Fall of Empires

Colonization
Colonization  The act of one country establishing a new settlement in another country. This is done to
conduct trade with, exploit or settle the new territory. Colonization dates as far back as the Phoenician
civilization in 1000 BCE.
Hence developed an exploitative relationship between colonized and colonizer, as the latter sought cotton,
rubber, mineral or labor from the former.
Colonies supplied raw materials and received very little in return.
At times, new technology and infrastructure would be introduced into the colonies, however, the purpose
of this would be to make exploitation more effective.
Two purposes: economic or strategic. E.g., a colony can provide access to cheap labor and open up new
markets. Also, that same colony can check the interest of other world powers from expanding in the
region.

Modern Colonization and its peak

European powers began to explore the world in the early 15 th century when the Ottoman Empire
conquered Constantinople and blocked European access to important trading routes and cities.
This began the Age of Exploration, starting with the Portuguese journeys to Africa. Eventually inspiring
Spanish explorations into the Americas. The Italians, French, British and Dutch also followed.
As these explorers encountered new lands rich in resources, the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th
centuries gave European nations a powerful appetite for those resources.

Imperialism
A system in which a country rules over another country, with the aim to form an empire. Colonization
was often used as a method of imperialism.
E.g., Britain colonized Australia and adopted it into their empire. Simultaneously the French were
exploring the Pacific region, so the establishment of the colony of New South Wales in 1788 had, in part,
strategic purposes.
Empires dominated the political world by the early 20th century, with most areas of the world falling
under control or influence of foreign powers. Empires had been developed over many centuries, with a
new era of imperialism in the late 19th century. In this era over 20% of the Earth’s surface came under
imperialist control.
  
Reasons for Imperialism

Economic The IR created an insatiable demand for raw materials and new markets.  Raw
motives materials such as iron and cotton can be turned into products such as steel and
textiles.  Then these products needed to be sold to a market to make a profit.
Nations needed to look outside their borders for these cheaper and more abundant
materials.
Nationalism European powers wanted to demonstrate their power and prestige to the world

Balance of European nations were forced to acquire new colonies to achieve a balance with
power their neighbors and competitors.

White Man’s As Europeans took over foreign lands, they viewed the culture of the native
Burden population t be inferior to their own.  Ideas or superiority and social Darwinism
dominated.  Felt obligated to “civilize the heathen savages” they encountered.

White Man’s Burden

Colonialism has at its heart a fundamental belief in racism. For a nation to colonize and exploit another
there needs to be a feeling that one’s own society is superior to that of the colonized. Parallel to the
imposition of colonial rule on indigenous people was the introduction of Western values and religion in
order to improve the lives of those people. In 1899, English writer Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem in
response to the United States’ 1898 colonization of the Philippines called ‘The White Man’s Burden’. In
it he extols the virtues of colonization for those being colonized, the ‘burden’ in the title suggesting that it
is the moral obligation of the white man to help the ‘poor’ of the world and educate them in the ways of
Western civilization.

It was interpreted almost as a call to arms for colonial powers and helped to bring about the idea of
cultural racism.

The term refers to the Western belief that different peoples in the world are at different levels of evolution
and that it is the duty of the most civilized – the Europeans – to help civilize the

rest of the world. This notion helped to ensure guilt-free colonization; the indigenous people were not
being exploited; they were being helped!

1. Outline what is meant by the White Man’s Burden. To WHAT EXTENT does it support the
following statement ‘Colonialism does not work without racism’
White Man’s Burden presents a perspective that other nations are in need of colonization as they are
inferior to Europeans and require their help to be civilized. It supports the statement to a large extent, as it
discusses how Europeans colonized other countries with the claim that the people, they were invading
were ‘half-child, half-devil’, this dehumanization is an extreme example of the racist mindset the
colonizers possessed. This mindset enabled them to kill and take over nations without the feeling of guilt,
and a form of justification. It presents those members of colonist nations have the view that they’re
superior than the other nation, this view is how nations were able to colonize another nation. The white
men’s burden is described as the responsibility to civilize the uncivilized, it is a task that they feel that
they must do. Decidedly imperialist that they have to impose their way of life on others who do not want
it.

Decolonization
Decolonization is the gradual process of undoing colonization.

- In the first half of the 20th century, European powers reached their fullest extent.
- The end of WWI= confiscation of Germany’s colonies and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
- Allies (Great Britain, France and Belgium) took control of enemy’s former territories, hence each
of them expanded
- Britain and France shared control over former Ottoman possessions in the Middle East.
- Belgium and Britain took over Germany’s former colonies in Africa. Colonies in the pacific
became territories of Australia, Great Britain, New Zealand or Japan.

Nationalism and Independence

Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to a nation; especially: a sense of national consciousness exalting one
nation above all others.
Since the French Revolution, two broad schools of thought have developed around nationalism -
primordialism and modernism. Primordialism holds that nationalism is a result of natural human
evolution, during which time humans will inevitably organize into definable groups and subsequently
begin to identify with those groups.
Modernism, on the other hand, rejects this theory and instead contends that nationalism is a result of the
structure of modern societies. In particular, the widening access to information that was available to
people in the 18th and 19th-century.
Nationalism had been seen in the interwar period, but, colonial powers resisted any moves for
independence and retained their old and new colonies.
End of WWII= the victorious nations were exhausted militarily, economically, and imperially. They
either realized they could no longer hold their colonial possessions or tried to reaffirm their rule to rebuild
their empire. In the 30 years after the end of WWII, dozens of nations gained their independence through
the process of decolonization.
The upheavals of the first part of the century- the first World War and the Great Depression – took their
toll on the great European imperial nations such as France and Britain.
Colonial peoples also went through a political awakening. More than 50 new independent countries were
created in the 30 years following the war. The degree of peace involved in the transition to independence
depended on: the type of colonial rule, the nature of the independence movement and the influence of
global issues at the time.
Explain how the development of nationalism affected European Imperialism and the development
and consequences of World War I.
Within Europe nationalism became a key factor in the outbreak of the First World War, and played a
role not only in how the war began but also in how it ended. The assassination of Austro-Hungarian
Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 was motivated by nationalism. Gavrilo
Princip, the young assassin, was a member of militant group The Black Hand, which advocated and
fought for Serbian independence from the Austro-Hungarian empire. The shooting set in motion the
events that would end with the mobilization of Russian troops towards Austria in support of
Serbia and Austria's subsequent declaration of war on Russia.
Similarly, recognition by US President Woodrow Wilson of nationalist aspirations influenced him in
his writing of the famous Fourteen Points' plan in 1918. In it he argues for the redrawing of Europe's
borders after the war to take into account the self-determination desires of European peoples.
Colonial people were inspired to interpret the Fourteen Points as referring to all colonial possessions.
Therefore, the First World War can be seen as part of the development of nationalism in the 20th
century.

Nations and States

A state is a territory governed by a single political entity, for example Canada, Japan or Germany. A
nation, on the other hand, is not necessarily identified by political boundaries, rather it is a group of
people who share a common identity which is defined in terms of language, religion, ethnicity, history or
culture.
Historian Benedict Anderson’s theory about nations
Anderson proposes that nations themselves are in fact 'imagined political communities'. He proposes that
the very idea of a nation and a community is somewhat artificial because 'members of even the smallest
nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them', but they
nevertheless consider themselves part of the same community.
To illustrate this point, consider the Olympic Games. It is quite normal for citizens of a particular country
to come together to cheer on their athletes even though any one of those people will only ever know a tiny
fraction of those with whom they associate themselves. Their community is, according to Anderson,
'imagined'.

Movements for People

The Fourteen Points
 Woodrow Wilson
Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. He was governor of New Jersey before being elected
President in 1912. He tried to keep the US isolationist during WWI, but in April 1917 he was compelled
to enter the war on the side of the Allies, most notably due to the German U-boat campaign (sunk US
ships).
Wilson declared the US had entered the war to make the world ‘safe for democracy.’
He is known for his role in the Treaty of Versailles as one of the ‘Big Three,’ and his ‘Fourteen Points’
peace plan and aim to create the League of Nations.
Received Nobel Peace Prize in 1919.
Paris Peace Conference
In Jan 1919, two months after the cease-fire of WWI, the Paris Peace Conference was convened to
discuss the post-war world. Thirty-two nations were represented and four leaders were particularly
significant: Britain’s, David Lloyd George, Italy’s Prime Minister, Vittoria Orlando, French President
Georges Clemenceau, and US President Woodrow Wilson.
In 1918, Wilson had drafted and presented his proposal for peace to the US Congress and at the Paris
Peace Conference he insisted that his ‘Fourteen Points’ plan provide the basis for discussions regarding
post-war Europe, despite no leader agreeing with them all.
It aimed for a higher level of diplomacy than simply territorial and economic gain.
Wilson was considered idealistic in his desire for democracy and self-determination.
Wilson believed the plan addressed the key issues that had caused WWI and by addressing them then
another great war could be averted.
The Fourteen Points played an important role in the desires of the colonized peoples around the world for
independence.

I. Open covenants
The Fourteen of peace,
Points were openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international
as follows
understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.
II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except
as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international
covenants.
III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade
conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.
IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken those national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point
consistent with domestic safety.
V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict
observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the
populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to
be determined.
VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure
the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and
unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national
policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing;
and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment
accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their
 1. Six Points that imply that people under imperial powers should be able to choose their own
political future an emphasize nationalism.
5th point, implies that there’s an impartial injustice based on observance and presents the idea the
colonized people must have equality with the government who control that place and have equal decision
of their future.
9th point relates to nationalism, Italy’s readjustment of lines by defining the borders of your country more
clearly you can keep away other countries.
13th point, nationalist perspective, economic and independence
14th point, political independence, people under political power should be able to choose their future.

2. Summarize what these points would entail for the imperial powers and colonial people of Europe.
- These points would give the imperial countries less power in exploiting and controlling the
colonized people. It entails that they would have to give the colonized the right to determine what
government they live under and further they would have to give up some of their territory. Point 8
addresses this by saying that French territories must be freed. By having to give up territories and
having to give more power to colonized people the colonial people would end up with less power
and potential to exploit these countries for their gain.

3. Why do you think the imperial powers that survived the war were very wary of these ideas?
- The ideas give a stance to colonized people and suggest that they would be able to gain some
power, this goes against the imperial powers’ ideologies. After surviving the war these powers
had suffered major economic loss, they most likely relied on the colonist countries to help them
gain money and resources so they can revive from the war.

The Atlantic Charter

As a means of encouraging cooperation between the US and Great Britain, US President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt met British PM, Winston Churchill to discuss how the post-war world should be organized.
Hence the Atlantic Charter was developed with the following desires:
1. Their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other;

2. They desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the
peoples concerned

3. They respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live;
and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been
forcibly deprived of them;

4. They will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all
States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw
materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity;
 5. They desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with
the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social
security

6. After the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will
afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will
afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and
want

7. Such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance

8. They believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must
come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea
or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression
outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent
system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise
aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the
crushing burden of armaments.

Questions:
How is the Charter influenced by Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’?
- The themes of nationalism and colonialism are prevalent in both proposals. They both had the
same characteristic of charter followed the same intent as Wilson’s Fourteen Points, both were in
hope of providing colonized people with more freedom and equality. Further they both aimed to
achieve world peace. The 5th point of Wilsons Fourteen Points addresses that colonized people
should be able to choose the government they live under and what their future will be. This point
is very similar, or was the base for the Charters 3.
What specific points from the Charter may have inspired nationalist movements to question colonial
powers and rule? Use evidence from the charter to support your answer.
- 3, 8, 6 are all points that give more power to colonized people, these points make them realise
what their rights are

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. It defines and cites the
political rights that are taken for granted in most democratic countries. There are 30 rights in total. Key
articles include:
Article 1 - All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason
and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2 - Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the
political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs,
whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3 - Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4 - No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in
all their forms.
Article 5 - No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
Article 9 - No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 13.
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
Article 14.
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes
or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 18 - Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
Article 19 - Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression
Article 20.
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Questions
1. Why do you think the UDHR does not specifically mention any countries or nationalities?
 - The UDHR avoids mentioning specific nations in order to avoid the theme of nationalism and
address all nations equally.
2. Discuss which Articles would appeal to people under colonial rule. Justify your responses
- Article 19, 20, 2, 3, 4 and 5 would specially appeal as they set out rights for people under colonial
rule, the articles allow them freedom from slavery and torture and allow them to have more
power than previously.

3. Why do you think the UN called for the UDHR to be displayed and publicized in the schools of
member nations?
- In order to educate the population, especially the younger populations so that the next generation
would follow these guidelines and avoid events such as the holocaust.

The ‘Winds of Change’ speech

In 1960, British PM Harold Macmillan, during a tour of African Commonwealth states, delivered an
important speech while visiting the Parliament of South Africa. The speech is highly significant because
it marks a point at which the British accepted the need for African people to govern themselves. Below
are some notable excerpts.
“In the twentieth century, and especially since the end of the war, the processes which gave birth to the
nation states of Europe have been repeated all over the world. We have seen the awakening of national
consciousness in peoples who have for centuries lived in dependence upon some other power. Fifteen
years ago, this movement spread through Asia. Many countries there, of different races and civilizations,
pressed their claim to an independent national life.
Today the same thing is happening in Africa, and the most striking of all the impressions I have formed
since I left London a month ago is of the strength of this African national consciousness. In different
places it takes different forms, but it is happening everywhere.
The wind of change is blowing through this continent, and whether we like it or not, this growth of
national consciousness is a political fact. We must all accept it as a fact, and our national policies must
take account of it.
As I see it the great issue in this second half of the twentieth century is whether the uncommitted peoples
of Asia and Africa will swing to the East or to the West. Will they be drawn into the Communist camp?
Or will the great experiments in self-government that are now being made in Asia and Africa, especially
within the Commonwealth, prove so successful, and by their example so compelling, that the balance will
come down in favor of freedom and order and justice? The struggle is joined, and it is a struggle for the
minds of men. What is now on trial is much more than our military strength or our diplomatic and
administrative skill. It is our way of life”

India’s Non-Violent Decolonization

Religious Diversity
The religious diversity was mostly devised of Muslims and Hindu’s. These two religious groups made up
India.

Nature of British rule in India by the end of the C19th

At the end of the 19th century British rule in India was well entrenched. The British minority of 7500
people ruled the Indian population of some 250 million. All the top administrative positions were held
by the British, the army and police force kept order.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

The formation of the Indian National Congress provided opportunity to exchange ideas with the British
rulers, prior to this Indians had no say in the political discussions of their nation. The Indian National
Congress, after many changes, became the group that would lead an independent India. It became a
voice for Indian Nationalism. It began to attract other young nationalists and spark conversations for
radical change.

Lokmanya Tilak- who called for swaraj, vs Gopal Gokhale- who promoted satyagraha

Lokmanya was a young activist who advocated violence in India’s fight for independence. He wanted
independence for India no matter the cost. Gopel Gohkale was a moderate activist, his belief was that in
order to resist colonial rule they must use non-violent action. This was the key difference between them.

The Indian Independence Act

“The early 1900s saw steps towards an independent India: poor leadership in India had been the ‘jewel
in the crown’ of the British Empire - since the C17th, British merchants traded goods along the spice
route, and over time the British East India Company was established, eventually transferring political
power to the crown and India came under the rule of the British Empire. However, by the start of the
C20th, Britain knew that resisting calls for Indian independence would cost too much economically,
militarily and politically, and plans were made to transfer power. The Indian Independence Act was
passed in 1947, and the partition of India into 2 countries (India and Pakistan), took place. In the Bengal
Province by the Viceroy, Lord Curzon saw a unification of all Indians against the British; and the 1909
Indian Councils Act encouraged political involvement of Indians”

WWI
During the war India offered a wide range of support to Britain. India’s financial commitment to the war
resulted in a post-war financial crisis. As soldiers returned home, they saw that the British had
reasserted their control over the country and despite some provincial self-government being granted.

The Amritsar Massacre

The Rowlett Act was passed in 1919, it intended to dissuade public unrest, and conspiracy. It allowed for
the detainment of suspects without trial, arrests without warrants and stricter control over the press. It
served to rally Indians in opposition to the British. In 1919 discontent boiled over, in Amirisar a group of
over 10,000 started a protest in defiance of a ban of public assemblies. This began violent attacks by
soldiers under the command of General Dyer, they shot the largely unarmed crowd of people. There
were 1500 killed. Details of the massacre were covered by the British and they went on to arrest all the
Indian Politicians.

Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi and satyagraha.

“Non-violence is the first article of my faith. It is the last article of my faith”:

Gandhi’s satyagraha became a nationwide campaign, although it was supposed to be a non-violent

movement violence still broke out. This violence was between the Hindus and Muslims, the Hindus were
scared that the minority Muslims would grow. Riots and murders broke out. In 1930 Gandhi notified the
British that he intended to break Salt Tax, which forbade people making their own salt because to do
son would deny the government tax income from selling it. He rallied the peasants around him and with
78 follows walked the 200 km from his home to the sea. His 24-day salt march made the headlines
around the world, gaining momentum. The British eventually agreed to talk with Gandhi about the idea
of an independent India, agreeing ‘in principle’ that it was a good idea but without a firm plan. Gandhi
wanted full independence.

Government of India Act in 1935

With this act federal constitution was provided however defense and external affairs were to remain in
the hands of the British. For Gandhi and the Indian Political Parties this was more evidence that Britain
was not willing to let go of India, therefore it did not satisfy them.

Ali Jinnah and the Lahore Resolution

Ali Jinnah was a former member of the Indian National Congress, he released the Lahore Resolution, in
which he demanded that predominantly Muslim States should, upon Independence be grouped
together to form a separate state. This state would later be called Pakistan. This was because of the
common violence between the two groups. This interrupted the move towards independence.
“Quit India” Campaign

The ‘Quit India’ program was unsuccessful as it was crushed before it had a chance to have any real
effect. Within weeks the leaders were arrested and imprisoned for the remainder of the war.

Independence … finally.

At the end of WW2, a new labor government was elected in Britain. This government wanted to move
towards granting independence to India, however this conflicted with the All-Indian Muslim League who
favored partition of India into two separate states. Muslim-Hindu conflict continued and 1946 became
the most violent year since the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Indian Independence Act 1947

The Indian Independence Act 1947 was put through in the hope of solving this conflict, it was rushed
through parliament and the partition of India created two countries and three regions. The Muslim
dominated north-west and north-east became the state of Pakistan, however these two states were
almost 2000 km apart. This act has many issues, because of the poor partition millions of people were
on the wrong sides of borders. In 1971 East Pakistan broke away to become Bangladesh. This rush act
led to long term tensions between India and Pakistan, to this day their relations are still volatile, since
the partition there has been many conflicts.