understand communication over a network
In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international standard
Layer Name Function Protocols
L-7 Application To allow access to network resources. SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3,
SNMP
L- 6 Presentation To translate, encrypt and compress data. MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
L-5 Session To establish, manage, and terminate the NetBIOS, SAP
session
L-4 Transport The transport layer builds on the network TCP, UDP
layer to provide data transport from a
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: the application layer, transport layer, Internet
layer and network layer.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.
A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI reference model.
It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
2- Internet Layer
An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP
suite.
Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller
units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the
sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to
form an original message.
Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP
datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable
to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on
fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the
router that it is passed to.
3- Transport Layer
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Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.
4- Application Layer
An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using
HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It
is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the
data to another e-mail address.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of
addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain
Name System.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.