International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/hmt

Graphic general solutions for desiccant coated heat exchangers based

on dimensional analysis
L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun, Y. Jiang, T.S. Ge, R.Z. Wang∗
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Solid desiccant, featuring thermally-driven mass transfer, is nowadays a hotspot in the field of mass ad-
Received 16 November 2019 sorption/separation, energy allocation and water harvesting. Former studies indicate that the efficiency in
Revised 23 February 2020
such systems is dominated by the adsorption dynamics of the desiccant-based components. Accordingly,
Accepted 12 March 2020
enormous efforts have been attempted on it to derive comprehensive parametric analysis or even theoret-
ical solutions. Given the complexity in adsorption nature and the diversity in sorbent-sorbate interaction,
Keywords: however, the results obtained are either biased for incomplete research or lack of precision due to over-
Dimensional analysis simplification. Here, we propose that dimensional analysis can fill this niche by its potential in freedom
Desiccant coated heat exchangers reduction and feature generalization. Specifically, desiccant coated heat exchangers (DCHEs) are chosen
Mass transfer
to demonstrate the method. Our work reveals, 4 dimensionless indexes ( a , K0 , K1 , K2 ), extracting from
Graphic general solutions
13 original parameters, are sufficient to identify the adsorption performance in DCHEs, hence making the
Stepwise elongation
derivation of graphic general solutions possible. Meanwhile, stepwise elongation method is outlined to
overcome the common difficulties aroused by nonlinear isotherms. It is for the first time that the dehu-
midification performance of DCHEs can be universally represented in a concise form, regardless of the
disparities in operating temperature, inlet flow conditions, device configuration and desiccant properties.
Afterwards, the application range of the proposed graphic solutions is specified. In view of the compat-
ible nature of dimensional analysis, this method can be expediently extended to other sorption-related
devices, and thus propels the theoretical development and technological innovation in the corresponding
field.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Thermally-coupled mass transfer typically happens in the

In the sorption-related field like sorptive heat pump [1-3], de-
humidification [4-6], water harvesting [7], energy storage [1, 8]
and heat management [9], solid desiccant is now arousing wide at-
tention, due to its capability of heat and mass allocation. Based on
literatures, candidate desiccant includes not only traditional mate-
rial, such as silica [1, 10] and zeolite-like powder [1, 10], some-
times impregnated with hygroscopic salt [10, 11], but also emerg-
ing sorbent, like metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) [1-3, 5, 7-10].
Apart from the intrinsic properties of material, transfer structure is
also of significance to improve system performance. Hence, desic-
cant in sorptive systems is commonly shaped to or coated on de-
vices with compact transfer channels and considerable mechanical
strength, for example, adsorption beds [12], rotary wheels [13] or
desiccant (sorbent) coated heat exchangers (DCHEs) [14].
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rzwang@sjtu.edu.cn (R.Z. Wang).
above-mentioned devices, whose dynamics is of great concern for
the system design and optimization. Preliminary studies indicate
that the mass transfer is the combined effects [15] of the sorbate
convection above the gas-solid interface [15, 16], the sorbate dif-
fusion all over the domain [17] and the sorbent-sorbate interac-
tion (varying from material to material and susceptible to temper-
ature change) induced by inter-molecular affinities or complicated
micro-structures [18]. Discrepancy of the heat transfer structures
in different devices may result in different mass transfer charac-
teristics, while the underlying principles stay similar. Hopefully, a
uniform methodology could be developed for the interpretation of
sorption-related devices, while the multi-factor feature of adsorp-
tion dynamics, the diversity and nonlinearity in sorbent-sorbate in-
teraction are common obstacles.
Thanks to the above-mentioned difficulties, former studies [13,
15, 19-22], though having found out the impact factors of such sys-
tems (that is, geometric configuration, the sorbent/sorbate proper-
ties and the operational conditions), fail to indicate the decisive
ones or obtain a universal rule. To be specific, the influences of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.119654
0017-9310/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654

versal principles, and thus not confined by the classification, scale

Nomenclature or complexity of the phenomena. Recent literatures demonstrate
dimensional analysis can facilitate studies in wide range via free-
ρ Density dom reduction [27, 32-37] or scaling-up modeling [38-40]. How-
τc atd ρd /Ky , Characteristic Time in DCHEs ever, potentials of dimensional analysis are frequently overlooked
τd x/ua , Transition Time in DCHEs and its usage in science and engineering awaits to be further
a dWd /dYd , Slope of the Isotherm exploited. For instance, the sorption-related devices are promis-
Ds Surface Diffusivity ing application scenarios [27, 37]. Particularly, DCHEs, with proven
Ky Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient ability to mitigate the side effect of sorption heat [14], are deemed
la = HX Volume / Heat Transfer Area superior to their counterparts. Prototypes of the humidity pump
Lc ua la ρa /Ky , Characteristic Length [4] and solid desiccant heat pump [6] adopting DCHEs are now
Lx DCHE Depth available, while the application prospect is expected to be broader.
T Temperature Therefore, DCHEs are chosen as the representative in this study, to
t Thickness or Time exhibit the procedures and practicability of dimensional analysis
u Velocity and dig out the unexplored characteristics of the device.
W Water Content As indicated in Fig. 1, in this work, a dimensional analysis aim-
x Distance from Air Inlet ing at DCHEs is conducted to extract 4 dimensionless indexes from
Y Humidity Ratio the 13 former variables, thus reducing the degrees of freedom and
Y Difference in Humidity Ratio paving the ways of a comprehensive parametric study (namely, a
general solution). Notably, obstacles imposed by the complicated
Dimensionless Nomenclature
sorbent-sorbate interaction (isotherms of arbitrary shape) are over-
a (Ya −Ya0 )/(Yd0 − Ya0 ), Dimensionless Dehumidifi-
come by stepwise elongation. Afterwards, the proposed general so-
cation Amount
lution is verified as accurate by experiment data, regardless of the
d (Yd −Ya0 )/(Yd0 − Ya0 ), Dimensionless Humidity Ra-
disparities of operating temperature, inlet flow conditions (flow ve-
tio in Desiccant Pores
locity, sorbent concentration), device configuration and desiccant
K0 t/τd , Dimensionless Transition Time
properties. Discussion then follows to show how effects of minor
K1 x/Lc , Dimensionless Length
factors and application range of the general solution are evaluated.
K2 t/τc , Dimensionless Time
Of particular note is that the method is transportable to rotary
KD Dimensionless Diffusivity (along x or n-axis)
wheels and adsorption beds. With booming material technology,
Subscript new sorbents continuously appear in order to improve efficiency
a Free Air Above the Desiccant Interface of sorption-related devices [1-3, 5]. Design criteria and quick cal-
d Desiccant (Including Pores) culation of such systems are imperative, and they are anticipated
ad Adsorption based on the similar analysis framework.
de desorption
0 Initial State 2. Results
end Final State
n n-axis (normal to coating direction) 2.1. Dimensional analysis based on the governing equations
x x-axis (along air flow direction)
Sorbent normally has substrates strongly adhesive to sorbate
and porous structure exposed outside. Accordingly, the sorbate
device configuration [13, 19], adsorption temperature [15, 20], des- takes three forms of existence: straying outside, free in pores or
orption temperature [19-21], isotherm shape [13, 20, 21], sorbent trapped into the field of adsorption potential of substrates. In bal-
amount [13, 22], sorbent particle size [22], air humidity [15, 20, anced status, the concentration of the free and adsorbed sorbate in
21], air temperature [15, 19-21], air velocity [15, 19-21] and cycle materials, denoted as Yd and Wd respectively, are mutually corre-
time [15, 19, 20] are partially discussed via experiment or simula- lated by the sorption isotherms. Meanwhile, outside sorbate con-
tion in literatures. In other words, to compromise between the nu- centration Ya equals to the ones in pores Yd . If the three variables
merous parameters and limited labor, traditional parametric study (Ya , Yd , Wd ) deviate from the above-mentioned equilibrium, mass
normally focuses on limited parameters via separation of variables, transfer of sorbate takes place immediately.
which only covers the tip of the iceberg. Keystones to effectively employ the sorbent, therefore, are to
Theoretical studies are then attempted to fill the niche. Mod- enlarge the departure from balance with the least expense and to
els and analytical solutions regarding the sorption dynamics [17, accelerate the rate of approaching equilibrium. In DCHEs, cooling
23, 24] of one or several sorbent particles are abundant, but hard and heating media are adopted to alternatively disturb the existing
to extend to large each scale equipment, since the unevenly space balance, with its detailed process shown in Fig. 2. Briefly, the con-
distribution of the sorption conditions and the complicated trans- centration variables (Ya , Yd , Wd ) inside the DCHEs would reach a
fer channels in practical equipment would also impose consider- dynamic equilibrium  4 after continuous heating for several min-
able impacts. On the other hand, relevant work [25-27] focusing utes. Once encountering a sudden cooling shock, the free sorbate
on the whole device depends on specific experimental correlations in pores promptly finds a new balanced point Yd0 (Yd0 =f(Tad , Tde ,
(for example, pre-defined sorbent-sorbate relationship) and sim- Ya,de , isotherms)) with the adsorbed moisture Wd0 , but generates
plifying assumptions to deduce analytic solutions, sacrificing uni- a potential difference of humidity ratio from the incoming flow
versality and accuracy to some degree. Among them, LDF (Linear (Yd0 <Ya0 ).
Driving Force)-based models [25] prevail, nevertheless, erasing the Mass transfer driven by the departure from the equilibrium
non-linear feature in sorbent-sorbate interactions, they only keep then occurs in the following way. At the onset of adsorption ( 1 ),
valid for limited conditions. desiccants exhibit a coarse, cold and dry interface. When the air
Dimensional analysis (method), like Buckingham  theorem flowing through it, a boundary layer with velocity, temperature
[28-31], then arouses our attention by its merits in resolving multi- and condensation gradient is established perpendicular to the in-
factor problems. This method is originated from profound and uni- terface, which induces the heat and mass convection. Water vapor
 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654 3

Fig. 1. Technical roadmap of this study. According to former studies, the mass transfer process in DCHEs is influenced by numerous variables. Without an analytical solu-
tion, parametric studies towards the interaction among the variables fail to convey the general rules due to the massive number of the relevant factors. On the contrary,
dimensional analysis in this study could reduce the degrees of freedom by introducing dimensionless grouping of parameters. The reduced number of the decisive factors in
DCHEs makes a general solution possible. An overview of the effects of variables can then be implemented by the general solution.

Fig. 2. a. Operational process of DCHEs. In DCHEs, cooling and heating media are adopted to alternatively disturb the existing balance. b. Ideal working cycle of desiccant
coated on DCHEs. Sorption isotherms, describing the equilibrium between the sorbate concentration in pores Yd and adsorbed by substrate Wd , are depicted above. Notably,
isotherms at high temperature typically lie at the right side of the lower temperature. At first, the desiccant is dried off at the desorption temperature Tde (3 -4 ) until the
moisture content of desiccant Wd0 equilibrated with the sorbate concentration in pores Yd,de and in air Ya,de (=Yd,de ). Cooling medium is then introduced to break the balance
(4 -
1 ). Although being cooled, the adsorbed moisture Wd cannot escape in time, while the free water in desiccant pores promptly finds another balanced point (Yd0 <Ya,de )
with the adsorbed phase under the adsorption temperature Tad . Meanwhile, humidity difference between the pores (Yd0 ) and incoming flow (Ya0 ) is generated, and mass
transfer follows (
1 -2 ). As time goes by, the sorbent become saturated (Wd,end ), the desorption can then be triggered by warming the desiccant ( 2 -
3 ) and reestablishing
a new balance ( 3 -
4 ).

enters into the desiccant pores, and is partially captured by the an arbitrary expression is chosen.
field of adsorption potential of the substrate. Molecular, Knudsen  Ky
and surface diffusion also happens inside the desiccant, thanks to Ya (x, t )|x=0 = Ya,in = Ya0 , Ya (x, t )|t=0 = (Ya0 − Yd0 )e− la ρa ua x + Yd0
the unevenly distributed water molecules (both free in pores and Yd (x, t )|t=0 = Yd0
adsorbed by the substrate) inside the desiccants (1 -
2 ). (2)
With a large transfer resistance, air convection is believed to
dominate the air-side transfer process, regardless the existence of Above equations indicate, air humidity distribution and its time
sorption (quick process [17]) and solid-side diffusion (detailed in evolution Ya (x,t) are governed by at least 12 variables, namely, (x,
Discussion). The following differential equation set are then put t, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , dWd /dYd , Yd0 , Ya0 ). However, some of the
forward to summary the sorption process facilitated by the forced variables do not work alone to affect the results, and new parame-
convection in DCHEs (detailed in reference [41] and Note I in Sup- ters are defined as in Eq. (3) to further clarify the problem. In par-
plementary Material). To decouple the mass and heat transfer, tem- ticular, the assumption of linear sorption isotherm (constant curve
perature variation of the desiccant during the adsorption is also slope) is adopted here to simplified the theoretical analysis.
negated (isothermal adsorption). dWd (Yd , Td ) Ya −Ya0 Y −Ya0
a , a  , d  d ,
⎧ dYd Yd0 − Ya0 Yd0 − Ya0
∂Y ∂Y
⎨air − side :ρa ∂ ta + ρa ua ∂ xa = la Ky (Yd − Ya )
1
Ky Ky
∂ Wd R1  , R2  (3)
desiccant − side : ∂ t = t ρ Ky (Ya − Yd )
1
(1) l a ρa atd ρd
⎩ d d

→ dWdd(YYd ,Td ) ∂∂Ytd = t 1ρ Ky (Ya − Yd ) Based on the Eq. (3), the above-mentioned differential equa-
d d d
tions can be normalized into a concise formula Eqs. (4-5).
The convective mass transfer coefficient, denoted as Ky , incor-  ∂ a ∂ a
∂ t + u a ∂ x = R 1 (  d − a )
porates all the complexity of the mass convection and can be de- ∂ d
(4)
duced based on the Chilton–Colburn similarity principle (discussed ∂ t = R 2 (  a − d )
further in Note I of Supplementary Material). Namely, the convec-  R1

tive heat and mass coefficients are proportionally correlated and
both dependent on the device geometry, incoming flow velocity
and sorbate properties. Initial and boundary conditions, along with
the sorption isotherm Wd =f(Yd , Td ), are imperative to enclose the
above equations. As mentioned before, the adsorption starts when
the humidity ratio in pores is Yd0 . Meanwhile, DCHEs are insus-
ceptible to initial conditions in air-side (detailed in Fig. S1), thus
a |x=0 = 0 , a |t=0 = e− ua x (5)
d |t=0 = 1
Therefore, the relationship between the dependent variables
Ya (x,t)/Yd (x,t) and the 12 independent variables can be reduced into
correlations between 7 variables, as shown in Eq. (6). It is notewor-
thy that, although  a and  d are dimensionless quantities, the re-
maining variables (x, t, ua , R1 , R2 ), with dimensions of (L, T, LT−1 ,
4 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654

T−1 , T− ), contains two independent dimensions. Eq. (7) is then

yield by applying Buckingham  theorem [29] to Eq. (6) (Note Ⅱ
and Note Ⅲ in Supplementary Material).

a = fa (x, t, ua , R1 , R2 )
(6)
d = fd (x, t, ua , R1 , R2 )
⎧   
⎨a = ha t , R1 x , R2t = ha t , x , t

x/ua ua
  x/ua ua la ρa /Ky atd ρd /Ky (7)
⎩d = hd t , R1 x , R2t = hd t , x , t
x/ua ua x/ua ua la ρa /Ky atd ρd /Ky

With assumptions of isothermal adsorption, negligible mass

transfer resistance along the coating thickness, infinite lateral mass
transfer resistance, linear isotherms and constant boundary con-
ditions, dimensional analysis of the mathematical model sug-
gests four dimensionless variables are sufficient to describe the
characteristics in DCHEs. If employing new definitions (Eq. (8)),
Eq. (7) can then be simplified into Eq. (9).
⎧ Fig. 3. Numerical solutions of Eqs. (1-2) depicted in the dimensionless form. Based
⎪ a  YYd0a −Ya0
, d  YYd −Y a0
⎪
⎪ −Ya0 d0 −Ya0
⎨τd (x )x/ua , K0 (x, t )t/τd
(8)
⎪ Lc ua la ρa /Ky , K1 (x )x/Lc
⎪
⎪
⎩  dWd (Yd ,Td )  
a= dYd
, τc = atd ρd /Ky , K2 (x ) = t/τc
 sets is chosen as the baseline condition (listed in Table 1) and parameters (listed
a = ha (K0 , K1 , K2 )
(9)
d = hd (K0 , K1 , K2 )
2.2. Graphic general solution based on dimensionless indexes
Eqs. (1-2) indicate, as in former literatures, the magnitude of air
humidity Ya varies with any change in the following parameters (x,
t, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ), thus requiring a new solution to
be calculated for each particular case. Parametric studies towards
the interaction among the variables are also attempted but fail to
convey the general rules due to the massive number of the rele-
vant factors.
On the contrary, this study concludes that four dimensionless
indexes ( a , K0 , K1 , K2 ) are sufficient to identify the mass trans-
fer characteristics in DCHEs. The newly-proposed parameters ( a ,
K0 , K1 , K2 ) are related with the former ones (Ya , x, t, ρ a , ua , la ,
Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ) by Eq. (8). Specifically,  a (x, t) is defined as
the quotient of the real-time humidity different from the inlet to
the position x and the maximum possible dehumidification capac-
ity Ya, max =Ya0 -Yd0 in current situations. That is,  a represents
the normalized dehumidification amount there and then.
As suggested by Eq. (9), the normalized dehumidification
amount  a is entirely subject to the values of (K0 , K1 , K2 ). The-
oretical (Note Ⅲ in Supplementary Material) and simulation study
(in Fig. S2) further claims that the parameter K0 imposes a modest
effect, especially when encountering stable boundary conditions.
Hence, the dimensionless indexes (K1 , K2 ) would basically define
the value of  a no matter how other parameters, including (x, t,
ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ) and K0 , vary from case to case.
Numerical solutions for around 600 cases are depicted in Fig. 3 to
verify the above findings.
Reduced number of the decisive factors in DCHEs makes a gen-
eral solution possible. Interpretation of the dimensionless indexes,
however, is imperative here for further discussion. As shown in
Eq. (8), there is a characteristic length Lc for each DCHE under a
specific operational condition, which is proportional to the vari-
ables (la , ua , ρ a ) but inversely related to the convective mass trans-
fer coefficient Ky . Similarly, a characteristic time τ c is defined as
the quotient of the sorbent capacity for sorbate atd ρ d and the mass
transfer coefficient Ky . K1 is the ratio between the position x of
concern and the characteristic length Lc , while K2 is the ratio of
the time t of concern and the characteristic time τ c .
on Eqs. (1-2), numerical method yields the value of Ya once inputting the appropri-
ate values of (x, t, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ). In this study, up to 594 cases are
calculated, non-dimensionalized to indexes ( a , K1 , K2 ) and then depicted above.
These cases can be classified into 3 sets, respectively with the K1 value of 2.5, 5
and 7.5. In addition, each set of data contains 11 subsets, which share the same K1
but take different values of (x, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ). One of the 11 sub-
in Table 2) of the other 10 subsets can then be defined based on the benchmark
values. For each subset (totally 33 conditions),  a values at 18 time nodes (t = 0 s,
200 s, …, 3600 s) are calculated and demonstrated in Fig.2. Consequently, 594 (=33
∗
18)  a values in total justify the fact that the same values (K1 , K2 ) yield the same
 a no matter how parameters (x, t, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ) vary from case
to case.
For a specific DCHE featuring linear isotherms and operating
under constant air velocity, the characteristic length and time
keeps unchanged, thus the indexes (K1 , K2 ) are linearly correlated
with the real position x(=K1 Lc ) and time t(=K2 τ c ). That is, the two
determinants (K1 , K2 ) of  a can be respectively regarded as the
dimensionless length and time in DCHEs. Eq. (9) claims, given the
position K1 and time K2 , the normalized dehumidification amount
 a value can be ascertained.
Afterwards, several sets of numerical solutions of the Eqs. (1-
2) are non-dimensionalized to indexes ( a , K1 , K2 ) and then de-
picted in Fig. 4, aiming to identify the specific relationship among
the three variables and obtain a general solution graphically. The
 a variation with the changing K2 /K1 shown in Fig. 4a denotes the
general time evolution/space distribution of the normalized dehu-
midification capacity  a at several specific positions K1 /time nodes
K2 . Fig. 4b then shows how the graphic general solution facilitates
the quick determination of Ya corresponding to any values of the
inputs (x, t, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ).
Given the constant parameters (Lc , τ c ), the dimensionless in-
dexes ( a , K1 , K2 ) are known to be proportional with the dehu-
midification amount Ya (= a Ya, max ), position x(=K1 Lc ) and time
t(=K2 τ c ). Therefore, the time evolution of the value Ya at the po-
sition x(=K1 Lc ) can be obtained by elongating the general solution
of  a corresponding to K1 along the ordinate and abscissa by the
gain of Ya, max and τ c , respectively (shown in Fig. 4c). In practi-
cal, the dynamic dehumidification capacity at the outlet (position
x=Lx ) of DCHEs is more of concern than one value at a specific
point.
Nevertheless, the assumption of linear isotherm (constant a),
adopted in the derivation of the general solution, is invalid for
most materials. Isotherms of sorbents are normally of various
shapes. The isotherm slope varying with the desiccant moisture
content gives rise to a changeable characteristic time τ c at dif-
ferent stages of dehumidification, while the other two linear co-
efficients (Ya, max , Lc ) stay constant. A bold, but reasonable in-
 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654 5

Fig. 4. a. Relationship among the three dimensionless variables ( a , K1 , K2 ). The evolution of  a values with the increasing K2 at the specific K1 are first calculated via
non-dimensionlizing and then depict. Lateral projection of these curves shows the  a variation with the changing K1 at the specific value of K2 . While the  a variation with
the changing K2 at the specific value of K1 can be obtained by orthographic projection. Since the dimensionless length and time (K1 , K2 ) are linearly correlated with the real
position x(=K1 Lc ) and time t(=K2 τ c ), the lateral/orthographic projection denotes the time evolution/space distribution of normalized dehumidification capacity at the specific
position x = K1 Lc /time t(=K2 τ c ). b. The graphic general solution of the mass transfer characteristic in DCHEs. The orthographic projection can be regard as the graphic
general solution for its wider application. Based on it, given any values of the parameters (x, t, ρ a , ua , la , Ky , td , ρ d , a, Yd0 , Ya0 ), the value of Ya can be directly located without
the need for further calculation. c. Method to obtain the time evolution of the value Ya . The time evolution of the dimensionlized value Ya at the position x(=K1 Lc )
can be obtained by elongating the general solution of  a corresponding to K1 along the ordinate and abscissa by the gain of Ya, max and τ c , respectively. d. Stepwise
elongation method to cope with isotherms of arbitrary shape. The isotherm slope varying with the desiccant moisture content gives rise to a changeable characteristic time
τ c at different stages of dehumidification. Therefore, to obtain the particular solution, the general solution is divided into several sections and stepwise elongated along
the ordinate and abscissa by the gain of the constant Ya, max and the real-time τ c values, respectively. e. Isotherms with four typical shapes. The exponential, parabolic,
stepwise polynomial and S-shaped isotherms can represent the types of commonly-used desiccants in DCHEs. f. Comparison between the numerical solutions and the curves
obtained by stepwise elongation. The elongation method exhibits an excellent precision with errors less than 2.6% when coping with the exponential, parabolic and step-
wise polynomial isotherms. The S-shaped isotherm, however, is distinguished from the others because its isotherm slope displays a step change with the increasing moisture
content as shown in the bottom of Fig. 4f. Maximum of errors up to 11.68% emerges in the vicinity of the step change, claiming the inaccuracy of the new-proposed method
in this region. In general, validation of the method is verified since it is precise in most cases and always able to predict the tendency qualitatively.
6 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654
ference is outlined here, that the general solution can cope with
the isotherms of arbitrary shapes, if it is stepwise elongated along
the abscissa by the gain of the real-time τ c values. This procedure
can be summarized in the following Eq. (10) and Fig. 4d, while the
value of slope a has to be updated segment by segment according
to Eq. (11), where i denotes the current time node and i-1 denotes
the former one.
Ky
t i = τci K2 = K2
a i t d ρd
 mathematical model on desiccant coated evaporators or con-
ai = a Wdi ← isotherms
l a u a ρa
Wdi = Wdi−1 + xtd ρd (Ya0 − Yd0 )ai−1
Fig. 4e-4f then compare the results obtained via the numerical
solution and the stepwise elongation of the general solution. Par-
ticularly, isotherms with four typical shapes are adopted, to jus-
tify the validation and universality of the newly-proposed method.
For the exponential, parabolic and stepwise polynomial isotherms
(with expression shown in Fig. S3), the elongation method exhibits
an excellent precision with errors less than 2.6%. When it comes to
the S-shaped isotherms, the disparities between the two methods
keep under 5% in the first 10 min but ascend to 11.68% when the
sorbent approaching saturation (Note Ⅳ in Supplementary Mate-
rial). With the common switchover period of 3–10 min, the step-
wise elongation method is deemed as valid.
When employing the above method, rough segmentation and
rapid estimation are enough to yield qualitative results. Therefore,
the performance predication of DCHEs based on the graphic gen-
eral solution ease the demand of numerical computation. Further-
more, the outlined method allows an overview of the effect of
various parameters (including the slope of the isotherms) on the
dehumidification performance in DCHEs to be gained simply and
quickly.
Practically, the dynamic humidity difference Ya from the
DCHEs inlet (position x = 0) to outlet (position x=Lx ) is the quan-
tity of concern. This value is correlated with the  a by Eq. (12).
To sum up, either larger Lx or smaller ua , la and ρ a contributes
to a larger dimensional length K1 . While Fig. 4b indicates DCHEs
with larger K1 (but the same τ c and Ya, max ) possess better dehu-
midification capacity. On the other hand, the characteristic time τ c
would increase linearly with the enlarged a, td or ρ d , and a larger
τ c value results in an elongated time of effective dehumidification.
Notably, since MOFs typically feature a large slope value a during
its sorption process, the above analysis can account for the reasons
that systems adopting MOF normally exhibit outstanding dynamics
[ 42 , 43 ] . Large Y
a0 and small Yd0 give rise to a large Ya, max , thus
the dehumidification capacity Ya is proportionally reinforced. As
mentioned in Fig. 2b, initial moisture content in desiccant Yd0 de-
pends on the regeneration temperature and inlet humidity of the
regeneration air. The influence of the convective mass transfer co-
efficient Ky can be predicted based on the similar method but dif-
ferent diagram (in Fig. S4), claiming that a larger value facilitates
the mass transfer in the preliminary and loses its advantages in
the late.
L t
Ya (Lx , t ) = Ya,max a (K1 , K2 ) = Ya,max a x ,
L c τc
 K Ky
y
= (Ya0 − Yd0 )a Lx , t (12)
l a ρa u a atd ρd
2.3. Experimental and numerical validation
In the following, 23 sets of experimental data [20, 44], ob-
tained from DCHEs with different configurations, desiccants, in-
coming flow velocity and operational conditions (detailed in Note
Ⅴ in Supplementary Material), are adopted to validate the above
methods. Notably, an inverse process corresponding to Eq. (12) and
Fig. 4d is conducted to obtain Fig. 5, which compares the experi-
mental data with the predicted performance based on the Fig. 4b.
As depicted in Fig. 5a, the averaged deviation of  a for each set of
data stays no more than 0.03, therefore, the above-proposed con-
clusions, including the dimensionless indexes, the general solution
and the step elongation method, are deemed as valid.
Similarly, this study can be further verified once compared with
(10) existing numerical solutions. To be specific, a three-dimensional
densers (heat exchangers facilitated by two-phase refrigerant) is
(11) proposed in literature [41]. The model, as shown in the reference,
is much more complicated than the one adopted in this study,
trying to account for not only determinants, but also subtle fac-
tors, like pressure drop in two-phase flow, solid-side resistance, air
property variation, just to name a few. However, the obtained re-
sults of mass transfer processes match well with the prediction of
dimensional analysis (explained at length in Fig. 6a and Note VI in
Supplementary Material). Deriving numerical solutions is laborious,
since a new solution is required for each particular case. In other
words, the graphic general solution based on dimensional analysis
possesses its inherent merits since it can give intuitional conclu-
sions for a wide range of problems with expedience.
3. Discussion and conclusion
All above results, including the dimensionless indexes and the
graphic general solutions, are deduced based on the simplified
model of DCHEs as shown in Eqs. (1-2). The equations deviate
from the practical cases by assuming infinite solid-side diffusion
along coating thickness (namely, the traversal mass transfer resis-
tance and thus concentration gradient equal 0) and negligible lat-
eral solid-side diffusion (namely, the lateral mass transfer resitance
equals infinite). In this section, errors arising from the assumptions
are evaluated and the application range of the graphic general so-
lution is specified.
As mentioned before, moisture is at first captured at gas-solid
interface, and then penetrated into the material due to the solid-
side diffusion driven by the uneven distribution of the sorbate con-
centration inside the solid. According to literatures [17], surface
diffusion overwhelms the molecular diffusion and Knudsen diffu-
sion. Concentration gradient throughout the thin coating is negated
in the simplified model Eqs. (1-2). While in the following, a more
comprehensive governing equation describing the mass transfer in
solid side is presented.
∂ Wd ∂ 2Wd
∂ t +Dsn ∂ n2 = 0
∂ Wd ∂ (ρd Wd )
 
∂ n (n = 0, x, t ) = 0, −Dsn ∂ n (n = td , x, t ) = Ky Yda |n=td − Ya
(13)
Eq. (13) introduces a new variable Dsn with the dimension of
[L2 ][T−1 ] into the system. Then, four dimensionless indexes (K0 ,
K1 , K2 ,  a ) are insufficient to describe the problems. Another di-
mensionless index KDn , defined as normalized diffusivity along the
thickness direction, is therefore proposed in Eq. (14) to facilitate
the further analysis. In Fig. 7a,  a is depicted corresponding to the
different values of the new set of indexes (K1 , K2 , KDn ).
aρd Dsn
KDn = (14)
Ky td
Fig. 7a reveals, despite the variation of KDn ,  a obtained at
the same (K1 , K2 ) possesses similar values. When KDn is smaller
than 5, nevertheless,  a values show obvious deviation. That is to
say, concentration gradient along the coating thickness is negligi-
ble, unless the normalized diffusivity is a small quantity. Table 3
 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654 7

Fig. 5. a. Summary of the deviation between the predicted performance based on the general solution and the experimental data. 23 sets of experimental data, from DCHEs
with different configurations, desiccants, incoming flow velocity and operational conditions, are compared with the predict performance based on the general solutions. The
averaged deviations of  a for each set of data, as depicted above, are no more than 0.03 except the first 30 s. b. The experimental data of DCHE A coated with composite
materials depicted with the theoretical solutions. c. Part of the experimental data of DCHE B coated with silica gel depicted with the theoretical solutions. d. Part of the
experimental data of DCHE C coated with silica gel depicted with the theoretical solutions.

Table 1
Input parameters of the baseline conditions depicted in Fig. 3.

then summarizes the error between the models with and with- driven by the gradient is omitted in former equations (assuming
out concentration gradient. Both averaged and maximum values infinite lateral mass transfer resistance) but taken into considera-
are calculated during the time period 0–10τ c (K2 =0–10) when K1 tion in this section.
equals 1,2,3,…,10. It is revealed that, once the normalized diffu-

∂ Wd ∂ 2Wd
∂ t +Dsx ∂ x2 = td ρd Ky (Ya − Yda )
1
sivity KDn is smaller than 0.5, the predicted mass transfer perfor- (16)
∂ Wd ∂ Wd
mance is within the precision of 7.3%. Moreover, according to the ∂ x ( x = 0, t ) = ∂ x ( x = Lx , t ) = 0
estimation in Eq. (15), DCHEs, with common parameters (a>10,
Eq. (16) introduces a new variables Dsx with dimension of
ρ d >500kgm−3 , Dsn >5e-9m2 s−1 , Ky <0.1kgm−1 s−1 ) and thickness
[L2 ][T−1 ] into the system. Consequently, another dimensionless in-
less than 0.5 mm, can be accurately predicted by the general solu-
dex KDx , defined as normalized diffusivity along the traversal direc-
tions.
 tion of sorbate flow (Eq. (17)), is imperative to derive the general
KDn = aρt dKDysn ≥ 0.5 ⇒ td ≤ 2aρd Dsn
 d Ky
(15)
solution of Eq. (16). Correlation among the new set of variables
min 2aρd Dsn −3
= 2 10×5000kg·m ×5e−9m 2
·s−1
= 5e − 4m ( a , K1 , K2 , KDx ) is then depict in Fig. 7b.
Ky .1kg·m−2 s−1
aρd td Dsx
In DCHEs, upstream desiccant gets in touch with more humid KDx = (17)
air compared to downstream ones. Therefore, the concentration Ky Lx 2
gradient of sorbate in desiccant exists not only throughout the Fig. 7b suggests,  a obtained at the same (K1 , K2 ) possesses
coating thickness, but also along the air flow direction. Diffusion similar value, except when KDx is larger than 0.002. That is to
8 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654

Fig. 6. a. Summary of the deviation between the predicted performance based on the general solution and the existing numerical solutions. 14 sets of numerical solutions,
derived from DCHEs with different configurations, desiccant, incoming flow velocity and operational conditions, are compared with the predict performance based on the
general solutions. The averaged deviations of  a for each set of data, as depicted above, are no more than 0.07 except the first 20 s. b. The numerical solutions of DCHE D
coated with material II (Note VI in supplementary Material) depicted with the theoretical solutions.

Table 2
Input parameters of the conditions depicted in Fig. 3 defined based on the benchmark values.

Table 3
The error between the models with different values of (KDn , KDx ).

say, if the normalized diffusivity possesses a moderate value, the 8m2 s−1 , Ky >0.02kgm−2 s−1 ) and fin depth larger than 0.035 m can
effects imposed by the surface diffusion along the air flow are be predicted by the general solutions within acceptable precision.
insignificant. Notably, devices with smaller value of K1 are less
sensitive to KDx variation. Table 3 then summarizes that, when
 Dsx aρd td
the normalized diffusivity KDx is smaller than 0.02, the devia- KDx = ≤ 0.02 ⇒ Lx 2 ≥ 50Dsx aρKdytd
tions between the cases with and without transversal diffusion  Lx 2 Ky
max 50Dsx aρKdytd
−1 −2
= 50 100×1e0−8 m ·s ×0.5kg·m
2

are less than 10.4%. According to the estimation in Eq. (18), .02kg·m−2 ·s−1
= 1.25e − 3m2
DCHEs with common parameters (a<100, ρ d td <0.5kgm−2 , Dsx <1e- (18)
 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654
Fig. 7. a. Relationship among the four dimensionless variables ( a , K1 , K2 , KDn ). For larger KDn values,  a is insusceptible to the variation of KDn . Namely, the general solution
keeps valid if the traversal resistance of mass transfer is not remarkable. b. Relationship among the four dimensionless variables ( a , K1 , K2 , KDx ). For smaller KDx values,  a
is insusceptible to the variation of KDx . That is, the general solution keeps valid if the traversal solid-side diffusion is not intense.
In summary, this work first put forward 4 dimensionless in-
dexes and a general solution based on the indexes to characterize
the mass transfer process in DCHEs. To overcome the common dif-
ficulties in DCHEs, aroused by the isotherms of arbitrary shape, the
method of stepwise elongation is also outlined. Results are vali-
dated by experimental data. Moreover, the application range of the
graphic general solution is specified. Our work is not only trying
to dig out the universal features of DCHEs, but also to arouse the
attention in the great potential and generality of the dimensional
analysis. As shown above, system analysis facilitated by the dimen-
sionless indexes takes skills, but are able to convey universal rules
in a concise manner. More phenomena are waiting to be discov-
ered when the dimensional methods are applied to other systems.
Conflict of Interest
No conflict of interest exits in the submission of this
manuscript.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
L.J. Hua: Methodology. X.Y. Sun: Methodology. Y. Jiang:
Methodology. T.S. Ge: Conceptualization, Writing - review & edit-
ing. R.Z. Wang: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing - review &
editing.
Acknowledgements
This research work was founded by Key Program of National
Natural Science Foundation of China [No. 51336004] and also the
Foundation for Innovative Research Groups of the National Natural
Science Foundation of China [No. 51521004].
Supplementary material
Supplementary material associated with this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.
2020.119654.
Reference
[1] M.F. de Lange, K.J.F.M. Verouden, T.J.H. Vlugt, et al., Adsorption-driven heat
pumps: the potential of metal-organic frameworks, Chem. Rev. 116 (2016)
12205–12250.
[2] S.J. Wang, J.S. Lee, M. Wahiduzzaman, et al., A robust large-pore zirconium car-
boxylate metal–organic framework for energy-efficient water-sorption-driven
refrigeration, Nature Energy 3 (2018) 985–993.
9
[3] D. Lenzen, P. Bendix, H. Reinsch, et al., Scalable green synthesis and full-scale
test of the metal–organic framework cau-10-h for use in adsorption-driven
chillers, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018) 1705869.
[4] B.J. Li, L.J. Hua, Y.D. Tu, et al., A full-solid-state humidity pump for localized
humidity control, Joule 3 (2019) 1427–1436.
[5] B.Y. Cao, Y.D. Tu, R.Z Wang, A moisture-penetrating humidity pump directly
powered by one-sun illumination, iScience 15 (2019) 502–513.
[6] Y.D. Tu, R.Z. Wang, T.S. Ge, et al., Comfortable, high-efficiency heat pump with
desiccant-coated, water-sorbing heat exchangers, Sci Rep 7 (2017) 40437.
[7] H. Kim, S. Yang, S.R. Rao, et al., Water harvesting from air with metal-organic
frameworks powered by natural sunlight, Science 356 (2017) 430–434.
[8] P. D’Ans, E. Courbon, A. Permyakova, et al., A new strontium bromide mof com-
posite with improved performance for solar energy storage application, J. En-
ergy Storage 25 (2019) 100881.
[9] Wang C., Hua L., Yan H., et al. A Thermal Management Strategy For Electronic
Devices Based On Moisture Sorption-Desorption Processes. Joule,
[10] X. Zheng, T.S. Ge, R.Z Wang, Recent progress on desiccant materials for solid
desiccant cooling systems, Energy 74 (2014) 280–294.
[11] Y.I. Aristov, New family of solid sorbents for adsorptive cooling: material sci-
entist approach, J. Eng. Thermophys. 16 (2007) 63–72.
[12] G. Restuccia, V. Recupero, G. Cacciola, et al., Zeolite heat pump for domestic
heating, Energy 13 (1988) 333–342.
[13] D. Charoensupaya, W.M. Worek, Parametric study of an open-cycle adiabatic,
solid, desiccant cooling system, Energy 13 (1988) 739–747.
[14] T.S. Ge, Y.J. Dai, R.Z. Wang, et al., Experimental comparison and analysis on
silica gel and polymer coated fin-tube heat exchangers, Energy 35 (2010)
2893–2900.
[15] L. Zhang, S. Michiyuki, F Takeshi, Experimental study on heat and mass trans-
fer characteristics for a desiccant-coated fin-tube heat exchanger, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transf. 89 (2015) 641–651.
[16] M. Jagirdar, P.S. Lee, Mathematical modeling and performance evaluation of a
desiccant coated fin-tube heat exchanger, Appl. Energy 212 (2018) 401–415.
[17] I. Medved, R. Cerny, Surface diffusion in porous media: a critical review, Mi-
croporous Mesoporous Mater. 142 (2011) 405–422.
[18] M. East, Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of sur-
face area and pore size distribution (iupac technical report), Chem. Int. News-
mag. IUPAC 38 (2016) 25-25.
[19] X.Y. Sun, Y.J. Dai, T.S. Ge, et al., Experimental and comparison study on heat
and moisture transfer characteristics of desiccant coated heat exchanger with
variable structure sizes, Appl. Therm. Eng. 38 (2018) 1822–1827.
[20] Y. Jiang, T.S. Ge, R.Z. Wang, et al., Experimental investigation and analysis
of composite silica-gel coated fin-tube heat exchangers, Int. . Refrigerat. 51
(2015) 169–179.
[21] C.X. Jia, Y.J. Dai, J.Y. Wu, et al., Experimental comparison of two honeycombed
desiccant wheels fabricated with silica gel and composite desiccant material,
Energy Conver. Manag. 47 (2006) 2523–2534.
[22] G. Gediz Ilis, H Demir, Influence of bed thickness and particle size on per-
formance of microwave regenerated adsorption heat pump, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transf. 123 (2018) 16–24.
[23] Y.I. Aristov, B. Dawoud, I.S. Glaznev, et al., A new methodology of studying
the dynamics of water sorption/desorption under real operating conditions
of adsorption heat pumps: experiment, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 51 (2008)
4966–4972.
[24] Y.I. Aristov, M.M. Tokarev, A. Freni, et al., Kinetics of water adsorption on silica
fuji davison rd, Microporous Mesoporous Mater.s 96 (2006) 65–71.
[25] Y.D. Tu, R.Z. Wang, T.S Ge, Moisture uptake dynamics on desiccant-coated, wa-
ter-sorbing heat exchanger, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 126 (2018) 13–22.
10 L.J. Hua, X.Y. Sun and Y. Jiang et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 154 (2020) 119654
[26] H. Kang, G. Lee, Dd-Y Lee, Explicit analytic solution for heat and mass transfer
in a desiccant wheel using a simplified model, Energy 93 (2015) 2559–2567.
[27] C.J. Simonson, R.W Besant, Energy wheel effectiveness: part ii—correlations,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 42 (1999) 2171–2185.
[28] P.W Bridgeman, Dimensional Analysis, Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1931
2nd ed.
[29] E Buckingham, On physically similar systems: illustrations of the use of di-
mensional equations, Phys. Rev. 4 (1914) 345–376.
[30] W.D. Curtis, J. David Logan, W.A Parker, Dimensional analysis and the pi theo-
rem, Linear Algebra Appl. 47 (1982) 117–126.
[31] A.A. Sonin, A generalization of the pi-theorem and dimensional analysis, in:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of Amer-
ica, 101, 2004, pp. 8525–8526.
[32] A.B. Sproul, Dimensionless solution of the equation describing the effect of
surface recombination on carrier decay in semiconductors, J. Appl. Phys. 76
(1994) 2851–2854.
[33] G. Ciulla, A. D’Amico, V Lo Brano, Evaluation of building heating loads with
dimensional analysis: application of the buckingham π theorem, Energy Build.
154 (2017) 479–490.
[34] C. Ekici, I. Teke, Developing a new solar radiation estimation model based on
buckingham theorem, Result. Phys. 9 (2018) 263–269.
[35] Q. Chen, D. Sun, Condensation heat transfer enhancement mechanism for ver-
tical up flows by the phase separation concept at small gravity, Sci. Bull. 60
(2015) 1759–1767.
[36] M. Ahmadi, P. Thimmaiah, M. Bahrami, et al., Experimental and numerical in-
vestigation of a solar eductor-assisted low-pressure water desalination system,
Sci. Bull. 61 (2016) 959–973.
[37] C.J. Simonson, R.W. Besant, Energy wheel effectiveness: part i—development of
dimensionless groups, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 42 (1999) 2161–2170.
[38] P. Polverino, G. Bove, M. Sorrentino, et al., Advancements on scaling-up simula-
tion of proton exchange membrane fuel cells impedance through buckingham
pi theorem, Appl. Energy 249 (2019) 245–252.
[39] D.T. Akcabay, L.Y. Yin, Scaling the dynamic response and energy harvesting po-
tential of piezoelectric beams, Appl. Phys. Lett. 101 (2012) 264104.
[40] L. Galantucci, A.W. Baggaley, N.G. Parker, et al., Crossover from interaction
to driven regimes in quantum vortex reconnections, in: Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116, 2019,
pp. 12204–12211.
[41] L.J. Hua, T.S. Ge, R.Z Wang, A mathematical model to predict the performance
of desiccant coated evaporators and condensers, Int. J. Refrigerat. 109 (2020)
188–207.
[42] S.Q. Cui, M.H. Qin, A. Marandi, et al., Metal-organic frameworks as advanced
moisture sorbents for energy-efficient high temperature cooling, Sci. Rep. 8
(2018) 15284.
[43] H. Kummer, F. Jeremias, D. Fröhlich, et al., A functional full-scale heat ex-
changer coated with aluminum fumarate metal-organic framework for adsorp-
tion heat transformation, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 56 (2017) 8393–8398.
[44] X.Y. Sun, Y.J. Dai, T.S. Ge, et al., Comparison of performance characteris-
tics of desiccant coated air-water heat exchanger with conventional air-water
heat exchanger – experimental and analytical investigation, Energy 137 (2017)
399–411.